MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY

SUBJECT METHODS IN HISTORY AND

GOVERNMENT
 LESSON ONE: HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT IN THE CURRICULUM

1.0 Introduction.

In this first lesson we are going to define the term history and government and the importance of
studying the two as a combined subject in the secondary school curriculum. The lesson will also
look at history as a social science and its place in the curriculum. Lastly, the focus will be on
sources of studying history and government.

1.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Define the terms history and government

 Explain the place of history in tins curriculum
 Discuss history as a social science and its place in the curriculum
 Describe the sources of history and government

1.2 Definitions of history

History as a concept has many definitions. Johnson (1940) sees history in its broadest sense as
“everything that ever happened”. Carr (1960), defines history as “a continuous process of
interaction between the historian and his facts, an unending dialogue between the present and the
past”. Gordon Leff (1967) gives this definition: “History is me totality of human actions and
endeavor”. Will Walsh (1967) defines it as “the totality of past human actions and the narrative
or account we construct of them now or a significant record - an account”. According to Harold
Perkin (1970) and Crookall (1972), say.it comes from a Greek word “historia” which merely
means inquiry.

Note: Although there is no generally accepted definition of the term “history”, most of the above
definitions seem to point at one idea: people and their actions (events). From this, history can be
taken to mean a study of the aggregate of people's past and present activities in time perspective.
These activities must be of some significance to humanity.

Now that we have known what history is, we will go ahead and look at why it necessary for you
and your students to study history.
1.3 Importance of studying history

History was important in many societies of the world and it still is because:

 It welds the society together by creating a spirit of togetherness and interdependence

among people who have a common goal and interest. "Without history a society scarcely
exists" (Harold Perkin: 1970).
 It enables the learners to develop the ability of visualizing how other people feel and
think and thus help's them to solve their problems.
 It helps to modify and improve the society by pointing out weaknesses and strengths of
peoples' activities. It is of value because it “teaches us what man has and thus what man
is” (R.C. Collingwood: 1992).
 It gives us a sense of identity by telling us who we are, where we came from and why we
are found where we are.
 It educates us on the world citizenship and this leads to international cooperation and
interdependence among nations.

Question? Can you think of other importance of studying history?

Note: The foregoing shows the value of history in education that, “history should be taught to
everyone as part of their general education for life so that they can better understand the world
they live in” (Perkin: 1970). In Kenya, history as a subject is combined with Government. It is
therefore necessary for one to understand the meaning and importance of Government.

1.4 The meaning of government

The following are some definitions of the, term “Government”:

 The authoritative direction and restraint exercised over the actions of men in
communities, societies and states; the direction of the affairs of a state; political rule and
administration. (American Dictionary: 1949)
 A group of individuals sharing a defined responsibility for exercising power
(International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences: 1968).
 The political and administrative hierarchy of organised stale (Political Science
Dictionary: 1973).
  The exercise of influence and control through law and coercion over a particular group of
people formed into a state. (Dictionary of Political Thought: 1982).
 The act of ruling; a continuous exercise of authority over the action of subjects or
inferiors; authoritative direction or regulation; central rule (Oxford English Dictionary,
2nd Edition: 1989).
 The institutions and processes by which groups and states are regulated (Olumwullah, in
William, R. Ochieng: 1990).
 A ruling or managing, central system governing, the body of people authorised to
administer the laws or to govern a state. (Concise Dictionary: 1991).
 The political system by which a ratio of a community is administered or regulated. (The
New Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Vol. 5: 1993).

Activity: identify the main features emerging from the above definitions on government

We are sure you came up with some of the following features: authority, control, power over
people, ruling institutions and processes etc. It is important to note that as a subject in the
curriculum, government can be understood as the study of the political aid administrative
structure (Legislative, executive and judiciary) of a given state or states.

1.5 The importance of studying government

The study of government is necessary because:

 It makes the learners aware of their rights and obligations, thus preparing them to play an
effective role in the society.
 It creates awareness in learners on how conflicting interests arising in the society arc
regulated in order to maintain law and order.
 It exposes learners to various systems of government and principles, which govern them.
This prepares them for effective participation in the political arena.
 It creates awareness in the learners for the need of an organised system of government to
safeguard against instability (anarchy).

Now that you understand the definitions and importance of both history and government, it
would be important to consider the place of history in the curriculum.
What role does it play as far as achievement of national goals of education are concerned.

1.6 The Place of History in the Curriculum

1.6.1 History as a social science

The term social science has been defined differently by a number of professional practitioners.
Some of the definitions are as follows:

 Social sciences are concerned immediately with the life, institutions, the thoughts, the
aspirations and the far-reaching policies of a nation in its world setting. The social
sciences embrace the traditional disciplines, which are concerned directly with man and
society (American Historical Association: 1934).
 Social sciences are those subjects that relate to the origin, organization and development
of human society especially man in his association with other men (Arthur C. Binning
and David H. Binning: 1952).
 Social sciences are those parts of cultural knowledge which have a direct bearing on
man's activities in specific fields, . . . are advanced studies of human society which are
meant for mature studies and they aim at finding out new truths about human
relationships so as to contribute to social utility (J.C. Aggarwal: 1982).

The relationship between social science and history can be derived from these definitions. The
definitions have one thing in common: they focus on people and society (see Figure l). This
implies the way people interact with environment, both natural and artificial. History being the
study of people's activities (past and present) fits well in the above definitions because like all
social science disciplines, it deals with the way people interact with the environment. Whatever
results from this interaction is what becomes a record of people’s activities and thus history.
 GEOGRAPHY
Human interaction with
ANTHROPOLOGY the physical ECONOMICS
The scientific study of The study of people’s
communalities and economic resources
differences between people

HISTORY
POLITICAL SCIENCE
People Aggregate of people’s
Formal processes by
past and present activities
which

PSYCHOLOGY
SOCIOLOGY
The study of human
Interaction and
PHILOSOPHY behaviour
associations of people
Understanding of
human and universe

Fig. 1: The locus of history and other social sciences

1.6.2 History and other subjects in the curriculum

History is not only related to social science but to other subjects in the curriculum as well. This
being the case, it is important that a history teacher bears the following in mind:

 That, history is only one of a number of subjects in the school curriculum.

 History makes one of the many contributions made by other subjects in the production of
integrated individuals.
 History must base with other subjects in the curriculum to help achieve educational goals
(objectives), which are stipulated as follows: Education should promote
 National unity (Patriotism and nationalism)
 National development (i.e. economic, social, technological and industrial).
 Individual development and self-fulfillment.
 Social equality and responsibility
 Respect and development of cultural heritage.
 International consciousness.
 Moral and religious values
  Positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.

These objectives of education are supposed to be achieved after learners have been exposed to
various disciplines of study, which are included in the curriculum. Each and every subject in the
secondary school curriculum in Kenya makes its own contribution towards the achievement of
these goals. The claim that a certain discipline/subject is the most important would not be time.
However, it would not be wrong to say that there are certain disciplines that are more
conspicuous and they infectiously permeate all the others. History is one of such subjects. In
relation to all humanities and social sciences, none of these disciplines makes meaning or sense
outside its historical context. Thus, history can be referred to as the mother of all subjects
because its contribution seems to outweigh the contributions of other subjects.

This contribution is reflected in the general objectives of History and Government, which state
that by the end of the course, the learner should be able to:

 Recognize and appreciate the importance of History and Government,

 Acquire knowledge, ability and show appreciation for critical historical analysis, socio-
economic and political organization of African societies.
 Understand and show appreciation of the rights, privileges and obligations of oneself and
others for promotion of a just and peaceful society
 Promote a sense of nationalism, patriotism and national unity.
 Encourage and sustain moral and mutual social responsibility.
 Identify, assess and appreciate the rich and varied cultures of the Kenyan people and
other peoples.
 Promote a sense of awareness and need-for a functional democracy of the Kenyan people
and other nations.
 Promote an understanding and appreciation, of intra-national and international
consciousness and relationships.
 Derive through the study of History and Government an interest in further learning.

Besides helping to achieve the national goals of education, history also makes the other subjects
to be understood better, for example;
  Geography: by showing how present physical conditions have been brought about by the
past.
 Science: by showing how scientific knowledge has been gradually-built during the past,
for example, what science says about evolution.
 Economics: by showing the development of economic activities of humans in time
perspective.

Activity: Talk to your colleagues teaching various subjects in the curriculum, discuss with them
the relationship between their subjects and history.

After looking at the place of history in the curriculum and its relation to other subjects, we now
turn to sources.

1.7 Sources of History and Government

A source as “anything or place from which something comes, arises, or is obtained; origin” while
Longman Dictionary defines it as 'a person or thing that supplies information. From these two
definitions it can be concluded that sources of history and government could be books, places,
persons, things or objects from which we could get historical data.

It is important for a history and government teacher to know these sources because-:

 It makes one not only aware of the various history and government sources at one's
disposal but also of other alternative sources incase the ones in hand are inadequate.
 It enables the teacher to identify the weaknesses of various sources available and thus be
able to assess the reliability of the information available by cross-checking with other
sources.
 It enables the teachers to know the procedure to use to collect historical data for teaching.
 It helps the learners to develop enquiry skills whereby they will learn to pose hypotheses,
collect data, determine the authenticity of sources and draw conclusions from the data
collected. They will also learn how to criticize and analyse data.

There are various sources from which information for history and government is obtained. The
main sources are written documents, oral sources, archaeology, linguistics and anthropology.
While written and oral sources provide information for both History and Government, the others
are purely sources for history.

1.7.1 Written sources

Written sources refer to what is drawn or printed in conventional signs on any kind of support,
whether it is papyrus, parchment or paper (UNESCO, General History of Africa, [Vol.l]
Abridged Edition: 1990). These are the most popular and useful sources of history. In historical
process, written work is very important because it has permanence that the spoken word lacks.
Written sources fall into two groups:

 Narrative sources, e.g. chronicles, annals, accounts of travels, newspapers, journals and
books.
 Archival sources e.g.:
 Private documents, e.g. letters, business correspondence, diaries, autobiography,
biography, etc.
 Official and legal documents comprising administrative correspondence, legislature,
financial records, the constitution, Education Act and Government Commissions/reports
etc.
 Religious documents.

The written source was used in Europe, Asia and Arabia for many years before it was introduced
in Africa (except for Egypt which used hieratic Egyptian papyrus before the Christian era). The
written documents contained the history of the people of Europe, Asia, America and Africa.

Some of the written documents on Africa can be found in libraries of North Africa, Europe, the
Middle East and Armenia, and in the homes of prominent Africans and scholars in the Sahel.
Recently, Ahmed Baba Centre at Timbuktu was established as a centre of African history with
the responsibility of collecting all written documents in the world on African history.

The first written record on East Africa appeared under the title “The Periplus of the Erythrean
Sea” an anonymous work composed about 230 before the Christian era.

This was followed by other written works by Arab geographers, European explorers, traders,
missionaries, administrators and scholars and lastly African writers.
Today written documents are important because:

 Some are readily available for reference.

 They are more reliable than other sources because they are written after careful
research and consultation.
 They are portable, i.e. they are more convenient to carry from place to place without
distorting the contents.
 They at times offer recent information as is the case, of local dairies and journals.

Question? What are the limitations of written documents?

1.7.2 Oral sources.

Oral sources include current verbal messages and oral 'traditions. Current verbal messages refer
to recent happenings as told through word of mouth by an authority oi a participant in a given
situation. They could be on history or government. In history for example, when dealing with a
topic “Economic Developments”, the teacher can invite an economist from the Ministry of
Finance and Planning to talk about Kenya's strategies for economic developments. Under
Government, the teacher can invite an army or police officer to talk about their functions.

As source of History and Government, oral sources have some advantages, in that they provide
first-hand information from the participator or witness of an event. History becomes lively and
interesting because it is told from the point of view of the participator or the narrator. They
correct basic biasness in-local and foreign interpretation and lastly they sometimes provide
information, which is not available in books.

Activity: Interview old people in your community about the origins of the Community and file the
findings.

From the above research, you must have noticed that oral sources have a number of limitations.
Some of these shortcomings are:

 They suffer from distortion due to loss of memory of the narrator.

  Some have a problem of biasness and exaggeration. This depends on the community one
is. talking about. If it is one's own community, the narrator tends to over-praise certain
happenings by underplaying the enemy's community.
 Misinterpretation/misquotation of information: This happens when the listener does not
understand exactly what the narrator is saying or implying.
 Sometimes information received is misinterpreted or misquoted.
 There are missing gaps or links. In a number of stories, there is some information missing
and this makes the story incomplete.

Question? How would von overcome the above limitations?

Note: To overcome the above limitations, the teacher has to cross-check the on oral sources with
other sources to assess the reliability of the information. This will give oral sources a high order
of reliability.

1.7.3 Archaeology

The term "archaeology" comes from a Greek word "archaios" meaning beginning or ancient. As
a discipline it means the study of very ancient times and antiquities. This study provides silent
witnesses and clues to civilization. Some of the clues left behind include foodstuffs, weapons,
skeletons of people and animals, and artefacts, or objects made of stone, iron, copper, gold, glass
or pottery. Other areas of interest are cities, caves and tombs. These are studied and the history of
people is written from them. This includes social activities, such as education, religion, clothing,
eating habits, marriage and building, etc; economic activities, e.g. farming, iron working and
pastoralism, etc.; and political activities such as palaces, weaponry, etc;

An archaeologist begins by locating historical sites where people lived and follows this by
(digging up or excavating the site in search of remains of human existence. After discovering an
artefact, the archaeologist starts studying it by recording the stratum in which-'it was found,
deciphering the text it bears, describing its shape, ascertaining its dimensions, and so on. The
data collected are studied from the strati graphic, philological and typological stand points.
Through this, the date and origin of the artefact is discovered using carbon dating. This is the
process in which the amount of carbon in an object is measured. The more carbon there is in an
object, the younger it is. In case the archaeologist is not able to determine the date, the findings
are submitted to other disciplines for scientific investigation.

Archaeology has enabled the historian come up with useful information on early people. A
classroom teacher can benefit from these findings by organizing a class to make trips to some of
the historical sites where evidence on early humans and their way of life was discovered. Some
of these sites in Kenya are Olorgessailie, Lukenya, Kariandusi, Hyrax Hill, Gamble's Cave,
Muringa and Koobi Fora. Apart from visiting these places, the teacher can also take students to
museums to study some of the artefacts kept there.

Activity: Identify and locate on a map some of the historical sites in Kenya where you could take
your class.

Archaeology as a source of history exposes the learners to reality when they interact with real
objects. It also gives information which otherwise is not available in other sources. At the same
time, it makes the teaching and learning of history interesting.

However, it has some pitfalls:

 The dates which archaeologists arrive at are not totally dependable because they are very
often plus or minus several years.
 Excavation is time-consuming and a very expensive exercise.
 Although it can give social, economic and political aspects of a given community, it is
not possible to tell who the people were and the language they spoke.

1.7.4 Linguistics.

Linguistics can be defined as the scientific approach used to study language. It deals with aspects
such as grammar patterns, similarities and differences between languages to find out if they are
genetically related. For example, if two languages display regular correspondences in form and
meaning in as much as 20% of their vocabularies (provided that borrowing can be ruled out by
some special techniques), they are said to be genetically related.
Genetic classification of languages involves comparing words that are similar in both form and
meaning. Where the languages have descended from a common parent, words having the same
meaning may be expected to show regular correspondence in sounds that are contained in them.

Linguistics is of great help to historians when trying to find out to which language family a
particular language belongs. Genetically, related languages are assumed to have diversified
through the operation of geographical and cultural factors from an originally homogeneous
parent or proto language.

Thus, the study of Linguistics helps the historian to know which groups of people had or shared a
common origin and language. A good example of such language families is the Bantu group
which has more than 400 communities in East, Central and South Africa. Most of these
communities recognize some words in each other's language. For instance, if We compare the
word for “person” in various Bantu languages in Kenya, we find that only slight changes are
noticed as far as pronunciations and form of writing are concerned.

Activity: Fill in the table below the equivalent of the word person in each of the communities
identified.

Ethnic group Kamba Kikuyu Luhya Meru Giriama

Person

Note: From examples of similarities in words, reconstruction of the parent languages is done and
the degree of relationship is determined.

1.7.5 Anthropology

Anthropology deals with the study of human race, its origins, developments, beliefs and customs.
It attempts to identify the commonalities and differences existing among human beings, their
sources and depths of these sources among various societies. This could be the way a society
exists today or as it used to exist in the past. It aims at achieving an understanding of the
relationship between humans as biological entities and their adaptations to their environment.
There are two branches of anthropology namely: physical and cultural anthropology. Physical
anthropology traces the biological development of humans as it is studied through fossil remains
of early people to much later forms. Cultural anthropology on the other hand deals with basic
aspects of people's way of life such as type of food, clothing, shelter, language, folklore and
religion.

In order to understand how a community has developed with time, an anthropologist would study
the community in two different settings: in traditional and modern set ups. The study of these
two contrasts will tell a lot about the way the community has developed or progressed in time
perspective. Similarly, one can study communities Sin remote parts of the country to show how
other communities in the country have evolved with Lime.

An anthropologist could also study two or more communities and make a comparison between
them to find out whether they have similarities in their way of life. If so, tips would mean that
they had a common origin. The historian will make use of the findings of anthropologists to trace
the origins, movements, settlements, interactions and developments of communities.

1.8 Summary

In this lesson an attempt has been made to define history as a concept. Although the definitions
of the term history are many and varied, it suffices to say that, it is that which is concerned with
the recording of significant events of human beings both past and present. The importance of the
subject lies in its power of welding the society and the individuals together giving them a sense
of identity and a common destiny.

The, study of history in Kenya goes hand in hand with the study of government, a subject dealing
with the administrative organs and structure of the Kenya government today. This knowledge is
important for it makes people aware of their rights and obligations in the society.

History as a subject has an important role in the curriculum because like any other subject, it
contributes to the achievement of national goals of education especially those concerned with
national unity, interdependence of nations, cultural heritage, religious and moral development
and lastly, individual fulfilment.

History and Government as a subject has a rich source of information in oral and written sources.
The other valuable and related sources for history include archaeology, linguistics and
anthropology. These three can unearth a lot about past events / activities of humans and they are
closely related.

1.9 Definition of Key words/Concept

Aggregate: Sum total
Artifact: Product of human art and workmanship, prehistoric art, an object
that is made by a person such as a tool or a decoration especially one
that is of historic interest.
Autobiography: A book containing the story of a person's life written by that person.
Biography: The life story of a person written by someone else.
Curriculum: A group of subjects studied in a school (institution), a particular
course of study in one course.
Decipher: Discover the meaning of something written badly or in a hidden
way.
Distorted: To change something from its usual, original, natural or intended
meaning, condition or shape. Misrepresentation of facts, motives,
statements, put out of shape to make crooked or unshapely.
Government and History: This is a subject taught at secondary school level which comprises a
study of the aggregate of people's past and present activities
especially how they are ruled or governed in time perspective.
Learning: A permanent change in individual's knowledge and behaviour.
Linguistics: Connected with language or the study of languages, science of
language
Teaching: A process of facilitating change in learners through impartation of
knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.
Source: It is a person or thing that supplies information which is original in
nature.
1.10 Further Reading.

Aggarwal, J.C Teaching Social Studies Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd; 1982.

Bining A C and D.H Bining Teaching the Social Studies in Secondary Schools, 3r d edition
Magraw - hill company, .1952.

Carr, E.H. (1961) What is History, Penguin

Collingwood, R.G. The Idea of History London: O.U.P.

Crookalll, P.C. (1975) Handbook for History Teachers in Africa. London: Evans Brothers

Nasibi M.W. & M. Kiio(2004) Handbook for History and Government Teachers Nairobi,
Strongwall

Walsh W., An Introduction to the philosophy of History 3rd edition, Hutchison, London, 1967.
 LESSON TWO: TEACHING STRATEGIES AND METHODS IN HISTORY AND
GOVERNMENT

2.0 Introduction

In the previous lesson, we defined history and government, discussed their importance and the
place of history as a discipline in the curriculum. We further drew the relationship between
history and other social sciences. Lastly we explained the sources of history and government. In
this lecture, our focus will be on strategic and methods of teaching History and Government.

2.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Define and discuss teaching strategies.

 Discuss expository methods of teaching history and government.

2.2 Definition of Expository and Heuristic Strategic

In order to organise learning experiences for students, teachers use teaching strategies which are
ways and means of organizing and facilitating learning experiences. There are two teaching
strategies namely: expositor)' and heuristic (discovery) strategies.

The expository strategy is teacher-dominated approach of teaching where learners play minimal
role in the learning process. The teacher normally does most of the work for the learners. The
approach is characterized by:

 The teacher providing students with information, the meaning of things, examples,
applications, definitions, explanations, generalizations, summaries, notes and even
evaluations.
 The students playing mostly the role of receivers of information, meanings, examples,
applications, etc.

Examples of methods falling under expository approach are lecturing, dictating notes, narrative,
text reading and audio-visual presentation among others. The heuristic strategy is (learner-
centred. Learners are normally the main characters in the leaching learning process. The teacher's
role is that of a guide, director, and supervisor. The approach is characterized by:

 The students being actively involved in seeking and finding information, discovering
meanings, attempting translations and definitions, thinking of examples and applications,
making notes, summaries and compositions and judging critically.
 The teacher mostly organizing the task, providing and suggesting resources and
monitoring how the students are doing the task.

Examples of methods falling under discovery approach are class discussion, small group work,
role-play and project work among others. In history teaching and learning both strategies are
absolutely necessary depending on a number of factors. Sometimes students cannot find all the
required information. This explains the need for exposition so that the teacher can supply
learners with knowledge, which is otherwise not really available to them (learners). On the other
hand, if all the information was given, students would never learn how to find it by themselves
hence the need for discovery approach. Whichever method a teacher adopts, the following
factors should be considered: the nature of the topic; objectives of the lesson; the type of learners
- age, ability and interest; teacher's personality, interest, ability and creativity; theories of
learning, e.g. traditional view versus progressive; facilities available time, books, money etc.;
size of the class; environment which include- weather, ventilation and lighting.

Note: Although there is a great variety of teaching methods at the teacher's disposal, not all of
them are suitable for history teaching and learning. Some of the most suitable methods used in
learning are lecture, storytelling, questioning, discussion, role-playing, real and imaginary visits
and lastly projects.

2.3 Lecture Method

Lecture method can be defined as a technique of teaching by means of the spoken word. It is an
oral method of giving information, generating and creating understanding in the learners.

There are two forms of lecturing namely: formal and informal. A formal lecture is purely verbal
and communication is basically one way from the speaker to the audience. In an informal lecture,
communication is two-way from the speaker to the listener and from the listener to the speaker.
Informal lecture is normally interrupted by among others, questions, comments, suggestions,
viewing and observations and demonstrations.

The lecture method whose history goes back to more than 2,500 years has been criticized from
many quarters. Many educationists feel that the method is out-dated. The current emphasis is on
inquiry or problem-solving approach in teaching and learning. Critics of this method say that:

 Lecture method does not engage its listeners in active learning, such as modelling, acting,
visiting places of interest, discovering and demonstrating among others. It rather places
the learners in a passive position, restricting their activity to listening and note taking. As
a result, the learners do not develop an inquisitive mind. Instead, they form a tendency of
accepting tire ready-made ideas 'poured' to them by their teachers.
 Materials taught through lecture is quickly forgotten. McCleish (1968) reported that 40%
of the main points were recalled immediately after the' lecture and only 20% a week later.
 Lecturers merely repeat material that can be found in textbooks. It is therefore a waste of
time to lecture on material that is factual and available in books.
 Some lectures are boring and uninspiring especially when they are handled by
incompetent teachers. They develop deadening monotony and learners wander into more
pleasant thoughts instead of listening, thus losing interest in the subject.
 Lecture method disadvantages those who are not skilled in note-making. As a result, they
lose much of the lecture especially if there is no opportunity for discussion and
clarification.
 Lectures are ineffective in changing learning values and attitudes as the learners are
presented with facts to accept and memorize.

Question? What are the other criticisms against lecture method, not mentioned above?

Note: Although much of the above criticism is valid to a certain extent, it should be pointed out
that it is not the technique itself, which is defective, but rather its abuse as a result of being
handled by inexperienced and unimaginative teachers. Proper planning and supplementary
provisions can overcome most of the weaknesses of the method. Used properly and
appropriately, it can bring satisfying results in history teaching and learning.
2.3.1 The importance of lecture method

As a method of teaching, lecture method is important because:

 It is used to supplement other methods of teaching. In fact, there are a few circumstances
if any, where one method of instruction can be used to its fullest potential without being
supplemented by some amount of lecture. For instance, the explanation portion of inquiry
(discovery) method influences the effect of the technique. Again, the brief introduction
in-group discussion sets the tone of the discussion.
 The spoken word is sometimes more effective than the printed one. A teacher can
indicate by tones, gestures and facial expressions the exact shade bf meaning to be
conveyed.
 The learners are able to develop the listening skill through lecture method. Listening
patiently to somebody when speaking is a necessary quality to be developed in modern
democratic society.
 There is uniformity of material presented to the learners through lecture method. Of
course it is to be assumed that the students listen carefully to the exposition made by the
teacher.
 A well-prepared lecture can create profound impression on the mind of the students. An
effective lecture motivates learners to read. There are cases when students, after hearing a
lecture have been motivated to read further on the subject, take action, and modify their
behaviour.

Question How would you answer the charge that lecture method is Undemocratic in the
classroom?

2.3.2 Situations which invite the use of lecture method

Opinions may vary as to when a lecture should be given in history teaching and learning but the
following situations seem to offer suitable opportunities:

 To introduce a new topic/content

At the beginning of a new topic, the method acts as a means of introduction. This is done by
stating the objectives to be realized by the end of the topic, outlining the outstanding aspects
such as definitions of terms, concepts, principles, persons, events and problems, identifying the
main points of the topic, giving background information on a topic, etc.

 To interpret or clarify situations

When the learners are having problems in a given topic or concept, the teacher should not
hesitate to spend a few minutes explaining and/or clarifying the situation.

 To synthesize many sources

When there are limited resources for the learners, the teacher can save the learners from needless
expenditure of energy by synthesizing several sources.

 To review a discussion

When the learners have been assigned tasks in groups, it is very important after they have
presented their discussion, for the teacher to summarize the main points of the topic under
discussion.

 To expand content

Through lecture method, the teacher is able to present additional materials based on extensive
reading or one's own experience. This information could otherwise not be available to the
learners.

 To conclude a lesson

After presentation, the teacher may conclude by summarizing the main points of the lesson
through lecture method. This is what is known as recapitulation.

 To give assignment

When giving an assignment, some amount of lecture is unavoidable. This is because the teacher
is required to explain what is expected of the learners in the given assignment.

Note Although, the above situations are appropriate for lecture method, it is imports for the
history teacher to note that the success of any lecture depends on three main factors stated
below:
  Ability of the teacher

The personality of the teacher, training, competence, resourcefulness, interest and imagination
will contribute to a good lecture. The teacher has to think and dramatize related ideas, taking
students from one generation to another or from their nation to another.

 The readiness and the capacity for the learners to follow the lecture

The teacher has to be aware of the ability of the class to understand. The younger the learners
are, the more difficult it will be for them to concentrate on a lecture for long because their
capacity of absorbing and concentrating on lectures diminish With time, for example, the form
ones cannot concentrate on a lecture for a full forty (40) minutes period as university
undergraduate students would.

 The nature of the knowledge to be transmitted

Before the teacher decides to use lecture method, it is important to weigh the nature of
knowledge to be transmitted, e.g. is it a new and unfamiliar ground? Do students have access to
relevant resources on the topic?

2.3.3 How to give a lecture

When giving a lecture the teacher should do the following:

 Organize the lecture in three stages: introduction, main body and conclusion.
 Start the lecture with some interest-catching device to capture the learners' attention.
 Partition the talk in a few briefly worded ideas, limiting the amount! Of material to that
which learners can readily get.
 Use a well-modulated voice.
 Use clear, concise and simple language. It should be familiar and suitable to the learners.
 Punctuate the lecture with pauses so that the knowledge delivered is learned bit by bit.
 Repeat important points for emphasis.
 Keep to the point by avoiding irrelevancy.
 Be aware of warning signs such as learners' restlessness, boredom, contusion,
indiscipline, dissatisfaction and adjust the talk appropriately.
  Check the student's understanding by asking a few questions once in a while.
 Students should also be encouraged to ask questions for clarification.
 Ask thought-provoking questions in strategic places to give the Learners opportunity to
explore concepts for themselves. This will enable them to develop the spirit of inquiry
and a desire to search for more knowledge.
 Try to be humorous to make the lesson interesting.
 Make use of audio and visual aids such as maps, charts, pictures, film strips, real objects,
models, because as they add life to the lecture.
 Make full use of the chalkboard for summary of the main points of the lesson and
illustration.
 Make use of examples and illustrations. These motivate the learners when they see that
the point under discussion has occurred in real life situations.
 Give a forceful conclusion cither by summing up, asking questions or giving
assignments.

After the completion of a lecture, the teacher should follow it up with related activities in order
to bind the learning. Such activities are:

 Making notes - encourage learners to make notes using the outline given.
 Discussion - discuss with them the points they feel they did not understand during the
lecture.
 Answering of questions - ask oral questions on the content covered.
 Tests/quizzes - ask them written questions to test their understanding.
 Summary - let one student summarize the main points of the lecture.

Activity: From the above points, how do you think, the teacher can arouse and maintain interest
in a lecture?

2.4 Story-Telling / Narrative

It is one of the most suitable and important methods of teaching history because:

 It presents to the learners clear, vivid, interesting and orderly sequences of events.
Through this, the learners visualize these events the way they happened.
  Helps to stimulate the learners' imagination.
 Helps in enhancing the interest of the learners in history.
 Is good for character formation when students emulate the characters of great heroes in
the story.
 Provides an opportunity to bring closer and makes real to the learners the country's or
society's activities, contributions and values both modern and past.
 Helps in emotional development of learners as they begin to appreciate what others have
done in the society or even to sympathize with them.
 Is a source of enjoyment.

2.4.1 Qualities of a good story

A good story should be:

 Be relevant to what is being or is to be taught. It should also have important factual

information of educational value.
 Be interesting, dramatic and exciting, evoking memories of vividness.
 Be short, simple with a few characters. J
 Be suggesting and inspiring the student to action.
 Be of a good moral, i.e. the good should be rewarded and evil punished.
 Be convincingly real, i.e. containing authentic detail which will make the characters
alive to the learners.
 Be based on real life situation or be within learners' experience.

Question Identify and explain:

1) Advantages
2) Disadvantages of story-telling as a method of teaching history

2.4.2 When does a teacher use a story?

A story can be used in history teaching and learning: as an introduction where it is used as a set
induction to set up learners to be ready or attentive to the lesson; as an interlude to bridge a
transition in teaching steps; to revive the flagging concentration of learners in order to channel
them to a desired end; and lastly as an end - or conclusion to reflect key points or forces in a
lesson's message, or the moral implications of the lesson.

When using story-telling in teaching and learning, the teacher should:

 Consider the age, individual differences, level and expectations of the learners.
 Ensure the story has an introduction, developmental stage and conclusion.
 Identify, select and introduce visual aids to be used at the right time.
 Plan what activities to involve the learners in either during the story telling session or at
the end of the story.

The following points should be considered by the teacher when using story-telling approach:

 Use simple and easy language.

 Avoid long explanations, unnecessary comments, dates and names i.e. the story should
not be involving.
 Use gestures, facial expressions, movements, modulated voice, etc.
 The teacher should show interest in the story while telling it.
 Tell the story in a natural way, vividly and with a sense of humour.
 Make use of the chalkboard where necessary.

Activities: (i) Identify topics in history and government which you think can be based taught
through the use of story-telling.

(ii) Think of a story relevant to any of the topics identified above tell it to the class.

(iii) What problems have you experienced in telling it?

2.510 Question and Answer Method

Questioning technique lies at the heart of effective history teaching and learning. It is one| of the
most important means of stimulating thinking and learning. According to Kophher (1992) “the
teacher who never asks questions never teaches”. In fact, every teacher asks questions when
teaching whether consciously or unconsciously. Some questions are asked to fill up time while
others are pre-planned depending on the objectives of the lesson or the unit, which is being
taught.
Any history teacher can ask questions in the course of his/her teaching but to ask them properly
and effectively requires understanding, insight and experience. Good questioning technique calls
for pre-planned questions which are well distributed to cover all the cognitive levels of learning
according to Bloom's taxonomy of learning which ate: knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

2.5.1 Purpose of questioning

Questioning technique should not be used for the sake of it but rather it should be applied to:

 Revise work already covered and expose difficulties which the learners may be faced
with so that they can be solved.
 Prepare learners for new material by finding out what the learners knew regarding a
particular topic.
 Encourage self-expression, promote thinking and develop appreciation of ideas among
the learners.
 Stimulate interest, imagination, initiative and creativity among the learners.

Activity: From your leaching experience, identify other functions of questioning.

2.5.2 Characteristics of good oral questions

For questions to be rated as good, they must be:

 Meaningful and relevant.

 Definite and direct.
 Clear and coherent.
 Simple but challenging enough and thought-provoking.
 Suitable to the age, level and the ability of the learners.
 Concise and to the point.
 Interesting and within the experience of the learners.

2.5.3 Categories of questions

Basically, there are two categories of questions whose aim is to enable the teacher to test the
learners' level of understanding. There are two categories of questions: lower order or basic
questions and higher order or advanced questions. Lower order questions are factual requiring
learners to recall facts and information covering knowledge, comprehension and sometimes they
spread to cover application. They are concerned with the factual or descriptive statements,
definitions of terms, etc. Higher order questions on the other hand enable the learner: acquire,
organize, use and evaluate information; form and express ideas based on available information
and improve the learners' self-concept by providing them with opportunities to develop new
ways of thinking.

These questions cannot be answered merely from memory or by simple sensory description.
They require abstract thinking. The learners learn to generalize, to relate facts in meaningful
patterns, to compare and contrast concepts or principles, to make inferences, to classify, to
perceive causes and effects, to discover concepts, to use ideas and to conclude. The higher order
questions cover the following areas:

 Applications: Learners are expected to apply concepts or principles. This gives them an
opportunity to make use of new knowledge to novel situations.
 Analysis: It requires students to examine and interpret evidence, make deductions from
evidence and to be able to organize and express their thoughts.
 Synthesis: The learners are involved in creative activity whereby they are expected to
draw a number of ideas together in a given situation or, circumstance.
 Evaluation: The learners are required to make judgment on ideas or values and then to
give supportive reasons for their judgment.

Note: Although there are two basic categories of questions mentioned above, there are other
questions, which cut across the two categories. These are probing questions (see Figure 4).
Probing questions enable students to think beyond their first simple response. Usually they are
never prepared in advance because they are asked according to the students' response to earlier
questions.

Probing questions serve the following purposes:

 Clarification: the teacher asks for a clearer, more concise answer,

 Support: the teacher asks why a particular answer was given,
  Consensus: the learners are called upon to agree or disagree with the previous answer
during a discussion.

Pre-planned or Pre-planned or
unplanned questions unplanned questions

HIGHER ORDER LOWER ORDER

PROBING

Application
Knowledge
Analysis
Comprehension
Synthesis
application
Evaluation

Figure 2: Classification of questions

Question?

i) What are distinguishing characteristics of lower and higher order questions?

ii) At what stage of the learning /teaching process does a teacher use probing
technique?

2.5.3 Caution on questioning technique

In using questioning technique, you should avoid the following:

 The learners answering in unison. Such as response does not enable the teacher to
differentiate between those who know and those who does not know. This discrimination
is important because it is the basic reason of questioning. Such reasoning comes up when
the teacher uses yes or no questions tend to encourage guessing and chorus answers. For
instance, a question like “Was Kenyatta a freedom fighter?” calls for a Yes or No
response.
 Such a question should be improved on as the following: “What role did Kenyatta play in
the struggle for independence?”
 Asking two questions at a time because it confuses the learners as they are not sure of
which part of the question to answer first, e.g. “What did you like or dislike about this
topic?” “What did you like about this topic?” After it has been answered, the teacher will
proceed to ask what they did not like about the topic.
 Vague questions which are difficult to answer, e.g. “What do you think about the history?
 Leading questions that have-answer within themselves for example, “Does the president
make the law or does he carry it out?” It should be improved to: “In what ways does the
President help to make the legislation?”
 Repeating questions: This should not be done unless it is very necessary, repetition
promotes inattention. The students wait for the teacher to repeat before they answer it. If
the question is not clear, it should be rephrased.
 Ambiguous questions, e.g. “What happened after the First World War?” It should be
more specific e.g. “What happened to German East Africa after the First World War?”

2.5.4 Guidelines to questioning technique

The following suggestions are useful when you intend to use questioning:

 The questions should be related to the objective of the lesson.

 The questions should be within the students' background, experience and ability.
 Language used should be simple and appropriate to the age level.
 The questions should be directed to the whole class. This helps to ensure that all students
pay attention to the question as every member of the class stands a chance of being asked
to respond to it.
 The questions should follow an interrogative form, beginning with: who, which, what,
when, why, how, etc.
 There should be a pause before the teacher picks on a particular student to answer the
question. Enough time should be allowed for the learners to respond to the question
depending on its nature whether it is on recall or critical thinking. The latter requires
more time.
  The teacher should prepare key questions to be asked in the main stages of the lesson in
advance.
 The questions should follow a sequence so that the answers form a loosely connected but
logical account.
 The questions should spread to the whole class involving as many students as possible.

2.5.5 Guidelines to follow when handling students’ answers

In dealing with the students' responses (answers), the teacher should do the following:

 Give credit for effort made by commending good answers with encouraging remarks such
as “Good”. For wrong answers you should appreciate the efforts made but at the same
time make it clear that the answer is wrong. Encourage the student to try again.
 Accept the inability of a student to answer a question. Do not insult, mock or reprimand.
 If the class is unable to answer the question, the teacher should either rephrase it or
explain the expected answer.
 Listen to the learners' answers even if they are wrong without interruption either from
you (the teacher) or the other learners. Make due correction on the spot.
 Use the following approach to deal with wrong answers from the learners:
 If the purpose of the question was the recall of factual material, the teacher may use
another student to answer the question.
 If the question asked calls for a judgment or decision, the teacher may rephrase the
question. This may take the form of a series of linked questions to guide the learner to the
correct answer.
 If an answer is partly right and partly wrong, separate the two portions, and leave no
doubt which answer is correct.
 Do not force the learners to accept an answer that they believe to be incorrect.

The history teacher can use questions at different levels of the lesson for example, at the
introduction as set induction. Here, the questions may be useful in defining the topic or focusing
attention, or even bringing out the lesson's objective or reviewing the previous lesson. It may be
a way of relating the theme to the learners' experience. Questions can also be used during lesson
development in order to find out if the learners are following the lesson and also to get
information on the topic under study. Lastly, they can be used at the end of the lesson as a sure-
way of summarizing the lesson or giving an assignment.

Although questioning is an effective approach to history teaching and learning, you need to use it
cautiously because of these limitations:

 It is time consuming.
 It is more applicable in topics the students are familiar with.
 Pre-planned questions call for more involvement in the planning process by the teacher.
 It does not cater for individual differences because the teacher tends to ignore weak and
shy students. As a result, the bright ones dominate the lesson.
 Questioning is a complex skill which can only be handled by an experienced teacher.

2.6 Summary

In this lecture we have discussed teaching strategies and some of the methods of teaching history
and government. Specifically, the lesson defined expository and heuristic strategies, identified
their characteristics and methods, which fall under each of them. The lecture went further to
discuss lecture and questioning methods. Among the things discussed were their definitions,
importance, their application in the classroom and their limitations as teaching methods.

2.7 Definition of Key Words/Concepts

Expository: An act of explaining of information clearly in a learning situation.

Heuristic: Learning by ones own personal discoveries and experiences.

Method: A way or procedure of doing something.

Narrative: An oral presentation of string of events often with explanations of the events in

terms of their causes and effects.

Pausing: Using silence to gain or direct attention, provide an opportunity for convert

practice; or invite participation.

Probe: A technique whereby the teacher, asks a series of step-by step questions to help a
 student move through a reasoning process to frame a logical answer, to elicit more

detail or a higher-level response.

Strategy: A deliberate planning and organization of an experience and a situation with a

view to achieving specific goals.

Technique: Means of achieving ones purpose especially skillfully, way of doing an activity

requiring skill.

Ventilation: Causing air to more freely.

2.8 Further Reading

Ayot, H.O. New Approaches in History teaching in Secondary Schools, K B L , Nairobi, 1979.

Burston, W. H and C.W Green (eds.) Handbook for. History Teachers, 2nd edition, Metheun,
London 1972.

Carpenter, P.C. (1972). Handbook for History Teachers in Africa. London: Evans Brothers

Kochlar, S.K. (1979) Teaching of History 1st ed. New Delhi: Sterling Private Limited: New Delhi

McClcish, J. ‘The Lecture method’ Monographs of Teaching Methods Nol, Cambridge Institute
of Education, 1968.

Nasibi M.W. & M. Kiio (2004) Handbook for History and Government Teachers Strongwall
Africa: Nairobi
 LESSON THREE: HEURISTIC METHODS OF TEACHING

3.0 Introduction

In the last lecture we discussed the two teaching strategies as expository and heuristic. We also
looked at some methods of teaching, which fall under expository method. The last method to be
discussed was questioning which is a bridge between expository and heuristic approaches. In this
lesson, we will zero on some if the heuristic methods, which could be applied to history teaching
and learning.

3.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Identify and define some heuristic methods such as whole class discussion small groups,
brainstorming, debate and panel discussion.
 Explain the importance' of some of the above methods in teaching and learning of
history, their limitations and how they can effectively be used in teaching and learning.

3.2 Discussion Method

It can be defined as a critical examination by argument. As a method, it is an approach in which

the students under the teacher's guidance exchange points of view so as to arrive at a collective
decision or conclusion on a given issue/topic. It can be an exchange of ideas between a teacher
and the students and between the students themselves. It is concerned with analysis, comparison
and evaluation of ideas. There are two approaches to discussion: expository oriented and inquiry
oriented discussion.

Expository oriented discussion is where the teacher defines the objective(s) of the lesson,
explains learning activities, allows for the discussion, invites questions before concluding the
activity.

In inquiry-oriented discussions, the teacher may not state the objectives, instead one arranges for
the discussion to take place and the whole activity is open-ended. Usually, there are no specific
conclusions to be made. The teacher serves as a guide not as a leader. The students carry out the
discussion and arrive at a conclusion.
Question? Differentiate between controlled and open discussion?

3.2.1 Importance of discussion

Discussion technique is important in the teaching and learning of history because it:

 Stimulates learners' mental activity, thus leading to a lively discussion.

 Develops fluency in expression which is necessary in learning and in adult life.
 Encourages learners to discover information for themselves and trains in the presentation
of ideas and facts.
 Permits social learning through interaction,
 Develops critical thinking among the learners.
 Develops leadership qualities among the learners, because it gives them a chance to lead
a group.
 Facilitates retention of material learnt.

In using discussion method, there are a number of considerations to be made by :

3.2.2 The teacher

The teacher should:

 Act as a leader and initiator of the discussion and should maintain class control.
 Be a guide and a facilitator of the discussion.
 First present the topic of the discussion.
 Make seating arrangement: circle/round the table patterns is more suitable for discussion.
 Encourage students especially the shy ones to participate.
 Appreciate whatever effort is made by students without embarrassing, pressurizing or
ridiculing them.
 Provide explanations where necessary.
 Clarity doubts/mistakes and misinterpretation.
 Encourage cooperation and team spirit among group members.
 Limit the discussion to a few major facets of the topic.
  Design the discussion so as to fit into the time available.
 Evaluate and summarize the main points of the discussion

3.2.3 The learners

They have to consider the following before and during the discussion:

 The learners should do extensive reading on the topic prior to discussion.

 Speakers should be acknowledged by either the group leader (small group discussion) or
by the teacher (whole class discussion) before speaking.
 Contributors should speak clearly so that everyone can hear.
 Questions raised should be worded carefully and clearly.
 The learners should be creators rather than passive receivers of ideas.
 Statements/comments made should be related to the problem under discussion.
 The group leader should ensure that every group member is encouraged to participate in
the discussion.

Question? Identify other roles of learners which have not been mentioned above.

3.2.4 When to use discussion method

Discussion method could be used when:

 The teacher wants to get opinions/ideas from the students.

 Dealing with topics which require flow of information from the teacher to the students
and students to the teacher.
 The teacher wants to clarify situations and examples.
 The objective is to develop critical thinking among the learners.
 The nature of the topic can be best handled through discussion method.
 Handling controversial issues.

3.2.5 Limitations of discussion method

Discussion as a teaching and learning method has a number of limitations for example:

 It is time consuming.
  It may give opportunities for some students to show off.
 It is difficult to achieve maximum interaction when the group is large.
 When a discussion leader is weak, the discussion can result in unorganized, unproductive
activity.
 Normally, shy students are not actively involved in the lesson.
 Weak students, are at times shouted down upon and this embarrasses them and weakens
their contribution in the discussion and in future discussions.

Note: There are two types of discussion namely: whole class discussion and small group
discussion.

3.2.6 Whole Class Discussion

Whole class discussion often than not comes up as an impromptu activity. It comes in the midst
of student-teacher talk when an issue arises that requires to be clarified further. At other times a
discussion can be sparked off when a teacher throws a pre-planned question to the class on the
topic under study.' In this discussion, a periodic summary of what has been said is essential. This
helps to evaluate the progress of the discussion as well as to keep everybody up-to-date.

As a teaching technique, the whole class discussion cannot work alone. It is serviced by other
methods like lecture, questioning and small groups because after using a given approach, the
teacher addresses the whole class and thus -initiates more response/discussion from the class.

Note: The following should be noted about unplanned discussion.

 Do not allow discussion to digress into less productive side issues. If it does, be alert to
lead it back to the right path.
 Limit the discussion to a few major facets of the topic. In this way you will be able to
discuss the topic in depth.

3.2.7 Small Group Discussion

Under small group discussion, we have buzz groups, group reports, brainstorming, debates, panel
among others. It involves forming groups from the whole class. Groups ranging from 2-12
students could be generated in one of the following ways:
  Random grouping: This is where students are grouped without any order.
 Friendship grouping: The teacher deals with a clique as a group.
 Achievement level grouping: Students are grouped according to their ability
 Differential ability grouping: The teacher intentionally places students with different
leadership and academic abilities in one group so that they can form a more functional
group.
 Gender inclined: Students are grouped according to their gender. The idea is to promote
competition between boys and girls.

3.2.8 Small Group reports

In using group reports, the teacher should do the following:

 Give students a topic to discuss in groups of 3-6 depending on the size of the class. In a
large class, assign different sub-topics to various groups for discussion.
 Ensure that each group has a leader who should write down the main points discussed.
 During discussion, move from one group to another to listen to and guide the discussion.
 After the groups have had enough time to discuss the topic, allow a reporting session
where each group leader will report the group findings.
 As each group presents its findings, the other students should jot down the main points of
the presentation.
 Allow time for questions, comments, clarification and additional points.
 Give concluding remarks on what has been discussed.

3.2.9 Brainstorming

In brainstorming, this procedure could be followed:

 The teacher introduces a topic or a problem/question to the class and asks members of the
class/group for their ideas, solutions or comments on the issue.
 The class/group responds with whatever comes to the mind.
 All responses whether wrong or correct are accepted and recorded on the chalkboard or a
piece of paper for reference.
  No comments are allowed until all group/class members have expressed every idea that
they can think of.
 The teacher allows the class/group to discuss the ideas expressed freely and then
evaluates the responses.

The teacher is free to make modification of the above guidelines to suit the objectives of the
lesson.

3.2.10 Debates

The most formal of all discussion techniques is the debate. It requires learners to held formal
argument on a given issue. It is an important technique in history teaching and learning because
it enables participants to see the other side of an issue in order to meet the arguments of their
opponents; clarifies the controversy at stake and prepares the learners for future roles in the
society, e.g. being politicians, lawyers, etc.

Question? What do you think are limitations of diabetes?

3.2.10.1 How to organize a debate

A debate could be organized as follows:

 Select a topic or a question to be debated on.

 Allow students to form two teams, one arguing for the topic and another arguing against
it.
 Select a chairman and a timekeeper.
 Choose first speakers, one for and another against.
 Choose second speakers, one for and another against.
 The speakers should be given 5-7 minutes each.
 Allow for first rebuttal for and first rebuttal against.
 Give chance for second rebuttal for, and second rebuttal against.
 Allow time for a general discussion, this is when the floor is open for the rest of the class.
 Give concluding remarks.
 Time Keeper Teacher

1st p 2nd p Chairman 1st O 2nd O

L L L L L L
L L L L L L
L L L L L L
L L L L L L
L L L L L L
L L L L L L

Key: 1st and 2nd p = 1st and 2nd proposers

1st and 2nd O = 1st and 2nd opposers

L = learner

Figure 3: Organization of a debate

3.11 Panel Discussion

This approach is also called speaker- audience technique. A panel consists of a group of selected
students (4-6) to lead a discussion before a classroom situation. The group panel is led by a
chairman with outgoing leadership qualities. The panelists should sit in front of the class in a
semi-circle.

3.11.1 Guidelines for panel discussion

After the members of a panel have been identified, the following should be carried out:

 The panellists should prepare adequately on the selected topic with the help of the teacher
who will guide them on their roles and the procedure to follow during the presentation,
for example the chairperson will be expected to:
  Introduce the topic. Prepare the audience by drawing their attention and
explaining the procedure of the discussion.
 Introduce the panellists (participants).
 Control the discussion to ensure that time is kept.
 Invite and encourage the audience to ask questions at the opportune time;
 Sum up when necessary.
 Close the discussion.
 Before the presentation, the panellists should go through the main points of their
discussion amongst themselves.
 The panellists should discuss the given topic among themselves as the class listens
attentively jotting down questions to ask the panel.
 The class should also have a checklist to evaluate the panel.
 After the presentation by the panel, the discussion is open to the whole class and the
teacher takes over from the chairperson.
 The class will either accept or reject some points raised by the panellists.
 They will also ask questions.
 The teacher will supervise the discussion and evaluate the points raised.
 Wind up the discussion by asking questions and telling the students to make a summary
in writing.

Note: The panel discussion could be used when a topic under discussion provides variety of
points of view and when the students have done research in a group and their results need to be
presented before the class.

3.10 Summary

In this lesson we have discussed the following methods under heuristic strategy: discussion,
small groups, brainstorming, debates and panel discussion. The following features were covered
under each of the methods: the importance of the methods, when to use them in the classroom,
how to use them and their limitations as methods of teaching history and government.
3.11 Definition of key Words

Brainstorming A technique used by in individuals or groups to produce as many ideas or

suggestions as possible within a few minutes, initially judging the value or

implications of the ideas suggested.

Impromptu Done or said without earlier planning or preparation.

Panel Discussion: An organised discussion where the topic and speakers are selected

beforehand.
 LESSON FOUR: EXPERIENTIAL METHODS OF TEACHING

4.0 Introduction

In the last lesson, we focused on interactive methods of teaching history. In this lecture, our
discussion will be based on some of the experiential methods which could be applied in the
teaching and learning of history. Among the methods are; role-play, educational visits, imaginary
visits and project method.

4.1 Role Play Method

It is defined as an unrehearsed dramatization in which the players try to clarify in a situation by

acting out the roles of the participants in the situation. Selected members of a class act out or
imitate a situation/condition or circumstances. The method is based on a life situation where the
players personify other people arid assume their roles. However, it should be emphasized that the
learners are playing roles and that they are not portraying their own character.

4.1.1 Purpose of role-playing

Role-play has these purposes:

 It helps people see a situation through other peoples' point of view.

 It prepares learners to fit in different situations in life as they play different roles.
 It helps in clarifying and demonstrating attitudes and concepts.
 It deepens understanding of social situations.
 It helps in planning and trying out strategies for attacking problems.
 It helps in testing out hypothetical solutions to problems.

There are many History and Government topics that can be taught through the use of this
method. These include:

 Biographies of political leaders, e.g. Jomo Kenyatta's arrest, trial, coronation as president.
 Trade, e.g. local trade where a market scene can be enacted.
 African reaction to colonial rule e.g. Mekatilili organising the Giriama against the
colonial administration.
 Struggle for independence, scenes of freedom fighters planning for war.
Activity: Think of other topics from the syllabus where role-play could be used

4.1.2 Organization of role playing

A teacher could organize role-playing using the following stages:

 Select a topic that the class understands very well.

 Give the purpose for role-playing.
 Explain areas of emphasis in the topic.
 Decide on the number of the players.
 Encourage learners to volunteer to play different roles.
 Select the required number from those who volunteer to participate.
 Use your discretion to assign roles.
 Be sure that the players understand the situation and their roles.
 Brief the audience and make sure everyone understands what the players are trying to do.
 Let the students act out the situation.
 Stop players when they step out of their roles or when they cannot continue with success.
 If time allows get a second group of students to play the roles when the first group has
finished.
 Summarize the role-play presentations with a short discussion.
 Give concluding remarks, correcting any misinterpretations and errors made.

Although the importance of role-play cannot be underestimated, it has also some limitations e.g.:

 It is not realistic enough and-as such it can lead to misconceptions.

 Sometimes the learners take it as a. form of entertainment and as a result they lose its
meaning
 Sometimes do not like playing certain roles especially those of unadmirable personalities

Activity: From the list of relevant topics given on role-play, organize your students in a group or
groups to act relevant roles on any of the topics.
4.2 Educational Visits

These are visits by learners to venues of learning through which they (learners) come into first-
hand contact with people, places and things around them.

Through these visits, learners are involved in the following: Listening, interviewing and
observing people in action, examining real things e.g. tools, reports and other documents and
participating in community affairs.

Activity: Make a list of some topics in history and government syllabus, which could be taught
effectively using educational visits.

These places you have identified above are important in teaching of History and Government as
a subject. This is illustrated by the points below.

4.2.1 Importance of educational visits

There are important in the teaching and learning of history because:

 They supplement and enrich curriculum experiences.

 They provide hands-on experiences to learners when they come in contact with people,
places and things around them, this developing a sense of reality.
 They arouse curiosity among the learners motivating them to learn.
 They break classroom monotony.
 They provide information not readily available in books.
 Learners develop the skills of collecting and analysing data.

4.2.2 Consideration to be made by the teacher intending to use educational visits

One should answer the following questions positively before embarking on a visit:

 Will the visit be relevant to educational objectives?

 Will the visit be of genuine interest to the learners?
 Will it be suitable for the age and class level?
 Are educational values for the prepared visit definite and clear?
 Will it produce learning that is justified for time consumed and trouble taken?
  Will it provide observational experience, which is not available?
 Will it fit naturally in the sequence of students' work?

4.2.3 Preparation to be made before an educational visit

Preparations must be made both by the teacher and the learners. The teacher should do the
following:

 Identify a relevant place.

 Discuss the matter with the head of the school for approval.
 Plan objectives of the visit.
 Inform the students about the intended visit.
 Visit or contact relevant people or agents to seek permission.
 Prepare and send questionnaires in advance to the people who will be in charge of the
students during the visit.
 Agree on date, time and number of students, teachers and activities the learners will be
involved in.
 Inform the parents about the visit through a written note.
 Enlist support and assistance of other members of staff and parents.
 Make arrangements with school authorities for students left behind or duties left
unattended.
 Make a route plan.
 Review field trip guide for students.
 Provide students with necessary materials.
 Arrange for safety devices by the students.
 Establish rules of contact, behaviour standards and form of dress.
 Give procedure to be followed when one gets lost or is left behind.
 Take roll call before the start of the trip.

Question: How could you prepare your learners for the trip?

4.2.4 During the visit

During the visit or trip, both the teacher and the learners have these responsibilities:
  You should ensure that there is proper conduct in the bus during the. trip, e.g. remaining
on one's seat, not sticking arms and heads out of the window.
 In cases of stops on the way, one has to take roll call to ensure; that nobody is left behind.
 On arrival, you should reinstruct the learners on what should be done.
 You have to ensure that students walk together in groups.
 The students should carry out specific tasks assigned to them.
 You should supervise the learners in various activities the are involved in.
 The teacher should control time and ensure that the students go back to school/home
before nightfall.
 If the trip calls for spending the night out, away from the school/home, you should ensure
that the students are safe and comfortable.

4.2.5 Follow-up alter the visit

For one to assess the success and benefits of the trip, the person should:

 Take about one or two lessons after the visit to consolidate the findings.
 Give time to group leaders to present their reports.
 Write major points on the chalkboard for the benefits of the whole class.
 Mark and file written reports in a class file for future reference
 Give students an assignment based on the visit, e.g. A project.
 Correct any errors made by the guides or agents during the visit.
 Write a brief evaluation of the trip for future reference.

Activity: Visit Kenya Museum and make brief notes on what is available in the following
sections:

i) Pre-history section
ii) Struggle for Independence section
iii) Ethnography section
iv) Artifacts of display
4.3 Imaginary educational visits

A very stimulating approach of teaching history would be to weave facts around an imaginary
visit to the actual place where events took place. This approach could be used under the
following situations:

 When teaching remote history, you should take the learners' minds to that time in the
past; they should be asked to imagine that they are living during that period in the past
and to visualize how they would have reacted in a given situation at that time.
 When the place under discussion cannot be visited because of the distance or insecurity,
the learners should be asked to take imaginary journeys to that place.
 When the learners cannot visit a given place because of lack of money or time.
 When teaching topics, which are not exciting/interesting, the teacher will help the
learners to visualize the events vividly as if they are happening now.
 When the teacher's aim is to develop imaginative powers of the learners.

Note: Before embarking on an imaginary visit, the learners should be assigned to which they are
supposed to perform at the imaginary site/venue. These would include interviews,
observations and participation in other relevant activities. They would then be told to make
individual or group reports, on coming back from the imaginary visit.

This kind of approach will inspire learners to research on some unfamiliar topics so long as they
are guided on what to look for so that they can be able to report their findings to the class.

4.3.1 Suggested guidelines for imaginary visits

The following is a useful guide you i f you intend to use imaginary visits in a history lesson:

 Choose a place of interest, which is relevant to the topic under study.

 If the place is within reach but learners are not in a position to visit, you should make
effort to visit the area so as to describe it well to the learners. As learners enjoy stories,
the imaginary visit will interest them more if it is in a story form.
 During the visit, you should note carefully what can be seen on the journey to the place
and also at the site.
  If possible a map should be prepared. It should be simple enough for the learners to
understand.
 When telling the learners to imagine the journey, they should focus on:
 Interesting things seen on the way e.g. Wild life, buildings, factories, landscape,
etc.
 Distance to the place.
 Time taken to the place.
 Any problems encountered on the way.
 While at the imaginary site, the learners should describe what is found there, e.g. people,
buildings, objects and activities taking place there.
 To make imaginary visits real, the teacher should use a variety of relevant learning
resources e.g. pictures. Suitable pictures of places, things, objects are very useful. Both
the teacher and learners can collect relevant pictures from newspapers, magazines,
textbooks etc. The teacher can also take photographs of actual things or places.
 There should be learning activities as a follow-up after the visit which would include:
 Asking oral questions;
 Discussing about people and places visited;
 Drawing e.g. People at work, objects seen, a simple map;
 Model making e.g. Houses, objects;
 Acting a relevant scene; and
 Writing a summary about the visit- the summary can be according to each
individual’s understanding about the visit or it could, can be answer to questions
asked by the teacher.

4.4 Project Method

Project method is a child-centred approach to learning. It aims at developing the child into a
decent worthwhile citizen by actively involving one into the learning process and freeing the
individual from traditional school environment, which is usually marked with passivity and lacks
keenness and real life.

A project method has been defined as:

  Any unit of activity, individual or group, involving the investigation arid solution of
problems that is planned and carried to conclusion by a student or students under the
guidance of the teacher. (Callahan, J.F. and Clark, L.H., teaching in the middle and
secondary school: 1990.)
 An educational assignment necessitating personal initiative on the part of the learner
(Barnhart, C.L. and Stein Jess, The American College Dictionary: 1970).

4.4.1 Types of projects

There are different types of projects, which can be used in History and Government teaching and
learning. These are:

 Producer type: The learners are expected to construct real things and models, e.g. Tools
used by early man, modes of transport, court of arms etc.
 Consumer type: The learners are expected to make use of already produced material, e.g.
watching a film, reading or listening to a story about a great personality, studying lectures
of great personalities and writing on the achievements and characters of the persons.
After consuming the produced materials, the learners can be engaged in a project like
writing and acting out a story.

Problem solving project: The learners are exposed to a problem to solve in history. The
solution to the problem could be book-based or field-based, i.e. the learner could solve the
problem by reading books within the school or going out in the field to gather material towards
the solution of the problem or both.

Activity: Identify topics in History and government syllabus which could be best handled by the
use of project method

Preparation for a project

In planning to use a project approach to teaching and learning of history, the following
guidelines would be useful:

 Either you the teacher/students should identify a project to work on, e.g. watching a film,
constructing something or solving a problem.
  You should then discuss the project with the students, so that they understand what it is.
 The learners should decide democratically and plan on what they should work on within
the project.
 The learners should cooperate to execute the plan with the teacher's guidance.
 Some of the activities the learners would be engaged in are: observing, drawing, painting,
modelling, interviewing, reading and writing.
 You and the learners and the learners should evaluate the project. Constructive criticism
should be made on the completed project so that an improvement is made on it.
 You should record the project in a book for future reference. This record will include:
how the problem was identified, duties assigned, problems experienced and experience
gained by the learners.

4.4.2 Advantages of project method

Project method has a number of advantages such as:

 Preparing the child for life outside school by acquainting one with real problems of life.
 Promoting a sense of responsibility and cooperation among the learners as they work
together to achieve a common goal.
 Treating knowledge as a whole and correlates it avoiding compartmentalizing it into
subjects.
 Imparting training to students to inculcate in them independence, tolerance, patience,
open-mindedness and resourcefulness. These virtues are essential for good citizenship.
Training for democratic way of life which is exercised through choice of areas of interest
in the project.
 Upholding the dignity of labour because students learn to work with their own hands.
 Developing important skills in learners, such as observation interviewing, critical
thinking and decision-making.
 Utilizing the students’ potential to the full because they are encouraged to use and
develop their own talents.
 Providing flexibility in learning as the learners learn at their own initiative and pace.

Question?: Given the above advantages, what are the limitations of a project method?
4.6 Summary

In summary, various methods of teaching History and Government have been discussed. Those
methods fall under two broad approaches to teaching namely expository and heuristic.
Expository strategy is an autocratic approach to classroom teaching while heuristic is
democratic. Whereas the latter is learner centred, the former is focused on the teacher. Teaching
methods, which fall under these two strategies, run in a continuum from purely teacher-centred
methods to extremely learner-centred. Each method is determined by among others the nature of
content, type of learners, teacher's personality and teaching/learning environment.

4.7 Definition of Key Concepts/Words

Problem solving: A process of reasoning through a series of sequential steps to arrive at answers
to questions or achieve a solution to a problem.

4.8 Further Reading

Aggarwal, J.C . Teaching Social Studies Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd; 1982.

Ayot, H.O. New Approaches in History teaching in Secondary Schools, K B L , Nairobi, 1979.

Burston, W. H and C.W Green (eds.) Handbook for History Teachers, 2ml edition, Metheun,
London 1972.

Callahan J.F. and Clark L.H. (1990) Teaching in'the Middle Secondary schools. London:
Macmillan

Crookalll, P.C. (1975) , Handbook for .History Teachers in Africa. London: Evans Brothers

Nasibi M.W. & M. Kiio (2004) Handbook for History and Government Teachers Strongwall
Africa: Nairobi
 LESSON FIVE: LEARNING RESOURCES

5.0 Introduction

In the previous lessons, we looked at various teaching methods. In this lesson, we focus on
learning resources. These resources will be discussed in relation to their relevance to history
teaching, and their utility in the classroom. Some of their advantages and disadvantages will be
highlighted.

5.1 Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Identify the importance of learning resources.

 Categorise the learning resources.
 Mention why it is important for the history teacher to produce his/her own teaching
learning resources.
 Identify and discuss print media and chalkboard in the teaching and learning of history.

5.2 Categorization of Learning Resources

There is a wide assortment of media to be used in history leaching and learning. Some of them
are commercially produced while some are locally made. For convenience of media
identification, the following taxonomy will-be used:

 Print media.
This includes textbooks, reference books, encyclopaedias, newspapers, journals,
magazines, programmes, reviews, periodicals, etc.
 Non-projected media (Graphic materials)
These are materials that use combination of drawings, words, pictures and symbols.' They
include chalkboard, diagrams, charts, atlas, maps, pictures, bulletins, felt and magnetic
boards.
 Silent projected media
These are projected materials that have no sound. They include slides, filmstrips,
overhead transparencies, silent films and microfilms.
  Audio-media
It refers to any material through which messages are directed to the ear. In this category
there is audiotape recorders and radio.
 Audio-visual projected media
These are materials through which messages are directed simultaneously at the ear and
eye. They include sound films-trips, sound slide sets, sound motion pictures and
videotapes.
 Realia
These are real things or objects.
 Models
These are representatives of real things.
 Mass media
It refers to any means through which a message is conveyed to the public. This includes
radio, television and newspapers.

In using the above resources, you have to select the right materials to use in a given history
lesson. In this selection process, you should be guided by the following questions:

 Is the material suitable/relevant to the topic?

 Will it help to achieve the objective(s) of the lesson?
 Will it present an accurate understanding of the facts in the topic?
 Will it highlight the points that the teaching has underscored?
 Is the material within the level of understanding of the learners?
 Is it clear for example in its images, sounds and the way it is presented?
 Is the material attractive with large print, illustration and colour?
 Is the material of good quality?
 Is it up-to-date?
 Is the material readily available?

5.3 Media Production

Some of the media used in history teaching are either commercially produced or teacher made. It
is recommended where possible that the teacher and the learners prepare their own materials
especially pictures, charts and models. Teacher-made resources have the following advantages: -

 They can quickly respond to the local needs (school environment).

 They can be tailored to instructional needs.
 They allow one to make a choice to use materials best suited for a particular
environment/group.
 Teacher-made materials can be evaluated and revised constantly.
 Teacher made materials tend to be better utilized as the teacher has better ideas if how the
materials can be integrated in the lesson.
 Teacher-made resources can incorporate familiar surroundings hence they a more
relevant than commercially produced ones.
 They enable the learners to develop a variety of skills such as creativity, imagination and
initiative as they produce these materials.

Question? Given the above advantages, what are some of the limitations of media production?

5.4 Commonly used Materials in the Teaching and Learning of History and Government

5.4.1 Textbooks

A textbook can be defined as a standard book especially designed to teach a specific body of
knowledge to a specific group of learners. It is written for a particular subject alia particular level
in school or college. A good example of a history textbook is the History and Government series
by Kenya Institute of Education. Of all the materials of instruction, the textbook has the most
influence on teaching content and method especially with the exploding growth of knowledge.
According to J.W. Hurt (1962) and Crookall (1972), a textbook remains, after the teacher, the
learner's chief aid, support and the learner's companion throughout the history course.

5.4.2 Importance of textbooks in teaching and learning

Textbooks are important because:

 They spell out and interpret the syllabus.

  They provide a uniform selected and an organized body of knowledge that can be used as
a basis for determining course content and area of emphases.
 They enable one to skim an account, something one cannot easily do with a film,
television or radio programme, thus making readers to read what interests them.
 They assist the teacher in daily lesson preparation, in giving assignment and providing
further readings to the learners' thus reinforcing learning.
 They enable the teacher to organize class activities during and after the lesson.
 They furnish a permanent record to the learner, making it easier for an individual to
check and recheck what the writer has said thus improving performance.

5.4.3 Criteria for a good textbook

In selecting a history and government textbook you should be guided by the following criteria:

 The textbook should be relevant to curriculum objectives of History and Government.

 It should have relevant and accurate information. This calls for authenticity and
competency of the writer: Is the author an authority in history? What is the writer's
background? Has one given a scholarly presentation of historical information giving both
points of view on controversial issues? Is the information true and up-to-date?
 It should have maximum content coverage as per syllabus that is free from bias,
controversy and with concepts explained clearly with sufficient details.
 It must be properly arranged with an information table of contents, glossary, complete
and detailed index and bibliography, which are important for all ages of students.
 Subject matter should be divided in proper chapters or units following a chronological
order making it easier for classroom use. It must also have headings and summaries.
 The language used should be suitable in relation to the class to be taught. It should be
suitable in style, vocabulary and sentence construction (simple and short). It should also
explain a variety of meanings for technical or historical terms.
 It should be an attractive and stimulating book including devices that aid past learning
such as illustrations and maps to avoid monotony of print. The illustrations such as
pictures, sketches, maps, diagrams and time charts should be correct, authentic,
purposeful and appropriately placed in the textbook with proper size and suitably
captioned.
  The print should be clear and easy to read, the typeface pleasing with enough spacing
between words, line and paragraphs. The paper should be good and the binding strong.
 It must provide a variety of thought-provoking activities and exercises for the learners at
the end of each chapter. These activities and exercise should be appropriate for both
gifted and slow learners and" promote the spirit of inquiry and motivate students for
further study.
 The price must be affordable.

5.4.5 Effective utilization of the textbook

For effective utilization, you should never depend solely on the textbook nor repeat word by
word, what is in it. Rather, one should do the following:

 Familiarize yourself within the textbook and supplement textbook information with
material from other books and sources. After identifying a topic covered in the textbook,
the reader should read it, and look for a similar topic in other history resources available
in the library or in the school.
 Add reality to textbook information by using teaching aids, examples aid explanations
which are not the same as those in the textbook.
 Rearrange the order of topics if you think it is desirable adapting it to the learners and
their needs.
 Use only those parts of the text that seem to be relevant. Skip the other parts,
 Use the textbook for reference purposes during a lesson or a series of lessons.
 Study pictures, maps, diagrams, sketches and particular passages and build lessons
around them. They can form a basis for class discussion.
 Use the textbook when you want to develop critical thinking by encouraging critical
reading and testing for logic, and bias. The teacher can show the learner's that writers
disagree sincerely by allowing them to compare the text with source materials.
 Use the textbook when discussing controversial issues. Discuss with the students the
view held by different people and sources (books) where these arguments could be found.
 Use it to explain unfamiliar historical terms.
 Use it to develop writing styles e.g. writing of peoples' biographies and autobiographies.
  Incorporate the textbook into multi-media teaching strategy i.e. use it with other materials
and methods.
 Use assignments in the textbook as follow-up activities after the lesson considering
different abilities of the learners.
 Use it as a source of structure when planning to teach and encourage students to use it as
a basis for note making.

Activity: Use the questions below to evaluate the effectiveness of the textbook you are using to
teach history and government in any of your classes

 Did the textbook meet and serve the curriculum objectives?

 Did it meet the learning needs of the learners? Was it within their reading level?
 Did it meet the needs and expectations of the teacher and the parents?
 Was it utilised?
 Did it help you as a teacher in your professional growth?
 Was it durable and attractive?
 Was it available in time and in sufficient quality?

Question? : How would you train your students on how to use the textbook?

5.4.6 Limitations of textbooks

Textbooks have the following shortcomings:

 Some of them provide sketchy information and this disadvantages readers who sorely
depend on them.
 When overused they replace the teacher in the classroom textbooks predigest material
and so denies the learners the need to think, to do their own organizing and arrive at
independent conclusions.
 They encourage rote learning.
 Sometimes the textbooks represent the views of the author or government of the day thus
indoctrinating the learners.
 Textbooks are pre-planned and do not meet the varied abilities of a typical class.
  The class members usually move together as if they are of the same ability thus ignoring
individual differences. They treat too many topics, present too many ideas too fast to be
absorbed within a given period of time. It does not matter whether the learners have
understood or not.
 Textbooks are usually not written in readable form. Rarely do students comment on the
excitement and vigour of a textbook as they might on the qualities of a motion picture or
a recording.
 Textbooks are hard to keep up-to-date. In some topics the material is out of date by the
time the book appears in the market and it takes time before it is revised.

Question? The textbook is the teacher's close companion. Discuss?

5.5 Collateral Readings

The textbook should always be supplemented' with collateral readings, which contain useful and
relevant information on contemporary history. Collateral materials include journals, newspapers,
magazines, reviews, periodicals and other similar written texts. These may be used side by side
with textbooks. Occasionally these readings may be the major source of information.

5.5.1 The importance of collateral materials

Collateral readings are useful in history teaching and learning because:

 They offer valuable and up-to-date information. This is especially the case with
newspapers and the weekly/monthly magazines. The recency of the information makes
teaching more real and applicable to the students' environment.
 They are available in the open market in a wide variety hence one can get a better
balanced view of issues discussed in various sources.
 Occasionally, they offer very detailed information otherwise not available in ordinary
textbooks, e.g. during anniversaries, newspapers may outline achievements of given
organizations in various fields. Newspapers have been found to be very useful during
national days in highlighting the nation's development. In them we also find concepts like
trade, interdependence, neocolonialism, urbanization, structural adjustment and
development etc.
  They are flexible in their use e.g. magazines and newspapers can be cut into relevant
pieces to illustrate or to convey a message or they can be used whole on a wide range of
topics.
 They help in the development of:
 Reporting information accurately and systematically;
 Comparing information from different sources to arrive at a reasonable
conclusion;
 Identifying some concepts commonly associated with history.
 Newspapers and reviews can provide a room for open criticisms and suggestions on local
problems dike land clashes, ethnicity, national unit}', civil wars and environmental
issues.

Activity: Identify topics of the syllabus which could call for the use of collateral materials

5.5.2 How to use collateral materials in history teaching and learning

For effective use of collateral materials select carefully relevant material because most of the
material available is addressed to adult readership and also to the wider public rather than the
schools. Besides, you should read and digest the material to determine what will be useful to the
learners.

While the learners may be keen to search for information by themselves, they may not know
what exactly they need; what sources to consult and how to go about processing the information.
They may not also be able to understand available, useful but difficult materials partly due to
their limited language capability and partly due to lack of supportive knowledge.

To overcome these problems you should do the following:

 Survey the available reading first to evaluate their suitability on criteria of:
 Relevance and accuracy of information; and relatedness to the topic.
 Appropriateness to class reading level in terms of vocabulary, sentence structure,
level of abstraction and in terms of reasoning power of issues that are
controversial.
  Background material that is, whether additional information will be needed to
subsidize or support the existing material.
 Identify a theme on which to focus reading. The teacher should consider whether:
 The theme can be clearly stated to suit the learner's level;
 The learners will have problems with parts of it;
 It will fulfill the purpose for which it is intended.
 Prepare relevant notes such as vocabulary and actual information to be stressed.
 Prepare a series of focused questions to enable learners to know exactly what they are
required to extract from the readings.
 Evaluate learners' answers to determine which areas need further attention.
 Fold and keep them well after use for future utilization.
 Display on the bulletin board some newspaper cuttings, showing some historical or
current information, photographs, and illustrations. These could be mounted in a book
later or filed for future reference.

5.5.3 When does the teacher use collateral materials?

There are a number of situations, which call for the use of collateral material in history. Some of
these are when:

 The you referring to current events-and their analysis of political situation in the world,
recent archaeological findings, political changes in different parts of the world and
democracy in the world.
 When you want to get background knowledge about important local, national and world
problems, e.g. Poverty, discrimination, disunity, corruption, dictatorship and coup d’état.
 When you want to introduce a lesson, comics and cartoons in newspapers can be used to
enact a story, this will serve as a basis of introduction (set induction).
 When you want to improve reading and discussion skills, students will learn how to carry
out a discussion when they read about interviews, dialogues, court proceedings and many
others.

5.5.6 Limitations of collateral material as sources of history teaching and learning

Collateral materials are limited in a number of ways:

  Lack of objectivity: Most of the information obtained from the newspapers, reviews and
magazines on controversial matters is influenced by personal or group interests. They can
give wrong information to students if they rely so much on them.
 They are not durable because they can easily be destroyed if not handled well.
 Magazines and newspapers give emphasis to immediate news.
 Some collateral materials e.g. journals do not report daily events and so they are not up-
to-date.
 Some collateral materials e.g. journals, magazines and newspapers are expensive and this
calls for limited readership.

Activities: i) Go through a daily newspaper and pick up information of historical importance

ii) Choose a relevant history and government topic and show how you could make use
of collateral material to teach it

Now that you have discussed the examples of print media, we now look at a few resources from
non-projected media.

5.6 Chalkboard

Chalkboard is the most useful and versatile of the visual aids at the disposal of a history teacher.
It would not be wrong to say that the chalkboard is irreplaceable and indispensable. According to
J.C. Aggarwal (1982), it is the oldest and the best friend of the teacher and the most universally
used aid.

5.6.1 Importance of chalkboard

Chalkboard is an important teaching aid because it:

 Is a mirror through which students visualize the your mind, e.g. The way of explaining,
illustrating and teaching as a whole. Thus, it stands as a visual testimony of the teacher's
work and expression.
 Enables you to make illustrations, modifications and corrections on the spot.
 Draws the learner's attention to the main features of a lesson e.g. Drawings and writings
thus maintaining and sustaining the learner's interest as they see things being written.
  Enables you to record the lesson step by step so that the learners can see the subject take
shape and make a permanent record of it in their books.
 Also enables you to review the whole lesson step by step for the benefit of the class.
 Enables you to record what is oral to visible work thus reinforcing oral explanation.
 Helps you to prepare chalkboard work before hand to save time. This works well where
there are portable chalkboards or the room is not shared with/by other teachers.

5.6.2 Principles governing good chalkboard work

Chalkboard work should be guided by:

 A good layout with correct spellings, lettering and legibility.

 Clarity: it should be clear to make the teaching/learning phases easier.
 Simplicity: All the work must be simple and easy to follow.

Activity Make a chalkboard plan for a lesson you would teach for 40 minutes based on any
history and government topic of your choice

5.6.3 How to use the chalkboard in history teaching and learning

For effective use of the chalkboard you should:

 Ensure the chalkboard is clean before using it.

 Partition the chalkboard into three sections if the size allows:
 Use the left hand column for new words/concepts/term and any of those
unexpected needs that occur in most lessons
 Use the central column for planned summary, main points of the lesson, record
structure of the lesson.
 Keep the right hand column for sketches and diagrams
 Write titles in capital letters in the middle top part of the chalkboard and underline them.
 Start writing from the top left corner and proceed to the right,
 Write straight and parallel (horizontal) to the chalkboard,
 Leave ample margins on both sides of the chalkboard,
 Write legibly and visibly.
 Give adequate and uniform spacing between the words and lines,
  Maintain uniformity in writing style and size so that the material to be emphasized shows
up.
 Make sure, that any work appearing on the chalkboard is clear, clean, neat orderly,
relevant, true and of correct spelling. This improves the impact of presentation.
 Do not block what you have written, stand out of the way.
 Draw learners' attention on what you write on the chalkboard and allow time for them to
transfer information in their notebooks before erasing.

Activity: From your daily interaction of the chalkboard and the above information, identify the
limitation of chalkboard as a learning resource

5.7 Summary

In this lesson, we have introduced learning resources relevant to the teaching of history and
government by highlighting their importance. We went further to categorize learning resources
and to identify some of these resources which could be used in teaching of history and
government. The specific resources discussed here were: textbooks, collateral materials and the
chalkboard. The importance of each and how they could be effectively utilized in the classroom
were discussed.

5.8 Definitions of key concepts

Collateral materials: Printed materials apart from books which include, journals, newspapers,
magazines, reviews and periodicals.

Resources: Instructional materials needed for teaching a particular content for the objectives to
be realized

5.9 Further Reading:

Ayot, H.O. (1979). New Approaches in History teaching in secondary schools. Nairobi, KBL

Burston W.H. and C.W. Green (eds) (1972). A Handbook for history teachers. 2 nd Edition.
London: Methuen

Crookoll P.C.(1975) A handbook for History teachers in Africa, London. Evand Brothers
Nasibi M.W. & Kiio M. (2004). Handbook for History and Government Teachers. Strongwall
Africa: Nairobi,
 LESSON SIX: USE OF GRAPHIC MATERIALS IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
LESSONS

6.0 Introduction

In the previous lesson we learnt about the importance of resources in the teaching of History and
Government. We also learnt about the use of print media and chalkboard in teaching History and
Government. In this lesson we are going to learn about the use of graphic materials in History
and Government. They include charts, maps and pictures.

6.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

 Discuss the importance of using charts and.maps in History and Government lesson.
 Describe the qualities of good History and Government chars and maps.
 Explain how to utilize charts and maps in History and Government lessons.

6.1 Use of Charts in history and Government Teaching/Learning

A chart is a combination of written or drawn pictorial or graphic material which presents a clear
visual summary in tabulated or methodical form. Charts are either teacher-made or ready made.
Where possible it is recommended that teachers make their own charts incorporating their own
ideas and lines of approach in teaching and learning. If possible the teacher should involve
learners in preparation of charts.

Examples of some chars used in teaching and learning of history are pie charts, graph, pictorial
charts, diagrams, time line and line charts.

6.2 Uses of Charts

Charts can be used to:

 Direct learners' attention when it is needed most, e.g. In. Introduction for a good effect
and at the end forceful conclusion.
 Motivate learners by providing a variety of media.
 Summarize information through the use of figures, statistics and symbols
  Transform abstract ideas in visual form,
 Stimulate creative thinking.

When you are selecting a chart make sure that is of good quality. The following are qualities
which you should look for in a good chart.

 Have a heading/title in capital letters.

 Bring out the message clearly, precisely and forcefully, i.e. It should have a central idea
standing out clearly,
 Use symbols which can be understood by the users.
 Contain information which is true, accurate and authentic in all respects.
 Be simple, not loaded with unnecessary details.
 Have bold writing and outlines which can be clearly seen from a distance.

6.2.1 How to Prepare Charts

When preparing charts for teaching/learning purposes, the teacher should do the following

 Use a manila paper which allows for the use of all conventional colours, white is an ideal
colour.
 Give the chart heading written in capital letters which is brief but clear.
 Give it a frame which has a margin with two opposite sides which are proportional.
 Sketch out the outline of the chart on a manila paper in pencil.
 Pencil in the details of the chart lightly
 Ink in the outline and details in the chart.
 Where possible use a lettering guide
 Give the chart a key at the right hand bottom corner. The key should tell exactly what
each symbol represents.
 Keep it in good condition before and after use.

Note: You should note that it is not just enough to have a good chart. The chart should be
utilized effectively as per the following suggestions.

 Use proper materials for displaying the chart without damaging it, e.g. cello tape, a string
for hanging, pins, staples, etc.
  Display it when you are ready to use, i.e. it should be introduced at the right time.
 A times prepare questions which could be answered using the chart.
 Use a pointer to point out specific features in the chart.
 Make maximum use of the chart during the lesson.
 Once the class is through with the chart, it should be removed
 Store and preserve it for future use.

Activity: i) Prepare a chart relevant to any of the History and Government topics of your choice.
It should be accompanied by notes to show how it will be utilized

ii) List down factors which delimit the use of charts in history teaching and learning

You will now be introduced to the use of maps in History and Government teaching/learning.

A map refers to a representation of the surface of the earth or a section of it as it seen from above
drawn on scale. It shows shapes of some physical features, shape size and position of countries,
direction and distance. The use of maps is an integral part of teaching history. They are available
inform of wall maps, maps in historical atlas or in a textbook. Some maps deal with physical
features while others show political and economic development of certain parts of the world.

Note: Since history deals with human activities, the history teacher should use appropriate maps
when teaching about a place where there is or has been human life. There are a number of
maps which could be useful in history teaching/learning. These are:

 Physical and climatic maps - they are useful when studying people's relationship with
their en
 Outline maps - they show the coastlines, main rivers and possible mountain ranges of a
country. Using such maps the learners can put in relevant historical information.
 Historical maps - they show political boundaries of various countries, origin, growth and
decline of kingdoms.
 Distribution maps - they show population density, language groupings, distribution of
resources, religious relationships, etc.
 Economic maps - they deal with distribution of resources.

6.3 Importance of Maps

Maps are useful in history teaching because they:

 Help us locate where people live or have lived in the past.

 Make historical facts comprehensive, real and easy to remember.
 Enable learners to visualize areas in question and relative position of political unity and
people's relationship with their environment.
 Bring the world and people into the classroom
 Are useful in showing location, direction, distance and relative size of place.

Just like charts, maps should be of good quality.

6.3.1 Qualities of good history map

A good history map should have the following characteristics:

 Accuracy: it should be as accurate as possible.

 Simplicity: information shown should be limited to essentials.
 Sizable: it should be large enough to be seen by the entire class.
 Readability: it should be easy to read with clear symbols and lettering.

Activity: List other characteristics of good maps

Note: The choice of the map to be used in history is among others determined by teacher's skill
in the use and interpretation of maps and learners' experience in map work, e.g. in
drawing, colouring, reading and interpretation.

6.3.2 How to use maps effectively in the teaching and learning of history

For effective utilization of maps should do the following:

 Hang it conveniently in the classroom.

 Display it at the right time for instance when you want to use it to emphasize an idea,
after introducing something which needs to be checked on the map.
 Let the students focus on the map at the same time whether they are looking at it as a
class, individual or group.
  Make a sketch out of small and detailed maps with useful information or have them
projected on an overhead projector.
 In using a wall map, use a pointer when showing important features. Do not, block it.
 Identify questions to be answered by the students using the map.
 Make sure the learners develop a variety of skills such as critical observation and;
interpretation. This is possible if the map is studied in detail.
 Make sure any assignment given on the map is done to your satisfaction by checking the
students' exercise books. This could be either drawing the map or filling in an outline
map with specific information.
 Encourage students to collect and draw as many maps as possible. This will improve their
skill in drawing.
 Fold and keep them well after use for future utilization

Activity: Collect as many maps as possible which are relevant in the teaching of History and
Government and identify topics where maps could be utilised.

 Using an outline map put in relevant information on any area of your interest in
history.

We are going to introduce you to another graphic material which is suitable in History and
Government teaching/learning. This is a picture. A picture is a painting, a drawing or a
photograph of a person, object or a scene. There is a wide variety of pictures for history teaching
which can be obtained from textbooks reference books, historical picture books, postcards,
newspapers, magazines etc. These sources are available in places such as travel agents,
embassies, business firms, chamber of commerce, government information offices, libraries,
commercial publishers and distributors, archives, museums and galleries. They could also be
obtained from individuals.

6.4 Uses of pictures

Pictures are essential in the teaching/learning of History and Government because they can be
used:

 As a basis for a lesson, i.e. Lesson can be built around one single picture.
  To illustrate something in order to make it appear real and accurate. This makes it a
useful tool for studying reality especially i f the information depicted is full of human
activity.
 To stimulate the learners' imaginative powers by turning unfamiliar words, places and
people into clear and accurate images.
 To sharpen critical thinking as the learners use pictures to prove points at issue. They also
encourage learners to discover information for themselves.
 To break the class monotony by holding attention, arousing curiosity, creating interest,
stimulating constructive discussion, and providing opportunity for he teacher to guide the
whole range of activities associated with them.
 To help students of low ability to follow the lesson belter when pictures are used than
when explanations are used alone.
 To substitute field trips thus saving time and money. A teacher can visit these places, lake
photographs and bring them to the classroom for observation and discussion.
 To bring past events, distant places and people into the classroom.

6.4.1 Criteria for good pictures

A picture selected for history teaching and learning must be:

 Truthful and accurate: a picture which portrays any event or subject in history must
represent it truthfully.
 Clear and easy to understand: important parts of the picture must stand out clearly.
 It must also portray one dominate idea.
 Interesting: since the aim of using a picture is to arouse interest and stimulate the mind, it
must be attractive in its artistic form and colour.
 Clean and in good condition: not faded and crumpled on the edges.
 Suitable: a picture should be suitable for a particular purpose or objective.
 Visible: it should be large enough and easily visible to the entire class.
 Relevant and useful: a picture must have some educational value making an important
contribution to the lesson.
 Pleasing and harmonious: it must have original colours accurately and vividly
reproduced.
  Artistically and technically of high quality.

It is one thing to have good pictures and another to utilize them effectively. You will find the
following suggestions useful when using pictures in a History and Government lesson.:

 You should prepare questions in advance which will guide learners into interpreting
pictures to director challenge their observation.
 You should guide the learners to ensure that they not only look at pictures but also look
into, them criticize, interpret and explain their significance.
 Select and arrange pictures carefully to form a sequence so that significant questions can
be raised as the learners examine them.
 Loose and large pictures should be displayed at a strategic point for every learner to see.
 Small pictures should be projected so that the entire class see them. In the absence of a
projector, enough copies should be produced using a duplicator or photocopier and
distributed to the Whole class.
 Provide pictures for individual, small group study and whole class study. Students should
be taught how to use pictures for various purposes.
 Use a few pictures at a time, holding back pictures on topics which will arise later in the
unit. Such a procedure is a good way to move learners from one unit to another. As the
unit progresses, new pictures can be introduced in connection with specific questions and
problems.
 Use labels and captions, coloured paper, arrows and strips (in drawn pictures) to highlight
items in pictures. This will add to the instructional value of pictures through improvised
eye appeal.
 Keep pictures clean and untattered. Transparent plastic papers can be used to reserve
them for future use.

? When do you use pictures in History and Government lessons?

Most of the topics in History and Government invite the use of pictures whether they are drawn,
painted or taken by means of a chemical action of light (photography). The following are some
of the situations which call for use of pictures e.g.
  When introducing a lesson in order to stimulate interest in the learners. This is very
essential for instance when teaching about Kenyan leaders: Jomo Kenyatta, Ronald Ngala
and Tom Mboya. A picture of each of these personalities will be produced at the
beginning of the lesson.
 When illustrating and clarifying a point during the lesson. To make the point under
discussions vivid and interesting, pictures can be introduced in the lesson development
stage. For instance when teaching about 'Developments of Agriculture in Egypt, show a
picture of farming tools such as plough, shadoof etc.: :
 When dealing with a topic/a theme in history, pictures dealing with specific points
(features) of the topic are produced as each feature is discussed. For instance when
discussing pre-historic man, the teacher can show learners pictures of man at each
evolution stage. Similarly, those pictures covering all stages of evolution could be
arranged in a chronological order and mounted on a chart for the class to study or look at
later. In a topic like transport, the class can make use of pictures showing early forms of
transport to those indicating the most advanced mode of transport.
 When following up a lesson. After conducting a lesson with picture (s), the teacher can
display the pictures on the wall with written questions underneath. Students can be given
time to study the pictures and try to answer the questions.

Note: Use of pictures in the teaching and learning of history has some limitations:

 A picture is static and gives only one isolated viewpoint whereas the movement of
learners gives them constantly changing viewpoints.
 A picture is only two dimensional and therefore it does not give the depth of whatever it
is trying to portray.
 It is lacking in the texture (feel) of whatever it is supposed to portray.
 At times it is not possible to have enough copies for the whole class due to Hack of a
photocopying or duplicating facilities and this makes their utilization ineffective.
 Effective utilization of pictures need resourcefulness and competence on the part of the
teacher. Not many teachers have acquired these skills nor are they able to.

Activity: i) Get pictures from newspapers and magazines cuttings, study them carefully and
  Write titles or captions for them.
 Discuss in groups of 4(four) what they portray

ii) Identify and list topics from History and Government syllabus which could be
taught through the use of pictures and suggest suitable pictures which go with each
topic.

6.5 Summary

In this lesson you have been introduced to various graphic materials suitable for teaching History
and Government. You have also been given suggestions on how to utilize them effectively. In
the next lesson you will learn about objects and models.

6.6 Definition of key words

 Diagram - A simple plan which is drawn to represent an idea.

 Graph - A picture which shows how two sets of information or a variable amounts are
related, usually by lines or curves.
 Picture - Representation f someone or something produced by drawing, painting or taking
a photograph.

6.7 Further Reading

 Crookall, R. E. (1972). A Handbook for history teachers in Africa, Evans Brothers,

London.
 Dickson, A. K. (1972) “The role of Audio-visual Material” in Burston . W>H. and G. W.
Green (Eds). Handbook for History Teachers, Metheun Education Ltd., London.
 Mehlinger, H. D: Ed, (1981). Handbook for the Teaching of Social Studies, UNESCO.
 LESSON SEVEN: USE OF OBJECTS AND MODELS IN HISTORY AND
GOVERNMENT LESSONS

7.0 Introduction

In the previous lesson we dealt with the use of charts, maps and pictures in History and
Government teaching/learning. Specifically, the lesson examined the importance and utilization
of the named resources. In this lesson we are going to discuss the importance and utilization of
objects and models in History and Government lessons.

7.2.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

 Explain the difference between objects and models.

 Discuss the. Importance of using objects and models in history and government lessons.
 Describe characteristics of good models.

7.2.1 Objects

An object is a visible or tangible thing to which attention or action is directed. In history

teaching, it refers to a real thing which has some historical importance. Examples of objects
which can be used in history teaching and learning are: tools, weapons, household articles,
stones, shells, instruments, pottery, remains of food,, skulls of early main, caves, iron
implements, horns, scrolls, stone tablets, currency, drums, etc.

7.2.2 Importance of objects in history teaching

Use of objects enables learners to:

 Develop critical thinking and imaginative minds as they are encouraged to figure out how
the objects were made and utilized.
 Identify with a given historical period as they interact with tools and objects used at that
time adding realism in a lesson.
 Develop certain skills through interaction with the objects, e.g. Observation, analysis,
interpretation.
  Utilize more senses, e.g. sense of seeing, touching, smelling, tasting. This makes learning
more effective and learnt material retainable

7.2.3 How to utilize objects in a history lesson

To utilize the objects effectively in a teaching/learning situation, the following should be done:

 Introduce the object to the learners.

 If it is big enough display it in a strategic place so that all learners can see it at the same
time.
 If it is small pass is round, if you want to encourage closer inspection, comments, but do
not continue talking as the object is being inspected as this will divert the learners'
attention.
 Identify questions that can be answered by use of the object.
 When you are giving an explanation or answering questions, make sure that all the
learners can see the object at the same time
 Draw students' attention to study the physical qualities of the object and specially identify
what you want the students to study about the object.
 The link between the object and your message must be perfectly clear. This means that
the learners should be able to see the relationship between the object and the content
being taught.
 Use the chalkboard to emphasize the main features of the object.
 Keep it away safely after use to avoid breakage.

7.2.4 Some of the topics where objects could be used in a history lesson

The following are some topics which could be taught using objects:

 Early man e.g. tools, remains of food, just to mention a few.

 Development of transport and communication up to the 19 th century. In teaching forms of
communication, drums, horns, scrolls and stone tablets could be used for illustration.
Under forms of transport, the following items could be useful: boats, rafts, canoes and
sailing ships etc.
  Development of early agriculture. You could use farming tools and samples of food
crops.
 Development of transport and communication from mid 18t h century to the present day.
Under transport we could make use of ships, trains, motor vehicles, aeroplanes. In
communication you could use things like newspapers, magazines, telephones, telegrams,
radio, television, cinema, etc.
 Trade: You could use examples of currencies and some items of trade. One can make use
of documents containing Bill of Rights, Constitution of Kenya, etc. In a topic like
National Integration, the flag and coat of arms could be useful.

Activity: Identify and list at least five other topics in History and Government which could be
taught using objects. For each topic list down suitable objects which could be used to teach it.

7.3 Models

A model is a copy or a representation of a real thing or object on a smaller scale. Just like an
actual object or thing it has breadth, length and depth and can be viewed from other sides.
Usually, models are not true to scale miniature but the more accurate ones are better leaching
aids because the learners are able to visualize them as they would have visualized the real
objects.

7.3.1 Importance of models

Models are essential in teaching and learning of history because:

 They represent the real object which may not be available or could be too bulky to be
brought to the classroom.
 They add meaning and realism to the explanation about an object.
 They make the learning interesting as the learners participate in the preparation of the
models.
 Learners become creative and initiative as they are expected to come up with good
models.
 Use of models can sometimes be economical in terms of time and finance. For example,
instead of taking the class to a historical site, the models of objects on the site could be
 made by both learners and the teacher and then be brought to the classroom for use.

Note: Whether teacher-made or manufactured, models should be of good quality.

7.3.4 Characteristics of good models

Models qualify to be good if they have these qualities:

 They are three dimensional with depth, height and width providing interior views of the
objects which are normally covered or otherwise invisible.
 They are large enough to be seen readily by the whole class.
 They are historically true.
 They are well-furnished.
 They make use of colour and texture to highlight features. Parts which are not essential
should be in less conspicuous colours.

Many times you and your learners will be forced to make your own models in the absence of
ready-made models. Therefore you will find the following guidelines useful:

 Introduce the object to be modelled, highlighting its main physical features;

 Identify the materials to be used;
 Supply the material or ask the learners to look for materials;
 Assign roles to individuals or groups;
 Guide them on how to prepare models;
 Ensure that the amount of detail included depend on the age of the learners;
 Supervise the work and give guidance where necessary;
 Evaluate the finished product using the qualities discussed above.

Note: i) You may make the model and then present the finished article to the class or group.

ii) In utilizing the model you should use the same procedure used in utilization of objects.

Activity: i) Make a model which you can use in teaching history topic of your choice and write a
utilization guide on how you are going to utilize it.

ii) What advantages do models have over real things?

 iii) Collect various types of currencies and identify their countries.

7.4 Summary

In this lesson we have discussed the importance of using objects and models in History and
Government lessons. We have also learnt how we could use these resources effectively in the
course of instruction. In the next lesson we are going to learn how we can make use resource
people to enrich History and Government

7.5 Definition of key words

 Object - a real thing, a solid thing which can be seen or felt.

 Model - a representation of something which is usually smaller or bigger than the real
object.

7.6 Further Reading

 Aggarwal J. C J 982. Teaching Social Studies. Vikas publishing House Pvt Limited
 Crookall R. E. 1972- Flandbook for History Teachers in Africa. Longon: Evafis Brothers
Ltd, Montague Russel Square.
 Farrant J. S. 1980 Principles and practice of Education Longman Group Ltd.
 Greig T. O. and J. C. Brown: 1975. Activity Methods in the Middle Schools. Oliver and
 LESSON EIGHT: USE OF RESOURCE PEOPLE IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
TEACHING/LEARNING

8.0 Introduction

In the last lesson we dealt with the use of real things or representation of real things in History
and Government lessons. In this lesson we are going to learn about the use of resource people in
teaching/learning History and Government.

8.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

 Explain the importance of using a resource person in history and government

teaching/learning.
 Discus the criteria of selecting of a resource person.
 Explain the procedure to follow when using a resource person in history and government
lesson.
 Discuss the limitations of using a resource person in history and government
teaching/learning.

Note: A resource person is anybody who can supply learners with useful information not
available in textbooks. The person could be either a professional or a non-professional.
Examples of resource people are: civic leaders, government officers, village elders
religious leaders, war veterans, fellow teachers in the school, students, parents, craftsmen
and blacksmiths.

8.2.1 Importance of resource persons in history teaching and learning

Resource persons are useful sources of history because of a number of reasons:

 New life is breathed in the subject (history) when learners get first-hand experience direct
from the source.
 They inspire learners by making them to identify with national and international speakers
or with the issues which they have presented.
  Resource people influence the future careers of these students. After getting a lecture
from prominent persons, the learners may be inspired to be like those persons.
 Use of resources people motivates the learners to learn with the hope that .the resource
person has something special to offer.
 They provide new information to the learners and teachers which might not be available
in history books.
 They provide interaction between the school and the wider community thus preparing the
child for outside life.

8.2.2 Selection of a resource person

In the selection process, you should be guided by the following questions:

 Does the resource person have something of value to share with learners?
 Will the person be willing to accept the invitation?
 Will the presence of the visitor disrupt school activities? If so avoid him/her.
 How is the personality of the person?
 Will he/she be able to communicate the information effectively considering the age and
the language level of the learner's?
 Will the speaker be able to keep time in class?
 Is the individual a controversial figure?
8.2.3 The procedure to follow when using a resource person

The following steps could be utilized when making use of a resource person:

 Write or visit the identified resource person, introducing the intended invitation to your
school. Mention about the topic, the objectives of the talk/lecture and what is expected
during the talk,
 Interview the resource person in advance.
 Try to include questions which the learners are likely to ask so that the resource person
prepares on how to respond to them.
 Talk something about lie nature of the students (age, ability, level), behaviour.
 Find out if any learning resources are required and also if the class needs to be arranged
in a particular way, e.g. in a circle or groups.
  Prepare the learners with questions to ask the resource person.
 Arrange time for the lesson (when the resource person will present the talk and tile
duration of the talk.
 Give direction to the resource person as to how to get to the school and where to get you
in the school.
 Meet the resource person and walk to the classroom together.
 Introduce the resource person to the learners.
 Control the discussion between the learners and the resource person. Check on the
digression and maintain discipline.
 Put down important points which might need clarification and also note any errors
(misconception) made by the resource person for correction later.
 After the presentation invite questions from students to facilitate discussion.
 Thank the resource person for the visit/contribution.
 Make a follow-up in form of an activity.

8.2.4 Follow-up activity

After the resource person's visit and subsequent lecture, you should allow students to ask
questions on areas which they did not understand, correct any errors made during the discussion;
ask learners questions to ascertain that they understood the talk; tell the learners to discuss or
write about the talk and finally find out whether he learners are in favour of such an approach if
not find out why.

Note: It is important to note that use of a resource person has its limitations. Some of these
limitations are outlined below

8.2.5 Limitations of using a resource person

 It is not always easy to get a reliable resource person.

 It is time-consuming: identifying, inviting and using a resource person is a long process.
 It involves extra costs because at times, one has to cater for transport, meals and
sometimes accommodation.
 The resource person involved may lack methodology of teaching.
 One might give irrelevant, distorted, exaggerated and biased information.
  During the talk/lecture the learners might not take the resource person seriously and treat
the visit and talk as a form of entertainment.
 The visitor might not keep time, thus interfering with other lessons.
 The resource person may fail to turn up.

Activity

 Group yourselves according to your ethnic background, choose a group leader and discuss
among yourselves your communities stories of creation.
 After discussion let the leader act as a resource person for the rest of the class.
 Identify topics in the History and Government syllabus which can best be handled by a
resource person.

8.3 Summary

In this lesson we have seen the importance of using resource people in History and Government
lessons. We have also been warned of the limitations of using the resource people in teaching-
learning History and Government. In our next lesson we are going to discuss the use of audio-
materials in History and Government lesson.

8.4 Definition of Key words

 Resource person - a person who has useful information to offer to learners which is not
otherwise available in books.
 Professional an expert, a specialist in a certain field.

8.5 Further Reading

Bourdillon, H. (Ed). 1994.Teaching History. Open University Press London.

Mehlinger, H, D. (Ed). 1981. Handbook for the Teaching of Social Studies UNESCO.

Mtunda, F. G. 1986 and S.D.D. Safuli an Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Teaching.
Dzuka Publishing co., Ltd.

Mutebi, P. M and M. Y. Matovu 1993 (Eds). Environmental Education for Sustainable

Development for Primary School teachers and Educators in Africa. The ASESP,
Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya.
 LESSON NINE: USE OF AUDIO-MATERIALS IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
LESSONS.

9.0 Introduction

As introduced earlier, audio materials are those materials whose messages are directed to the ear.
These are basically the radio and the tape recorder. We are going to discuss how we could use
audio materials in History and Government lessons.

9.1 Objectives

By the end of the lesson you should be able to

 Explain the importance of using audio materials in History and government lessons.
 Explain how to use the radio effectively in History and Government lessons.
 Explain various ways of using the tape-recorder in History and Government lessons.

9.2 Radio

This radio has been described as one of the most effective systems or methodology of imparting
knowledge, skills and attitudes to the learners. Farrant (1980) describes it as on; of the cheapest
and common media. Crookall (1972) sees it as an essential educational tool because 'a good
educational broadcasting quickens the imagination and stirs the emotions of the listener by
bringing past to life, by clothing old records with the warmth and reality missing from even the
best written books.

9.2.1. Uses of the radio

In history teaching and learning the radio can be used in various ways. For example, it can be
used to inform and motivate the history student on the local, national and international issues.
There are radio programmes which could be very useful in creating awareness to history teachers
and learners about world issues. Such progammes are: Wazee Ukumbuka, Africa perspective,
Yaliyotufikia, Yaliyotokea, Journey Through Africa, A Healthy Nation, Africa and the World,
Parliament, Road Safety.
Note: Although these programmes are not addressed to the classroom audience, the history
teacher can make use of any relevant ones. A keen and dedicated teacher can record the
programmes, replay them to sieve what is of use to the learners. If it is a pure historical
programme it can be replayed in class. In such a case the teacher can prepare a series of
questions in advance to know exactly what they are required to extract from the
programme. This could be identifying certain ideas, writing summaries or comparing. The
teacher can also alert the learners about the programme and the time it will be on air, and
then as part of homework, ask the learners to listen to it. As a follow-up, the teacher
should ask them questions related to the programme.

There are also radio programmes to, schools produced by K .I.E . , addressed to various subjects'
of the curriculum. The radio programmes are usually prepared by a team of highly qualified
personnel in their respective subjects who ensure that the programmes are supplied to schools
free of charge and teachers are advised to make full use of thern.

The programmes are accompanied with teachers' notes which need to be situated carefully before
the programmes are used. There are also audio cassettes on the same which are available for sale
at affordable price.

9.2.2 Qualities of a good radio programme

When choosing a radio programme should check on the following

 Objectives: The objectives of the lesson should be clear, measurable, attainable and
appropriate for the intended level.
 Content: The content should be relevant to curricular objectives, adequate in terms of
content coverage, accurate and appropriate to the level of the learners. It should also be
available to the learners and up-to-date.
 Authenticity: The programme producers should be qualified in the field and should
demonstrate competence.
 Organization of the script: The content should be well-organized and accompanied by
appropriate support materials. It should also-be convenient to follow in classroom use.
 Sound and Voice Quality: The sound and voice should be audible to the entire class,
clear and fluent. The pronunciation should be good. ;
  Presentation: This should involve a good introduction, logical lesson development and a
conclusion. The conclusion can be a summary of the main points of the lesson or
questions on the content covered.
 Learners' involvement: This should be reflected in the learning activities which should
be appropriate and challenging enough for the intended class level.
 Follow-up: The follow should be in form of assignments e.g. project work, written
questions, library work etc.

9.2.3 Preparation tor a radio lesson

Farrant (1980) has a given the following suggestions on how to get the most out of the
educational broadcasting:

 Get in advance details of the programme to be broadcast.

 Select the programmes that have positive value for your students.
 Judge how to make the best use of each programme you have selected, whether live,
recorded in full or in part.
 Make whatever administrative preparations are necessary to obtain the equipment and
accommodation needed for the lesson.
 Prepare the students before the broadcast in accordance with any suggestions contained in
the printed teachers' notes.
 Plan timing and physical arrangements so that the students receive the programmes
clearly.
 Carry out whatever follow-up is necessary to derive full benefit from the programme

9.2.4 How to conduct a radio lesson

When conducting a radio lesson, you should:

 Prepare the learners for the lesson. This can be done by introducing the topic and
informing the learners of what is expected of them during and after the lesson, e.g. they
should be told to be attentive, to write new terms and concepts; to make notes, to follow
instructions given by the radio teacher;
  Tune the radio before the lesson begins to ascertain that the volume is high enough for all
to hear (this should be tested before the teacher goes to tile classroom;
 Ensure good sit ling/seating arrangement;
 Display the necessary instructional materials before the lesson starts;
 Place the radio at a strategic place in the class to enable learners to hear without straining;
 Turn on the radio at the right time (when the lesson is beginning);
 Turn on the right volume;
 Listen and obey instructions of the radio teacher; and
 Make a follow-up to the lesson by organizing a discussion, asking the learners questions,
or giving a related assignment.

9.2.5 Advantages of using the radio

The radio is important in history teaching because of these reasons;

 It motivates the learners to learn by providing a variety of voices, e.g. radio teacher, radio
students, thus breaking the classroom monotony.
 It has power to stimulate the learners' imaginative ability.
 It provides learners with recent information not available in books.
 It provides for individual learning and independence in cases where the learners listen to
the radio programmes during their free time.
 It improves learners' listening skill which is important in any learning process.
 Radio programme can be tape-recorded and preserved for future use.

Note

Activity: Make a suggestion on how to overcome each of the above limitations.

9.3 The tape recorder

A tape recorder could be defined as a device used to record speech, music, etc. on
electromagnetic tape. It is a very useful tool in history teaching and learning because it can be
used and reused over and over again; it is easy to operate e.g. to tape record, to start edit and to
erase; it has high fidelity and lastly it adds authenticity and reality by bringing the actual person
under study to the learners.
9.3.1 Use of tape-recorder in teaching

Tape recorders could be used during:

 Interviews: In teaching a topic such as functions and duties of provincial administration,

the area chief, assistant chief and village elders could be interviewed directly by either
the teacher or the learners. Other people of interest who could be interviewed include
church leaders, politicians, lawyers etc. The learners could also conduct imaginary
interviews with historical figures dead or alive, e.g. Harry Thuku, Jomo Kenyatta, Dedan
Kimathi, Kwame Nkrumah, Tom Mboya, Nelson Mandela, D'Klerk, etc.
 Speeches: The teacher and the learners could record live speeches, by the president(s),
members of parliament and administrators (P.C., D.O.) during the national public
holidays. The teacher could also record audio cued (already recorded) speeches replayed
through the radio and television programmes, e.g. speeches by Jomo Kenyatta, President
arap Moi„ Mandela, Julius Nyerere and other important figures.
 Debates: The tape recorder could be used to record a debate/discussion by a group of
students on important matters from a selected theme/topic, e.g. a topic like factors
promoting national unity, the learners could debate on the importance of Kiswahili as a
national language. The discussion could then be replayed to tile same group or another
group of learners for evaluation. The teacher could also make use of relevant debate in
television programmes by taping and replaying them in class.

Question: What other situations do you think invite the use of a tape recorder?

9.2.3 How to use a tape recorder in the classroom

For effective utilization of the tape recorder, you should follow the following steps:

 Preview the audio material

The teacher has to listen to the material critically before taking it to the classroom. This
will help to:
 Determine the relevancy of the material
 Find out the objectives of the audio material
 Identify important terms and concepts used,
  Find out other materials required for the lesson, e.g. Maps, charts and pictures.
 Find out whether there are activities for the students during the lesson.
 Know the duration of the programme so that the teacher could make the necessary
adjustment regarding the lesson (timetable).
 Decide on how the material will be presented, i.e. whether it will be a continuous play
or there will be pauses to allow for questions and discussion.
 Decide on assessment procedures to use to determine whether the objectives have
been realized.
 Test on the condition of the cassette and on the cells (in places with no electricity)
whether they are low or high.
 Prepare the class for listening:
 Introduce the programme to the students and explain the objectives;
 Write new terms and concepts on the chalkboard and explain them;
 Inform the learners what is expected of them, during the lesson e.g. Making notes,
writing down the main points, etc.
 Reorganize seating/sitting arrangement if need be;
 Emphasize on class control;
 Encourage students to listen quietly and carefully.
 Play the programme
 Place the player in a strategic place.
 Turn on the player and make sure the volume is loud enough for the whole class.
 Stop and replay where necessary.
 Ensure that the learners are doing the right thing at the right time during the
programme. This is to ensure full participation, e.g. milking notes and answering
questions.
 Follow-up activity
As a part of follow-up of the programme the teacher should do the following:
 Fill in gaps where there were omissions in the presentation.
 Make clarification on area which were not clear to the learners.
 Invite questions/comments from the students about the programme.
 Ask questions to find out whether the learners understood the lesson.
  Give assignment to the learners, e.g. to write notes, work on a project to draw a chart,
to role play, to write a test.
 Evaluate the effectiveness of the programmes by assessing learners performance in
the given assignments.

9.3.3 Limitations of using a tape recorder in history teaching and learning

A tape recorder has a number of disadvantages as a resource of teaching history:

 The recorded programme lacks the visual image which is very necessary in the teaching
of history.
 The programme does not cater for individual differences.
 Communication is usually one-way from the presenter to the audience and not vice-versa.
 Sometimes tape recorders are used to substitute the teacher although this should not be
the case as the teacher is expected to guide the learners throughout the programme.
 Effectiveness of using the tape recorder depends on the listening skills of the learners,
something which is beyond the teacher's control as one cannot ascertain that the learners
are really listening.
 It is not effective in large classes as the sound may not reach all the students.
 Not every school can afford to buy the machine and its accompaniments.

Activity: Tape record some history programmes from the radio and play them in class

9.4 Summary

In this lesson we have looked at the use of audio materials in History and Government lessons.
We have seen that the radio and the tape recorder are very useful tools of teaching History and
Government because they quicken learner's imagination as they listen to people narrating
historical events. In the next lesson we are going to learn about use of audio-visual materials in
History and Government lessons.

9.5 Definition of key words

 Tape-recorder - a machine which is used for recording sound.

  Radio - a device for receiving and broadcasting messages that travel in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
 Script - written or printed record of words to be performed or presented in a broadcast.

9.6 Further Reading

Crookall, R. C . 1972 - Handbook for History Teachers in Africa, Evans Brothers, London.

Farrant, .1. S. 1980. Principles and Practice of Education, Longman Group Ltd.

Kocchar, S. K . 1979; Teaching of History 1st Edition, Sterling private Ltd., New Delhi
 LESSON TEN: USE OF AUDIO-VISUAL, SILENT PROJECTED MEDIA AND A
HISTORY ROOM IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TEACHING/LEARNING

10.0 Introduction

In this lesson we are going to learn about the use of audio-visual resources. These are resources
which promote learning through the sense of hearing and sight. We are also going to learn about
the importance of a history room

10.1 Objectives

By the end of the lesson you should be able to

 Identify audio-visual materials which could be used to teach History and Government
 Discuss the procedure used to use each of the resources identified.
 Discuss about the importance of a history room

Apart from using audio materials you could also use audio-visual and silent projected media to
enrich your history lessons. Audio-visual materials included in this group are: films, televisions,
videos and sound slides. Use of audio-visual materials in History and Government teaching is
very important because they:

 Extend human perception by revealing the remote, the inaccessible, the invisible and the
inaudible to the learners.
 Bring the outside world with its differing cultures to a history classroom more vividly
than any other means under the teacher's control. This arouses interest in history learning.
 Stimulate thinking among the learners and change their attitudes by providing another
dimension to learners’ view to reality.
 Summarize information by allowing time lapse photography; an event which took many
years can be shown in few hours e.g. the First World War.
 Clarify new terms and concepts and act as a spring board for further discussion.

10.2 Films

You are advised to identify whatever relevant films are available and where to find them. It is
important that they select films that are pertinent to the teaching objectives. Some of the places
where films can be available are British Council Library, National Museums, American Cultural
Centre, Kenya Institute of Education, Kenya National Library Services, Kenya National
Archives, Universities and other institutions of higher learning.

Note: In some of the above named places for example the Kenya National Archives, films are
not lent out but learners can be taken there to view them.

In deciding to use films, you should be aware of their limitations such as the following:

 Some films can give learners incorrect notions.

 At times learners treat films as entertainment rather than learning features.
 Films may emphasize elements that should not be emphasized in the course.
 Films are not very adaptable because it is difficult to excerpt what is wanted or to skip
what is irrelevant.
 They are difficult to get and to show when they are required.
 They require special provision for projection.
 They take up a fair amount of time, thought and money

Activity: List other limitations of using films to teach History and Government

10.2.1 Procedure for showing a film

Below are some of the ways you can organize to show a film to your History add Government
students:

 Prepare yourself:
 Select a film related to the study;
 Pay careful attention to the recommended level, of use;
 Check the equipment to ascertain that it is in good condition;
 Plan how it is going to be used;
 Use film guides (pamphlets)
 Prepare the classroom:
 Place the title, new vocabulary and main points or questions on the chalkboard;
 Set up the equipment, thread;
 Check seating, the screen and ventilation.
  Prepare the learners:
 Introduce the film and tell them why they are viewing it - the purpose;
 Display support material, if any.
 Explain the new words and terms appearing on the chalkboard.
 Identify the learners' activities.
 Identify the main points they should look for in the film
 Let students note down the questions to be answered by the use of a film.
 Give them a study guide to follow if available.
 Present the film:
 When everything is ready maintain silence and start the film.
 Focus and frame the film.
 Check sound level.
 Watch for film failure due to damage.
 Do not make comments while the film is running
 If need arises, slop the machine for comments, discussion or explanation before
you continue.
 After completing showing the film make a follow-up.
 Follow-up:
 Ask students questions about the film.
 Discus the main features of the film.
 Initiate creative follow-up activities, e.g. Written work, tests, projects, reading on
the topic, preparing a report.
 If necessary reshow the film.

Activity:. Identify and list any relevant history films which can be obtained from the following
places: Kenya National Archives, Kenya Museum, and the British Council.

 Identify topics from History and Government syllabus that can be best taught using films.

10.3 Television

According to Binning et al (1952), the television has great possibilities as an educational

medium. It can be a powerful tool in history teaching and learning because there are some
programmes that can be utilized in history lessons. Examples of such programmes are:

 Special days or public holidays, e.g. Kenyatta Day, Madaraka, Moi and Jamhuri days.
 Religious holidays, e.g. Christmas, Easter and Idd-ul-Fitr.
 Programmes on past events, e.g. Deutche Welle feature which shows first and second
world wars, events following the wars e.g. peace treaty of Versailles, life history and
achievement of certain personalities.
 Cultural programmes, e.g. drama and music festivals, cultural weeks, Kenya Rhythms
which show cultural dances of different communities in East Africa.
 Special world events, e.g. coronation of presidents, presidential elections, etc.
 General programmes, e.g. Face to Face, “Dunia Wiki Hii”, Yaliyotokea and Agricultural
Shows.
 Commercial programmes, e.g. trade fairs, stock exchange, commercial exhibitions. These
can be useful in teaching about economic history of Kenya.

10.3.1 How to get most from television

A history teacher should identify relevant television programmes from the local dailies and as
part of homework the learners should be asked to view these programmes during their own free
time. In cases where not every student is served with a television set, the teacher should
videotape the programme and show it to the entire class. This can also be done as follow-up on
what the students viewed on their own. Where a school owns a television set, the teacher should
reorganize the timetable if it is during school hours that the students can have a chance of
viewing some of these programmes.

In spite of its usefulness, the television as a teaching aid has a number of disadvantages:

 It is expensive for some schools.

 There is poor reception in some parts of the country. Therefore, there is need for more
satellites to be set up.
 Some programmes fall during wrong hours either when the students are occupied or
when the teacher is not available to organize the entire class for viewing.
 It is difficult to sieve out important information from a programme designed for a
different purpose and addressed to a different audience (public).
Activity: Show how a television can be used as a visual aid at present

10.4 Video tape

It is useful because one can video-tape some of the television programmes and play them back in
class at a convenient time.

There are activities within the school environment and outside which could be video-taped and
replayed to the learners. They include plays e.g. trials of Dedan Kimathi, history projects,
national days' speeches and community work. There are also ready-made programmes in some
agencies which a history teacher can borrow. Such are programmes on first and second world
wars, a film on Idi Amin Dada of Uganda, life and death of Mzee Jomo Kenyatta, coronation of
Nelson Mandela, Sarafina - the struggle in South Africa for political liberation, heroes of first
and second world wars, the conquest of Berlin, the cold war among others.

10.4.1 Suggestions on how to organize a video lesson

A video lesson could be organized as follows:

 Introduce the video programme. This can be done by giving a brief statement on the
programme, explaining the purpose for watching it, emphasizing on what to look for.
 Give a predictive exercise which will prepare students for what they are about to hear and
view to familiarize them with the content of the video-tape. It will involve asking them to
predict/imagine what they are likely to see in that programme.
 Show the video-tape.
 Follow up the predictive exercise by asking questions to compare what they have viewed
and what they had imagined.
 Reshow the video a second time if necessary.
 Organize follow-up activities/exercise. This can be done in many ways e.g. discuss the
content of the video, students to role play, students to do written exercise related to what
they have seen, or to do further reading on the topic.

Activity: Pick some topics from History and Government syllabus which can be taught using
some ready-made video-taped information.
  Identify places where you can obtain relevant video-tape programmes.
 Borrow relevant History and Government video-taped programmes and play them
back.

10.5 Silent projected media

These are materials which are projected through a projector to the audience and they do not have
sound, hence the term silent. The most commonly used materials for history teaching and
learning in tins category are slides, filmstrips and overhead transparencies.

10.5.1 Slides

These are pictures taken through the use of a camera using a special film known as a slide film.
Once the pictures have been taken, they are processed and framed ready for use through
projection using a slide projector.

10.5.2 How to organize for slides

 Decide on the topic to prepare slides on.

 Write down the leaching points you want to get across to the learners.
 Make a list of pictures you will like to take.
 Photograph the scenes you have decided on.
 Send the film for processing, it will, corns back to you as a set of slides.
 Arrange the slides in the order in which you plan to show them
 Project them for a friend to evaluate them.
 After projection discuss with your friend the effectiveness of the pictures and make any
necessary adjustments e.g. re-arranging the order of the slides.
 After re-arranging, number them in order in which they will be shown.
 Pick them in the order you have arranged them.
 Project them when required.
 If necessary give comments on each slide as it is projected. In this case, commentary
roles should be prepared in advance as this makes teacher's work easier.

10.6 Filmstrips
These are a continuous series of films of uniform size which are shown in a fixed order.

They are shown on a films trip projector.

There are two main types of filmstrips:.

Story-telling filmstrips: These are a series of pictures which tell a story. They are usually
accompanied by a written script which can be read by a teacher as the pictures are being shown.

Study filmstrips: It is not shown in the same manner as story-telling type instead each picture is
used for detailed observation and study on areas of historical importance. The aim is to spark
discussion among learners and arouse interest of learning the area under study

Note: Some of these filmstrips are commercially produced. In such a case, the learners are
supposed to study accompanying notes for effective utilization.

10.7 Over-head transparencies

A transparency is a material used to write on and the written word is projected on an overhead
projector. There are different types of transparencies, but commonly available ones are acetate,
Cell-film or polythene sheet. The overhead transparency can be used as the chalkboard where the
teacher writes on the transparency as the lesson proceeds gradually building up a lesson
summary as the work is projected. There is also another resource which does fall under of the
resources discussed. This is the history room.

10.8 History room

If the teaching and learning of history is going to be interesting and effective, it is strongly felt
that there should be a room set aside for that purpose. This will mean either converting one room
available in the school or if finances allow putting up a. new one. This room should be large
enough to accommodate tables, shelves, chairs, cupboards and drawers for storage purposes. The
room should serve as:

 A centre of history learning in the school.

 Accommodation or stockroom for all. the necessary materials used in history teaching
and learning, e.g. charts, globes maps, pictures, models, object, text and reference books,
 projects, films, tapes, slides, newspapers, newspaper cuttings, files, magazines and
pamphlets.
 A history library.
 A history workshop for preparation of instructional materials.
 A history theatre for showing plays, films, slides, etc.
 A departmental headquarters.

10.8.1 Importance of a history room

It is an essential facility in a school because it:

 Gives the teachers more time to prepare their lesson(s), to organize; their material and
clear up the material after the lesson without interruption.
 Makes history learning interesting because of the inviting, stimulating and conducive
environment and materials present. This provides motivation to learners.
 Saves the teacher the bother of carrying materials from one class to another during
history lessons.
 Facilitates the use of child-centred methods of leaching since it encourages learners'
participation in the learning process, offers security to the teaching materials against
vandalism,
 Makes the learners to develop a sense of responsibility and cooperation especially when
they are involved in preparing the materials and cleaning of the room.

10.8.2 Organization of a history room

It should be organized in such a way that:

 There are specific areas set aside for various resources

 Resources are properly arranged in their respective places.
 It has soft boards for pining charts, maps, pictures, etc.
 It has portable chalkboard(s) and the usual permanent chalkboard as in other classrooms.
 It has good ventilation and enough light.

10.8.3 How to maintain a history room

The room should be furnished by the learners with your help. After furnishing it, it should be
maintained in the following ways:

 You should assign duties to learners to:

 Clean the room;
 Care for the furniture, books and other displayed materials in the room;
 Arrange and file documents.
 You should encourage learners to equip the history room by collecting and preparing
materials to be used so that the room can grow steadily and constantly with time.
 You should change material when, it has served its purpose,
 You should make sure that whatever is there serves a purpose.

Note: In our schools, this provision for a history room is not there, but it is the duty of a history
teacher to campaign for one. One has to convince the administration that it is a necessity
for effective history teaching and learning.

Activity: Draw a sketch showing how a history room should look like.

 Prepare a comprehensive list of items which can be accommodated in a history room.

 “A history room is an effective tool in history teaching and learning” Discuss.
 Identify various ways of raising money to construct a history room.

10.9 Summary:

In this lesson we have discussed the importance of using audiovisual and silent projected media
to enrich History and Government lessons. We have also discussed about the importance of a
history room. In the next topic we are going through three important documents which every
teacher should arm himself/herself with for effective teaching/learning of History and
Government

10.10 Definition of key words:

 Films - Moving pictures usually shown in a cinema or television and often telling a story.
 Television - a box-like device with a screen which receives electrical signals and changes
them into moving images and sound.
  Video-tape - A machine used for recording moving pictures and sound.
 Slides - A small piece of photographic film in a frame which when light is passed through
it shows a large image on a screen.
 Filmstrip - a series of films which are presented in an organized/fixed manner.

10.11 Further Reading:

 Atkinson, H . J . and J.N. Atkinson (1975) Modern Teaching Aids, MacDonald and
Evans Ltd., London.
 Burston, W.H. and C.W. Green (Eds.) (1972) Handbook for History Teachers, 2nd
Edition, Methuen, London.
 Farant, J.S. (1980) Principles and Practice of Education. Longman Group Ltd.
 Majasan, J . A. (1995). The Teacher's Profession: Manual for Professional Excellence.
Spectrum Books Ltd., Ibadan, Nigeria.
 Mtunda, F.G. and S.S.D. Safuli, An Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Teaching.
Dzuka Publishing Co., Ltd.
 LESSON ELEVEN: PREPARATION FOR TEACHING – SCHEMES OF WORK

11.0 INTRODUCTION

In the last lecture you were exposed to a variety of learning resources which could be used in
teaching and learning of History and Government. This lecture will focus on preparation, which
you should make before teaching. Specifically, the lecture will deal with the scheming process.

In order for the teaching of History and Government to reach its highest degree of success, the
history teacher' should have adequate knowledge about the nature of the History and
Government syllabus. At the same time thorough preparation of schemes of work and lesson
planning, should be done prior to teaching. This will equip the teacher with the necessary tools
needed to handle the subject with ease.

11.1 Objectives

By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

 Discuss the importance of a History and Government scheme of work.

 Identify factors to consider before scheming.
 Justify the inclusion of the elements of a History and Government scheme of work.
 Prepare a scheme of working lasting one month on a topic of your choice from history
and government syllabus.

11.2 Schemes of work.

A scheme of work can be defined as a breakdown of the syllabus into manageable units, which
could be covered in a specific period of time. It could last for a week(s), month(s) of a whole
year.

11.2.1 What is the importance of a scheme work?

Scheming is essential in teaching because:

 It makes teaching both systematic and orderly.

 It gives the teacher a forward, insight in teaching by enabling one to identify content,
methods and relevant instructional materials which are going to be used in the lesson.
 The teacher thus plans the work ahead of time.
 It enables the teacher to see lessons in a broader perspective thus guiding one during
lesson preparation.
 It enables the teacher to budget for time wisely giving room for events and activities
which might interfere with the school calendar e.g. Public holidays, prize giving day,
outings, etc. Also time is budgeted according to the level of difficulty of the content,
 It checks the teacher's pace of teaching.
 It enhances smooth handling over in case of transfer of a teacher, thus ensuring continuity
in leaching.

Question: What problems are you likely to face if you use a scheme work prepared by another
teacher?

11.2.2. Factors to consider before scheming.

Among the factors to be considered by the teacher before scheming are:

 Resources: These refer to the materials within the reach, of-the .teacher. They include
equipment, printed media, audio, visual, audio-visual and community resources.
 Characteristics of the learners: These should be considered in the light of the following
factors:
i) Number of students,
ii) Their entry level,
iii) Their academic background and aspiration,
iv) Mental ability.
 Constraints within the school system: These include time for achieving the goals and
objectives, the restriction placed on the teacher by the school system, e.g. examinations
and other interruptions.
 Teaching environment: This includes the classroom, its size, environment in the
classroom and the relationship between history and other subjects in the curriculum.

11.2.3 The scheming Process

A part of the scheming process the teacher should do the following:

  Obtain the most current History and Government syllabus.
 Have thorough knowledge of the syllabus requirement from where to get the topics.
 Do proper research into the area to be taught in order to identify suitable texts and
learning resources.
 Read systematically on the topic(s) to be taught in order to establish facts and principles
in the light of the prescribed syllabus.
 Collect and write the relevant information.
 Organize the information as per scheme.
 Know the number of periods per term allocated to the subject.
 Fit the topics stated in the syllabus in the lesson period. To do this, the teacher must
consider the background knowledge of learners, ability and the learning, which each topic
involves in extent (width) and complexity (depth). The teacher should also consider the
content at hand, method and learning activities because these will affect the amount of
time taken.
 Collect relevant instructional materials in readiness for use during the lesson.

11.2.4 Elements in a scheme of work

A good scheme of work should contain the following components:

 Month: This refers to the month of the calendar year when a given topic will be taught.
 Week: This is the week of the school term when a particular topic is to be taught
 Number of periods: Is the number of history lessons per week given the provision of
lessons in the secondary school classes.
 Content: It includes topic, subtopic, and the subject matter to be taught.
 Topic
 could be thought of as a unit of study to be taught within a given number of periods. It
indicates the area of the syllabus being dealt with.
 Sub- topic
 It breaks down the topics into suitable units and forces the teacher to decide what can be
handled in one lesson.
 Subject Matter
  Is the actual content of the lesson? This is where the teacher notes down a summary of
the main teaching points. It specifies what learners are expected to achieve at the end of
the lesson.
 Objectives: They are in most cases specific and stated in behavioral terms of what the teacher
expects students to do at the end of the lesson.
 Learning activities: These are activities which-the students should carry out in order to learn
the content presented to then by the teacher.
 Resources: These are non-printed materials used to facilitate learning. They make
explanation and description more real, lively and interesting for the class. Examples include
pictures, real objects/specimen, charts, maps, etc.
 References: These are books that a teacher uses or consults when planning a lesson. They are
both the textbooks and any other printed materials that a teacher reads to look for facts and
information about a certain topic. The following information should be included in this
column: the title of the book and its author's name, publisher and place of publication,
chapter and page.
 Remarks: This column is provided so that the teacher can note whether the lessons planned in
the scheme are taught. There should be a reason to miss any class, for example, by virtue of
sickness, public holidays or other related reasons.
 The teacher should, indicate this and suggest when such a lesson will be taught. Lessons that
need to be repeated should also be shown in this column. The remarks are important because
they assist in future planning and leaching. They should be written immediately after a lesson
has been taught. The following is a format of a History and Government scheme of work.
A format of a History and Government Scheme of Work

Mo We Period Content Objectives Learning Resources References Remarks

nth ek /lesson activities
Feb 6 1 Topic: Introducing to By the end of the Defining the term The chalk C.L Lesson
History of government. lesson the learner history. for summary Barnhart taught as
Subtopic: should be able to Answering board The planned
a) The meaning of explain the questions on American
History meaning of history definition. Asking College
 The study of questions on the Dictionary
important past and meaning writing Random
present events in down points on House,
human’s life definition NewYork,
1970 pages
557
2 Sub-topic By the end of the Discussing in Pictures of R.G Students
b) The importance of lesson the learner groups of 5 the people of Collingwoo delayed
History should be able to importance of different d The idea during
 Wielding, explain importance history. Asking nations and of History, morning
modifying and of History questions for races living Oxford, assembly
improving the clarification. together in New York, covered
society. Writing down harmony 1992 pp 7-9 during prep
 Giving sense of points on K.I.E time the
 identify and importance History & same day
culture. Government
 Development of K.L.B 1994
skills P1
 Transmitting
unique concepts
3 Sub-topic: By the end of the Answering The chalk c/I/ Barnhart Lesson well
c) The meaning of lesson the learner questions eg what board for p.523 W. taught
Government should be able to: is government? summary. Ochieng
 The group who i) Define the term What is the A picture of Themes in
govern government importance of the president Kenyan
 The form or ii) Explain the studying and the history ,
method of importance of government? cabinet Eats Africa,
governing government Asking questions members of Nairobi
 The ruling on points not parliament 1990 p. 90
d) The importance of clear. during a
government Writing down parliamentar
 Understanding the notes on the y session. A
government’s importance of chart
administrative government showing the
structure. administrati
 Teaching of ve structure
 democratic of the
principles government
 Preparing for
citizenship
Feb 7 1 Sub-topic: sources of By the end of the Naming of Chalk board J.K General Not
History & Government lesson the learner sources of for new History of complete
i) History written should be able to History. words and Africa because of
documents; oral identify sources of Giving examples summary. Methodolog over
traditions History of written Examples of y and planning. To
archaeology; documents. history African Pre- be
anthropology; Writing notes on books history, continued
linguistics sources. newspaper, Heinemann, during the
Giving some of journals, Kenya, next lesson
the oral stories diaries, Nairobi,
used as sources of letters as 1992 pp23-
History. written 121
Giving words in sources
different
languages to see
how they are
linguistically
related.
2 ii) Government – written By the end of the Discussing Pictures of K.I.E Not taught
documents: oral lesson the learner sources of monuments History and because of
sources; institutions, should be able to government. , statues, Government teacher’s
monuments, statues identify sources of Asking questions parliament Form 1 illness.
government on sources pupils book To be
Writing down KLB, covered on
notes on sources Nairobi staurday the
1988 23rd
3 EARLY MAN By the end of the Class discussion Pictures of Bible Gen. Not
Theories of origin of lesson the learner on their origin biblical 1:26-27, 2:7 completed
man creation theory should be able to (tradition on stories of koran chap because
evolution explain the origin biblical /koranic creation. 1. KIE class
of man stories on origin, Chalkboard History & discussion
evolution) for summary Government consumed a
biblical and and new Form 1 lot of time,
koranic creation words. pupils book will take
stories. Pictures on KLB, about 10
Asking questions evolution of Nairobi minutes
on origin of man. man in the 1988, chap during next
Making notes on textbook 2, pp 5-11 lesson.
origin of man (K.I.E)
Activity: Prepare a scheme of work lasting for one month on a topic of your choice from the
current History and Government syllabus.

In order to come up with an adequate scheme of work you need to:

 Follow the scheming process discussed earlier.

 Organize the information as per the format shown above.

11.3. Summary

In this lecture we have dealt with the scheming process as part of preparation for teaching. The
key areas discussed in the lecture include:

 The importance of a scheme of work

 Factors to consider before the scheming process.
 Elements in a scheme of work,

In that next lecture we will discuss another important tool to be prepared prior to teaching. This
is the lesson plan.

11.4. Definition of Key Words:

 A scheme of work - a breakdown of the syllabus into manageable units which could be
covered in a specific period of time such as a school term or a whole year.
 Elements - various components which form a scheme of work.
 Syllabus - a prescribed course of study in a given subject or level.
 The scheming process - the procedure used to prepare a scheme of work.

11.5. Further Reading

 Crookall R.E. (1972) Handbook for History Teachers in Africa. Evans Brothers, London.
 Carey E.F . (1957) Teaching Notes for Teachers in African Schools. Highway Press Nairobi.
 Claessen, et.al (Eds.) 1995. Teaching Practice Handbook. A text for students-teachers and
supervisors, Kenyatta University
LESSON TWELVE: PREPARATION OF A HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT LESSON
PLAN

INTRODUCTION

In the previous lecture we introduced you to some aspects of preparation for teaching History
and Government. In this lecture you are going to learn how to prepare your own history and
Government lesson plans.

Objectives

By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

 Define the meaning of a lesson plan and explain its importance.

 Identify and explain the major elements in history and government lesson plan.
 Describe characteristics of history and government lessons instructional objectives.
 Prepare a suitable History and Government lesson plan.

12.2 Lesson plan

A lesson plan can be defined as:

 a formulated approach to teaching and learning which shows clearly all activities that are
going to take place during the lesson and the order in which they are going to follow,
 A systematic sequence of activities, which are designed to lead to the achievement of a
given objective or objectives.
 A work plan covering details of what to be covered in a lesson.

12.2.1 Importance of a lesson plan

 A lesson plan is important in teaching and learning of history because:

 It serves as evidence of careful pre-thinking and preparation by the teacher because the
lesson plan is used as a basis for the lesson to be presented.
 It enables the teacher to be familiar with the teaching content and to visualize the best
way of covering it using appropriate methods and materials.
  It serves as a summary, guide/road map to the teacher on the content to be taught and
action to be taken at various stages of the lesson in order to avoid vagueness and
irrelevance.
 It acts as a reference/a memory bank to the teacher because it reminds one of the main
points to focus on during the lesson.
 It gives the teacher security and confidence so long as there is something to refer to
during the lesson.
 It improves the teacher's performance by acting as a basis for future planning.

Question: What do you think are the shortcomings of a History and Government taught without
adequate lesson preparation?

We are now going to outline the main elements of a lesson plan. These are:

3. Administrative details

These Include the name of the school one is teaching; personal details of the teacher, e.g. one's
name and registration number; the specific class to be taught, six of the class, the subject, the
time the lesson will be taught, topic and sub-topic.

3.1. Instructional Objectives:

Instructional objectives are also known as: specific objectives, learning objectives, behavioral
objectives and educational objectives.

These are learning objectives which describe what one can do as a result of having learnt and
what an observer can see the learner doing in order that one can judge whether or not learning
has been successfully achieved. They also forecast on what the teacher intends the student to do
by the end of 40 minutes. A good instructional objective is made up of three aspects: terminal
behaviour, test conditions and level of performance or indication of a standard of performance.

We are now going to give you reasons why instructional objectives are important.

 They provide a guide for choosing content to be taught, as well teaching methods and
learning materials to be used.
 They help in allocating teaching time.
  They help in deciding on criteria for evaluating the quality of teaching and learning
 They control the behaviour of the learners and the teacher.

12.3.2. Characteristics of well-constructed instructional objectives

A good instructional objective is made up of the following characteristics:

 Terminal behaviour

The objective should be behavioral, measurable and observable. It should describe the learning
outcome that the teacher intends to produce as a result of his/her instruction. It states what the
learner should be able to do after the instruction. The objectives must be in terms of the learner
not the teacher.

 Test conditions:

Conditions are limitations or restrictions placed on the student i.e. the conditions under which the
experience should occur. They could also be materials or aids given to the student when he/she is
being evaluated to determine whether the objective has been achieved or not. Some of the
phrases used are: “ by the end of the lesson” “ using a map the learner should be able to..”

 Level of performance or indication of a standard of performance.

This is an acceptable level of learning at which a student proves that he/she has mastered the
subject. It is the degree or standard expected and must specify the appropriate level for the
performance indicated in the behaviour, e.g. the learners should be able to explain at least four
factors out of six that led to partition of Africa.

Note: You should note that the objective should refer to content and skill coverage in the lesson
and should describe what student activity is to be applied.

12.3. Factors to consider when writing objectives for a history lesson

You Should consider the following factors when writing objectives:

 The state of the learners in terms of what they already know. The teacher must be
aware of what they have covered before and what they should learn.
  What you want the learners to achieve.
 The choice of verbs to use. You should use explicit verbs such as the following

Select Identify List Apply

Describe Explain Choose Analyze

Trace Discuss Name Dramatize

Compare Contrast Differentiate

To arrive at the above action verbs one needs to ask these questions:

 What do I expect the learner to be to do?

 In what way should the learner show that he/she has learnt?
 What level of performance will be acceptable as evidence that he/she has learnt?

When stating objectives, you should avoid implicit or vague verbs. Some of the implicit verbs
you should avoid are:

Know grasp understand

Appreciate think learn

In writing an objective avoid will and use should i.e. by the end of the lesson the learners should
be not will be.

We will give you three examples of well-stated instructional objective after which you will
attempt to construct yours.

Below are examples of objectives, which could be achieved in a 40 minutes lesson: By the end of
the lesson the learner should be able to:

 State at least live results of the settlement of Agikuyu in the Mount Kenya region during
the pre-colonial period.
 Describe the political organization of the Ameru during the pre-colonial period.
 Explain how the harambee movement has contributed to the development of Kenya since
independence.
Activity: Construct two good instructional objectives from a topic of your choice taken from the
History and Government syllabus.

12.3.4. Time:

In a lesson plan, time refers to the duration the lesson will take at introduction, development and
conclusion levels. Proper timing of a lesson simply involves a consideration of:

 How much content can be covered in a given teaching period

 What audio and visual resources are available.

Time factor will dictate the kind of activities the learners will be involved in, and the method and

resources you as a teacher will use to cover given content or topic.

12.3.5 Content:

This column includes the historical information, which the teacher wants to pass to the learner.
You should select an adequate amount of facts that would give the student a sound picture or
understanding of the event, period or the situation of the lesson.

The content column consists of three main steps of a history lesson: Introduction, Lesson
development and conclusion.

 Introduction

This provides for organization of a favourable learning atmosphere. You should think of
something to stimulate the learners' interest and capture it for the new material about to be
delivered.

A lesson could be introduced in any of the following ways:

 Brief review of the previous work and a quick introduction of new work. The two should
be linked.
 Asking a question within the learners' experience in a given setting.
 Reviewing new words, terms from previous lesson and introducing new terms or
vocabulary.
Introduction is important in a lesson because it sets the pace, the tone, the vigour and even
Quality of the rest of the lesson.

12.3.6. Lesson Development

It is also referred to as the body of the lesson, the presentation or delivery stage of the lesson. It
is expected to describe the content and sequence in which the information will be delivered. You
should explain what you want to teach and spell out the limit of the expected responses.

At this stage, you should be aware of:

 What principle points to consider.

 What key questions to use.
 What sequence to follow.
 What conclusion the delivery or discussion should focus on.

12.3.7 Conclusion

This is rounding off the lesson. You can conclude your in any of the following ways:

 Summarizing the main points highlighted during the lesson either orally or by use of the
chalkboard.
 Asking questions on the topic covered.
 Giving assignment as a follow up of the lesson just taught.

12.3.8 Learning activities:

Learning activities in a. lesson plan are-the key to success in all history teaching and learning.
Learner's participation is what educationists call “educational activity” which calls for learner-
centred approach to teaching.

Learning activities are important because of the following reasons:

 They save the learners from the boredom caused by passiveness when they just sit and
listen.
 They fix the teaching more firmly in the learners' minds, since their involvement arouses
interest in the material of the lesson.
  They train learners to think critically.

Note: Learners should be involved at the following three levels: introduction, body of the lesson
or lesson development and conclusion. Y o u should plan each activity around each of the
stages such that you have introduction activities, lesson development activities and
conclusion activities. These activities should be challenging enough depending on the
learners' level and ability. In stating learning activities, you should explain clearly what
the learner will be doing at every level of the lesson.

The following are some of the activities you could involve your students in.

 Asking and answering of teacher's questions used in question and answer method.
 Discussing which can either be verbal or written, individual or group work, in the middle
of a lesson or at the end, with a warning or impromptu.
 Writing something on the chalkboard, or pointing at something on a map or chart.
 Drawing a relevant historical map, pictures or diagrams.
 Drawing a time chart to illustrate a particular period.
 Looking up for present day happenings from the newspaper or journals/magazines.
 Role-playing in the lesson. The learners can come to class prepared to act some roles of
great men under discussion. Part or whole lessons could be dramatized.
 Holding debates or seminars or panels. A part or even the whole lesson can be turned into
a debate or seminar with the students playing a major part.
 Note-taking during the lesson. This is important because it starts the learners off in art of
making their own notes which involves a lot of discrimination between the important and
the non-important.

Activity: Make a list of at least five other worthwhile learning activities which you would engage
your students in during a History and Government lesson

3.9 Resource material:

This refers to printed and non-printed media, which the teacher intends to use during the lesson.
It involves merging of the reference and resource material columns in the schemes of work into
one column in the material lesson plan. It includes among others: books, journals, newspapers,
magazines, resource people, buildings, places, real objects, specimen, models, the radios tape
recorder, television, etc.

12.3.10 Self-evaluation

This takes place after teaching when the teacher looks at the lesson already delivered in an
objective manner. The lesson is assessed by asking oneself these questions:

 Have 1 achieved my objectives?

 Have the learners understood my lesson?

If the answer is yes you should substantiate by explaining how the lesson was understood And
how the objectives were achieved.

If the answer is no, try to find out why the learners did not understand the lesson or why the
objectives were not achieved. You should ask yourself the following questions:

 Where did 1 fail in my teaching?

 Is it because 1 was not very well prepared?
 Did I have enough teaching points?
 Did I have enough teaching aids?
 Did 1 use appropriate teaching methods?

Self-evaluation will enable you to discover strengths and weaknesses, in the teaching so as to act
appropriately. This will make you a better teacher day by day.

Activity: Study the sample of a lesson plan given. It is extracted from the scheme of work for
History and Government, which you studied in the previous lesson.

A Format of a History and Government Lesson Plan

NAME: Kawa Mata REG NO.: E35/004/97

SCHOOL: Zimmer Sec School FORM: IA

SUBJECT: History and Government No. IN CLASS: 40

DATE: 16/1/2004 TIME: 8:00-8:40a.m

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

SUBTOPIC : Meaning of History

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to explain the meaning of the
term “History”

Time Content Learning activities Resource material

5 min Introduction - Answering the question:
Definition of GHC What is GHC?
- Is a combination of - Attempting to define the
Geography, History and term history
Civics

30 min Lesson development various - Discussing the various R.G Collingwood,

meanings of history meanings. The Idea of History,
- Derived from Greek - Asking questions on the Oxford, Madras,
work “historia” definition. 1992.p.3
- Aggregate of past Note down the various
events. meanings given to history Juliet Gardiner(ed)
- Systematic written What is History
narrative of past Today? Macmillan
events Ltd., London, 1988,
- Past worthy of record p.1
- Dialogue between the
present and the past.
- Critical study of man’s
past
- Study of man’s
significant past and
present activities

5 min Conclusion - Asking questions

- Summary on what has
 been covered on - Answering questions
meaning of history. - Noting down the
- Assignment: to read assignment
on importance of
history

Self-evaluation

The objective was realized because learners were able to explain the meaning of term “History”
in their own words.

Activity: Choose a topic from History and Government lesson syllabus and prepare one lesson
plan using the format you have just studied.

12.4 Summary:

In this lecture, we have discussed the importance of a lesson plan in teaching and learning
History and Government. We have also discussed in detail the essential elements of a lesson
plan. If it is important for you to do a lot practice in lesson preparation in order to be adequately
prepared prior to teaching.

12.5 Definition of key words:

 Behaviour - performance or activity, which can be observed.

 Lesson plan - a work plan covering details of what is to be covered in a lesson showing
clearly all the activities that are going to take in a lesson and order in which they are
going to follow.
 Instructional objectives - objectives which describe what the learner can do as a result of
having learned.
 Terminal behavior - a component of objective, which describes the behaviour of a learner
after undergoing instruction.
12.6 Further Reading

 Aggarwal J . C. (1982) Teaching Social Studies, Vikas Publishing House Ltd.

 Cohen, L . and L . Manion (1977) A guide to teaching practice, Metheun Company Ltd.,
London.
 Moya, 0. (1988) Methods of Teaching History, University Press.
 Mtunda F. G. & S.D.D. (1986) An introduction to the Theory and Practice Teaching,
Dzuka Publishing, Co. Ltd.
 LESSON THRITEEN: ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING/LEARNING HISTORY AND
GOVERNMENT

13.0 Introduction

The teaching and learning process includes three main elements:

 The determination of both long term and short term objectives - Where are we going?
 The selection and manipulation of appropriate instructional materials and strategies -
How do we get where we are going?
 The assessment of learning outcomes to determine the extent to which the objectives
have been achieved - How do we know when we get there?

13.1 Objectives

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Differentiate between the terms 'assessment' and 'evaluation'.

 Identity various methods used to assess learners' performance in history and government
lessons.
 Discuss the importance of assessment in History and Government teaching/learning.

Assessment is a systematic process used to determine the extent to which educational objectives
are achieved. This is done through measurement and evaluation. Although the terms
“measurement” and “evaluation” are often used interchangeably, there is a slight distinction
between the two. Measurement involves the construction, administration and scoring tests in
order to come up with quantitative descriptions of students' performance and it is more specific
than evaluation. Evaluation on the other hand means the process in which value judgement plays
a key role in such areas as grading and promoting students. Such judgement is based] on a
composite of different types of measurements obtained from tests, projects, laboratory work,
reports and examinations.

Note: The teaching/learning of History and Government is greatly influenced by the methods of
assessment used to monitor learning progress and to guide teaching. This involves
 identifying and defining the objectives of instruction and constructing or selecting
evaluation instruments, which best appraise these objectives.

In this lesson, we are going to discuss methods of assessing learners in History and Government
lessons There are two types of assessments.

 Formative Assessment - This refers to an assessment of learning while in the process of

teaching/learning e.g. class tasks, assignments and end of term examination. It is used to
identify learners' needs in order to guide them.
 Summative Assessment - deals with summing up processes of learning at the end of the
course. It is primarily concerned with purpose, progress and outcomes of the teaching
learning process.

As a teacher, you need to know the functions of assessments.

13.2 Functions of Formative Assessment

 The following are some of the functions of formative assessment.

 To provide the teachers with knowledge concerning students' entry behaviour.
 To provide teachers and learners with specific feedback regarding students' success in
mastery of skills, attitudes and knowledge.
 To help teachers determine the effectiveness of their teaching techniques and learning
materials.
 To help motivate students to learn more when they perform well in a given assignment.
 This also encourages students to develop a sense of discipline and systematic study
habits.
 To encourage healthy competition, in learning
 To secure data for students' records and reports: for administrative purposes.
 To provide an objective basis for determining the promotion of students from one Class
to another.
 To help improve the learning in progress by pinpointing exactly where the learners are
having problems so that the teacher can give remedial work.
 To check the pace of teaching by impelling the teacher to strive to accomplish the desired
objective (s).
  To help the teacher to determine which work to be given to learners at what level (for
differential assignment).
 To furnish parents or guardians with information about their children's performance.

Activity: Think of other functions of formative assessment and list them down.

Just like formative assessment, summative assessment has several functions. It is used to:

 Determine the effectiveness and worthiness of a programme, e.g. 8:4:4 in order to make
reliable decision about educational planning in terms of time, manpower, and other
resources.
 Predict the general trend in the teaching/learning process.
 Identify problems that might hinder the achievement of set goals of education.
 Furnish the public (community) with the information concerning school's performance.
 Provide information to employers in order to determine at what level of education a
certificate holder should enter a career.
 Select students for further education.

Note: Although schools have policies on when students should be assessed, it is suggested that
for effective teaching and learning of history, assessment should be done continuously dry
and be done continuously.

13.2.1 Methods of Assessment

Assessment could be done through the following means::

 Direct observation, which is used to evaluate acquisition of attitudes, values and skills.
 Questionnaires, which are used to evaluate attitudes, skills and knowledge.
 Checklists used for observing certain traits exhibited.
 Oral assessment, which is good for students, whose reading and writing abilities are
limited. This form of assessment is used to get immediate feedback.
 Projects/assignments where tasks are given to learners individually or as a group.
 Written tests.
 Examinations.
Question: Which of the above types of assignment is suitable in History and Government?

Notes: The form of assessment chosen depends on the objectives set to be achieved by the
individual teacher. There are a series of objectives which a history teacher might want to
be assessed e.g. factual knowledge, categorization, summarization, criticisms,
imagination, synthesizing, analysing, applications, etc. However, [testing is one form of
assessment which is commonly used in our schools. Others are assignments and
examinations

There are certain considerations, which you need to consider when constructing a test e.g.

 Define the learners' task as completely and clearly as possible ensuring that it measures
the intended objectives.
 Write the items clearly and specifically in order for the learners to know what is expected
of them.
 The expected responses from the students should relate to significant contest and
behaviour as indicated in the table of specifications and objectives.
 Restrict the subject matter to be covered by the question.
 The area of emphasis for the question should be indicated either by underlining, writing
in italics, or bold writing.
 The question should be interesting and challenging enough and at the proper level of
difficulty relative to the students and the test purpose.
 Structure the questions in such a way that an overall understanding of the learners can be
assessed.
 Each question should be easy to follow from the learners’ point of view.
 Avoid vague terms that could elicit contradictory responses from the learners by making
sure the questions are not linguistically or conceptually ambiguous.

You also need to come up with a good test. A good test should have the following
characteristics: validity, reliability, objectivity, usability and discrimination.
  Validity
It refers to the degree to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure. In other
words, it should adequately sample the content and the objectives of the areas the teacher
has taught. In lest construction, the teacher should be guided by the following key
questions concerning the validity.
 Does the test adequately sample the content area?
 Does the test involve the skills that are important in the area e.g. cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor.
 Does the test relate to all behaviour objectives for the unit?

Note: If the test cannot provide this essential information, then it is of little value and therefore
should not be used. The validity depends on the purpose of the test, the procedure and the
interpretation of results.

 Reliability
This is the accuracy and consistency with which a test measures what it measures. In
other words, the test should generate quite similar scores when it is administered to a
similar group of students on two successful occasions, then it is concluded that it
possesses high degree of consistency and reliability. On the other hand, if it cannot
produce the results that are consistent, then the results cannot be trusted or relied upon.
The reliability of a test depends on:
 The conditions under which it is administered.
 The nature of the attributes being measured.
 The characteristics of the group of students being assessed.
 The way in which the test is scored.
 Objectivity
It refers to freedom from subjective judgment. The test must be as free as possible from
bias. A measuring instrument has objectivity when two or more competent observers can
independently agree whether or not a learner's test performance meets the standard
criteria stated in the learning objective.
Note: Objectivity of a test will be affected by: type of tests, mode of scoring and state of mind
and condition of the scorer.
  Usability (Economy)
This refers to the practical aspects of the time and resources required for test compared to
the value of the information obtained. Sometimes, the time and resources involved in
preparing a test compared to the value of the information obtained may render the test
useless.
 Discrimination
It refers to the ability to test to separate students on how well they perform on the test.
The questions set must be representative of the subject matter taught and should be
sufficiently difficult so that those who know the subject can be separated from those who
do not know it.
We are now going to discuss the commonly used type of tests in History and Government
teaching/learning. These are objective and essay tests.

13.2.3. Objective tests

These are tests, which tend to reduce the amount of subjectivity and human error in scoring. In
objective tests, the learners' responses are limited to either of the following: single words,
phrases or simple choices from several choices presented to them. Objectives tests have a
number of advantages:
 They allow for a wide content coverage.
 They can be used to encourage learners to learn facts, concepts and principles.
 They encourage students to pay close attention to what they are studying because the
question calls for specific information.
 The answers can be scored quickly and more objectively than in other forms of testing.

Activity: Think of more advantages of down.

Objective tests have also limitations such as the following:

 Setting is time-consuming and expensive in terms of paper.
 They tend to test recall or factual information rather than creativity.
 They tend to measure partial and superficial knowledge rather than broad conceptual
understanding.
 They are not effective in testing student's ability to organize their thoughts or to write
coherently.
  They give room for guessing.

Note: There are many types of objective questions, among them are: multiple choice type; supply
item category (completion test), true-false, matching exercise. You are going to be given
various examples from each of the types.

13.3 Multiple choice type

They consist of direct questions followed by four possible answers of which one should be
chosen as the correct answer. Sometimes all the answers are true to a certain extent but only one
is the pest. It is important for you to know how to construct good multiple-choice items.

13.3.1 How to construct a multiple choice items

The following steps should be followed when constructing multiple choice items:

 Choose relevant and important topics from which to develop items.

 Design statements that imply situations that students have not previously encountered.
 Write the stem (the question) first. Try to make it as short as possible and use clear
simple language.
 The stem must be carefully worded to avoid vagueness and different interpretations.
 State your questions positively because negatives tend to confuse students.
 Look for the key (answer).
 Make sure that there is only one correct answer.
 Look for distractors (wrong options).
 Distractors should not be obviously wrong but rather they should be plausibly.
 Make all the responses almost equal in length or make two responses short and the other
two long.
 Place the correct answer in different positions in each question.
 Make sure all responses fit grammatically with the stem. If only the correct answer
completes the sentence in a grammatical way you are providing a clue to the student who
is guessing.
 Avoid phrases such as none of these or all of them.
  Ensure that the test is not too long otherwise it will become an endurance test rather than
a test of ability.

13.3.2 Examples of multiple choice questions

The following arc examples of multiple choice items:

i) The Akamba interacted with neighbours during the pre-colonial period mainly
through:
A. Trade
B. Raiding
C. Warfare
D. intermarriage
ii) Which one of the following was a religious practice among the Abaluyia during the
pre-colonial period?
A. Worshipping God in shrines.
B. Pouring libation to ancestral spirits.
C. Sending people out to preach their traditional faith.
D. Offering human sacrifice to their god.
iii) The main economic activity of the Agjkuyu in the 19t h century was:
A. Crop farming.
B. Cattle keeping.
C. Iron smelting.
D. Basket weaving.
iv) One of the results of the Abagusii resistance against colonial rule is that:
A. The Abagusii were allowed to retain their independence.
B. The Abagusii land was alienated for European settlement.
C. The Abagusii were allowed to grow coffee.
D. The Abagusii were exempted from paying hut tax.

Activity: Choose a topic from the current History and Government syllabus and prepare two
multiple choice items.

13.4.1 Supply item tests

The supply item tests are of two types:

i) Short answer questions.

ii) Short completion questions.

This form of testing requires the students to provide missing information with a word, phrase or
symbol. Its purpose is to determine the student's ability to recall or recognize the appropriate
term: concept or phrase to complete a statement. They are recognized by the presence of blanks
in which the students write the answers to the questions. At times, a number of words or phrases
are placed below the question from which the student will be required to choose the most
suitable to complete the sentence or statement.

Below are some suggestions to the teacher on how you could construct supply item tests.

 Give clear instructions for each question.

 Make the wording clear and specific enough in order to avoid ambiguous responses.
 Provide for brief responses.
 Provide blanks either at the beginning or at the end of a statement.
 Use only key words for blanks.
 Do not leave many blank spaces in the sentences, as they tend to confuse students.
 Make sure there is only one correct answer.
 Do not make answers too obvious.
 Avoid long and complex statements.
 Avoid vague questions, which may elicit different types of answers from students.
 Avoid using highly technical terms.

13.4.2 Examples of Supply items tests

(a) Short answer questions.

The item is presented in a direct question, e.g.

 In which year did Mzee Jomo Kenyatta die?

 What is the name of the first president of Uganda?
 Which countries formed the East African community?
(b) Short completion items

The learner is expected to fill in the space provided.

 Nyayo as a philosophy was introduced by ___________________________

 _____________________was the second vice president of Kenya.
 Harambec spirit means__________________________________________

Activity: Prepare at least four supply items from a topic in the current History and Government
syllabus

13.5 True/false items

In true-false items the student is presented with a declarative statement and is supposed to judge
the truth or falsity of the statement. Some of the variations of true-false are yes-no and right-
wrong.

The following are suggestions on how to design true/false items

 Use statements that are completely true or completely false.

 Avoid copying statements word for word from the text book.
 Avoid statements that are partly true and partly false.
 Avoid ambiguous statements.
 Do not use terms that provide clues about the right answer.
 Do not use negative statements unless it cannot be avoided.
 Avoid rhetorical questions.
 Long statements should not be used.
 Complicated terms should be avoided where possible.

The following are examples of true/false items

i) East African Community was formed in 1963. T /F
ii) Kwame Nkrumah was the president of Nigeria. T / F
iii) Nelson Mandela was a founder member of ANC. T /F

Activity: Prepare five True/False items on a given topic from History and Government syllabus
13.6 Matching Exercise

It consists of two columns. The first column consists of a list of items while the second one
consists of a list of responses. Each item in the first column is to be paired with an alternative
response in the second column. In most cases, history learning involves the association of two
things in the learner's mind. Common examples where this association can be made are terms
and definitions; events and causes; events and dates; events and places; places and their
significance; countries and their capital cities and lastly events and persons.

The student/ candidate is required to make some association between what is contained in
column and responses in column 2. In the simplest matching exercises, the student is presented
with exactly the same number of responses as the number of items. However, complex matching
exercises that provide more responses than items are frequently used because they reduce the
examinee's success by guessing.

The following suggestions will be useful when you are constructing matching items.

 Give clear and specific instructions explaining how matching is to be done in order to
avoid confusion.
 Limit the number of items in each set (column) to between 15-12 items because when
there are too many, they tend to confuse students and they are also time consuming.
 Each set of items should be homogeneous.
 Arrange items in sequential order, either alphabetically or in time sequence.
 Put each set of items and responses on the same page so that the learner does not have to
turn over the page.
 Distribute the responses randomly and do not give clues.
 Keep the responses short to save students from spending a lot of time searching through
responses.
 Include two or three extra responses to decrease the possibility of guessing,
i) Events and Causes
Column 1 column 2
1. Abushiri uprising 1. Did not want the British to construct the railway through
their territory.
2. Mau Mau rebellion
3. Maji Maji rebellion
4. Nandi resistance
5. Taita resistance
2. Resented the idea of providing labour for the IBEA
company.
3. The peasants wanted back their land.
4. Resented forced labour and taxation and harassment by the
Germans
5. Resented to be sold as slaves by the British.
6. Wanted the Germans to leave the Coast.
7. Were against the British interfering with their way of
worship.

ii) Personalities and Achievements

Column 1 Column 2
1. Jomo Kenyatta 1. Defeated the Italians at the battle of Adowa.
2. Kwame Nkrumah 2. Resisted the French for 7 years.
3. Emperor Menelik 3. A leading member of Kenya African Union.
4. Nelson Mandela 4. A trade unionist.
5. Oginga Odinga 5. Founder member of African National Congress.
6. Sekou Toure 6. Led Guinea to independence.
7. Tom Mboya 7. The strongest supporter of Pan Africanism in Africa.
8. The founder of Kenya peoples union.
9. Founder of Pan-African Congress.

iii) Countries and their capital cities.

Column 1 Column 2
1. Angola 1. Monrovia
2. Botswana 2. Addis Ababa
3. Burundi 3. Moroni
4. Cameroon 4. Gaborone
5. Chad 5. Luanda
6. Cameroon 6. Cairo
7. Egypt 7. Accra
8. Ethiopia 8. Bujumbura
9. Gabon 9. Abidjan
10. Ghana 10. Yaunde
11. Ivory Coast 11. Libreville
12. Liberia 12. N'Djamena
13. Bangui
14. Maseru.

iv) Countries and their leaders

Column 1 Column 2
1. Burundi 1. Soni Abacha
2. Egypt 2. Sam Nujoma
3. Ghana 3. Robert Mugabe
4. Libya 4. Hussein Mubarak
5. Malawi 5. Yoweri Museveni .
6. Namibia 6. Mobutu Sese Seko
7. Nigeria 7. Chiluba Fredrick
8. South Africa 8. Paul Kagame
9. Tanzania 9. Nelson Mandela
10. Uganda 10. Bakili Muluzi
11. Zaire 11. Jerry Rawlings
12. Zambia 12. Mammar Gadaffi
13. King Hassan
14. Thambo Mbeki

13.6.1. Advantages of matching items

The matching exercise is useful in; examining the ability to see relationship between events and
categories of statements, identifying numbered places or parts on a map, charts and diagrams and
testing in ‘who’ ‘what’ ‘when’ and ‘where’ situations.
13.6.2 Limitations of matching items

The exercise has among others the following limitations:

 The learner spends too much time searching for the correct response especially if it is a
complex matching.
 It is difficult to design a matching exercise that will measure genuine understanding of a
high level or the ability to interpret complex relationships.
 If not well constructed, matching item tests are likely to give clues.

Activity: Using the above examples construct a matching exercise items from various History
and Government topics.

13.7 Essay tests

These are tests which require learners to give lengthy answers by a narrative on a given topic.
The learners are expected to organize ideas or show creativity through writing. There are two
types of essays; extended (open-ended) and restricted response (structured).

In the extended type, no bounds are placed on the student as to the number of points to be
discussed and the type of organization to use. This type of essay question permits the student to
demonstrate his or her ability to call upon factual knowledge, evaluate it, organize ideas and
present them in a logical coherent: fashion. The extended response essay questions are suitable at
the levels of synthesis and evaluation. Terms commonly used in these type of questions are
discuss, describe, explain, apply, determine, analyze etc.

In the restricted response essay question, the student is more limited in the form and scope of the
answer because one is told specifically the context that the answer is to take. I l is suitable for
measuring learning outcomes at the comprehension, application and analysis levels. I Terms
associated with restricted response questions include such words as define, state, identify, give,
name, compare, contrast, classify, illustrate, trace, explain and outline.

13.7.1 Characteristics of essay questions

Essay questions have these qualities:

 They require students to organize and express themselves in their own words.
  They consist of a few questions, which require lengthy answers.
 They are relatively easy to prepare and hard to mark accurately.
 Their quality depends on the skill of the setter and the scorer.

13.7.2 When to use essay questions.

They can be used when:

 The group is small.

 You wish to encourage to the fullest the development of the learner's skill in written
expression.
 You want students to organize ideas or to show their creativity.
 You are more interested in exploring the learner's attitudes than in measuring
achievement.
 You are more confident of your own proficiency as a critical reader.
 The time available for test preparation is shorter than the time available for scoring.
Evaluating complex or controversial areas of a subject.
 Learner’s are expected to apply the acquired knowledge to novel situations.

13.7.3 Examples of essay type questions

The following are sample questions for:

a. Extended (open-ended) questions.

i) Describe the political organization of the Nandi during pre-colonial period. (15 marks)
ii) Explain the causes and results of the ‘Mau Mau war’. (15 marks)
iii) Explain the factors which hastened the achievement of independence in Kenya after
1945. (15 marks)
iv) Describe the development of early agriculture in Mesopotamia. ( 15 marks)
v) Analyze the factors that led to European colonization of Africa. ( 15 marks)
b. Restricted response (structured) questions
i) Give three reasons why the British government encouraged the development of
agriculture in Kenya during the colonial period. (3 marks)
 ii) Give five reasons why Christian missionaries established schools in Kenya for African
children. (5 marks)
iii) Name five sources of revenue for Municipal Councils in Kenya. (5 marks)

13.7.4. Advantages of essay questions

 Scoring is highly subjective because the evaluator can at times be impressed with the
literary skills and handwriting of the learners. This can seriously impair the validity of
marks awarded in essay tests.
 Grading calls for expert judgment because they produce responses which can only be
effectively graded by a competent examiner.
 Learner's performance in a given item can influence the scorer in other items. The scorer
gives more or less marks depending on the first performance of the candidate.
 Reliability of most essay tests is low especially where option questions are allowed.
Students answer questions of different content, thus making the results unreliable because
the scores cannot be compared.
 They are time consuming for students because a lot of time is spent flunking and writing,
and for the teacher when grading because one is expected to understand and interpret the
student's mind when marking.

Activity: List other limitations of other essay questions

The above limitations could be reduced if the following suggestions are taken into consideration:

 Restrict essay tests to objectives that are best achieved through this type of testing e.g.
analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
 Avoid vague terms that would elicit contradictory responses from learners
 Structure items in such a way that an overall understanding of the learners can be
assessed. This can be achieved through the use of questions such as ‘explain why’
‘analyze how’ ‘give reasons for’, etc.
 Score one question at a time for all who attempted it for consistency and flow of your line
of thought.
It is important that you use essay question to test learner's understanding of what they learn
because these questions have several advantages some of which are outlined below.
 They provide opportunities for the learner to demonstrate the degree to which one can
analyze a given problem.
 They enable the learner to creatively select relevant information related to the topic under
discussion.
 They can provide good measure of learners understanding of any given area of
knowledge.
 They enable the learner to organize answers in a systematic (logical) and comprehensive
manner.
 They help the learner to improve the skills of writing and logical organization of thought.
 They provide the learner with opportunity to demonstrate as much as possible what one
knows since there is no absolutely wrong or right answer.
 They give students opportunity to express themselves using their own phrases, words and
expressions and with minimum restrictions.
 They measure more complex higher levels of understanding.

Note: Although essay questions are useful in History and Government assessment, they have a
number of limitations

 They suffer from content unreliability and inadequate sampling of items because the
teacher can assess on only a limited sample of content covered and on very few items
(questions), given the lengthy answers (responses) expected.
 There is lack of consistency in judgment because scoring depends on the physical and
mental state of the scorer.
 Score every objective that [is to be measured independently.
 Mark an essay test when you are physically sound and mentally alert.
 Make sure that the environment you are marking in is free from distractions.
 Prepare a marking scheme based on a valid criteria.

When preparing tests, you should be guided by a table of specification to know which levels of
learning should be tested.
13.8 Table of Specification

This can be defined as a chart for a blue print in which content to be covered in a test as well as
levels of cognitive learning (behavior) are specified. In history testing, behavior relates to six
levels of cognitive development according to Bloom's taxonomy, namely knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Knowledge: Involves recall of specifics and universals or recognition of facts, terminologies,

dates, persons, etc.

Comprehension: Involves interpretation, translation, extrapolation, imagination, etc. The learners

are expected to put information in their own words, or to paraphrase. The terms used in
formulating such questions are explain, describe, discuss, among others.

Application: Requires one to apply knowledge or make generalization to new situations, e.g.
illustrate, demonstrate and interpret.

Analysis: Involves breaking down knowledge into parts and to show relationship among the
parts, e.g. analyze, compare and contrast.

Synthesis: Requires the learner to put or bring together parts and elements of knowledge a whole
and build relationships for new situations, e.g. write, formulate, organize, contrast}, etc.

Evaluation: Includes the making of judgments about the value of something on the basis of a
given criteria, e.g. evaluate, choose, compare, etc.

The table, of specification consists of one row (vertically) showing the subject matter (content)
to be tested, and six columns defining the different levels of cognitive abilities to be tested in
each subject matter area shown in the row (vertically).

13.8.1 Importance of Table Specification

The table of specification is important in test construction because:

 It identifies as clearly as possible the scope of emphasis of the test.
 It helps the setter to determine the levels of learning (type of objectives) to be assessed in
a given content area.
  It ensures that each content area and levels of learning (instructional objectives) are given
proper amount of attention in the test.
 It guides the setter in devising the type of test to set whether it is (objective or essay).

13.8.2. How to prepare a table of specification

It can be prepared in the following ways:

 Identify the content area to be covered.

 Prepare a grid chart.
 List the content area to be tested vertically in the chart.
 Across the top of the chart give a breakdown of the six levels of learning.
 Decide on the number of items (questions) to be set in a given content area.
 Decide on the number of items per topic and the appropriate level of testing e.g. is it
knowledge, comprehension, etc.
 Ensure that there is more concentration in the middle levels of learning with a few
questions in the lowest (knowledge) and highest level (evaluation). The distributions of
questions should form a normal curve.