Topic 1 Upholstery

Furniture, Fitting & Equipments
Year 2, Second Semeter.

Ardhi University
What is Upholstery
2
Upholstery is the work of providing furniture, especially
seats with padding, springs, webbing and fabric or
leather covers. The word upholstery comes from the
Middle English words “up and Holden” , meaning to
hold up. The term is applied to domestic furniture and
also
The wordto applications
upholstery in
comes from the Middle automobiles and
English word upholder, which boats.
referred to an artisan who help up their
goods. A person who works with upholstery is an upholsterer.
A person who works with upholstery is called an

upholsterer; an apprentice upholsterer is sometimes
called an outsider or trimmer.
3
Upholstery is the materials—which include
• fabric,
• padding,
• webbing, and
• springs—
that make up the soft coverings of chairs, sofas, and

other furniture.
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The word upholstery comes from the Middle English word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
5
6
Uses in furniture making
• Generally made from leather, cottons other fabrics

and plastic materials
• Can be stitched, tacked and stapled glues.
• Quality furniture makers still leather
• Most have a soft foam or similar material under the

covering
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History of Upholstery
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• The history of upholstery began with tent making,
and started out with textiles being used for wall
hangings and draperies, without much concern for
comfort.
Upholstery
•The word didn’t
upholstery comes from become
the Middle English word associated with
upholder, which referred comfort
to an artisan
who help up their
until the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, when the first

beginnings of modern furniture—and cushions--
began.
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Medieval upholstery
• After the dark ages were over, people could stop worrying if
their houses were going to be burnt down, and began to focus
on what was inside them.
• Standards of living began to improve and thoughts turned to
comfort.
•TheCushions
word upholstery comes from the Middle English word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
could
goods.beA person
added who to
workssolid oak chairs
with upholstery to offer a little
is an upholsterer.
comfort, but there were no cushions on the backs of chairs –
people had to make dew with leaning against tapestries hung
on the walls.
• Italy began making the finest silk, which quickly spread to
Britain. Weavers made wall hangings, bed drapes and
cushions, reserved only for the10very wealthy.
11
Elizabethan era
• In the Elizabethan Era levels of comfort significantly increased.
• Heavy curtains were draped over bedheads and around four
poster beds to prevent drafts.
• Mantelpiece drapes were also very popular, and all types of

draperies became goods. A more and
person who works more elaborate
with upholstery – even for
is an upholsterer.
windows.
• Tall windows were framed with window headings, deep swags

and tails.
• These were often heavily trimmed, surrounded by intricate
wooden cornices. 12
Elizabethan era
• To accommodate large Elizabethan skirts, the farthingale chair
was introduced – a chair without arms with a piece of leather
stretched across the back and nailed on each side.
• Elizabethan upholstering materials included:

leather, brocadegoods. or embroidered cloth,
A person who works with and
upholstery is anvelvet trimmed with a
upholsterer.
heavy fringe. Stuffing could be anything from sawdust, grass or
feathers, or deer, goat and horse hair.
• Sofas still didn’t exist before now – seats for more than one
person were usually benches that could be pushed against the
wall. 13
farthingale chair
14
Renaissance style
• upholstery took a while to catch on – anything slightly
comfortable was often disregarded and was felt to be
effeminate.
• Jacobean furniture was still similar to Elizabethan, with a few
adjustments along the way. Furniture was still made from oak,
and blocky due goods.toA the
personcarpenters using iscarpentry
who works with upholstery an upholsterer. tools to make
it.
• In Spain during the Renaissance beautiful, tooled decorative
leather began to gain in popularity.
• Also popular were Turkish divans – low sofas completely
covered in stuffed cushions, and colorful tapestries covering
small chairs. 15
Jacobean furniture
Jacobean furniture Tooled decorative leather

Turkish divan
16
Decorative arts
• With Charles II on the throne, the Puritan regime ended, and
the decorative arts began to flourish in England.
• People were getting used to the comfort of upholstered

furniture, and the first fully upholstered chair was built in
1705. goods. A person who works with upholstery is an upholsterer.
• This chair was referred to as a “sleeping chayre” – you could

rest your head on either the sides or the back. Daybeds grew in
popularity and custom cushions were everywhere.
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Decorative arts
• Tapestry and fabric factories began to spring up in London and
Paris, and the upholstery business began to boom.
• Silk damask, wool moreen, elaborate embroidery were used

more and more in upholstery.
• Cushions were made of horsehair with linen lining and down.
Beds were one of the most upholstered pieces in the house:
bedsteads were totally covered in soft fabrics such as velvet.
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sleeping chayre/chair
Jacobean furniture
19 The evolution of the sleeping chair

The age of the designer
• By now, upholstery was very much integrated into the
furniture-making process, and as comfort improved, the drop-
in seat was invented. This meant that the seat could be
upholstered in any fabric.
•TheDesigners
selected which
goods. A person who colors and fabrics
works with upholstery to use, which set
is an upholsterer.
the trends and colour palettes for the season. The Age of The
Designer had begun.
• Louis XVI’s chairs were upholstered in pastel blues, pinks, and

yellows. Thomas Chippendale’s camelback sofas were some of
the first to be completely upholstered,
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except for exposed legs.
The age of the designer
• George Hepplewhite published a book to offer guidance in
interior design, colour palettes, and how to arrange a room.
His seats were overstuffed, finished with brass nail heads, and
covered in fine haircloths and silk.
Louis XVI chairs Thomas Chippendale’s camelback sofas

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Victorian opulence
• Victorian opulence reigned supreme in the 19th Century. Two
major innovations brought about modern upholstery.
-The first was the steam powered engine, which provided cheap
power to machine looms so that machine woven fabrics could be
mass produced.
-The second wasgoods. theA steel coil
person who spring,
works which
with upholstery is an revolutionized
upholsterer. seat
cushion
• Bold, Rococco revival styles were popular – rich, jewel-colored

upholstery such as velvet, was paired with gilded, painted, or
black lacquer frames. Shiny silks, leather and brocades
featured button tufting. 22
Victorian opulence
• Cornucopia-armed sofas often featured matching, upholstered
round cushions on either end. Fringing and tassels were used
with abandon.
23 Cornucopia-armed sofas
20th century style
• Styles from Mission to Art Deco and Mid Century Modern were
born.
• The invention of Nylon was a durable alternative to silk –

resistant to normal wear and tear that affected more
Thetraditional upholstery.
• Other inventions, from bent steel to fiberglass to molded foam

cores, revolutionized furniture design and brought about many
of the modern designs in furniture we still see today.
• As innovation in technology drives innovation, upholstery and

furnishing fabric is both beautiful
24 and functional.
25
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Types of Upholstery
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Upholstery looks a little different depending on the particular
field. Let’s take a look at three different types of upholstery:
1. Residential
2. Commercial
3. Other Upholstery : Marine, Automotive, Aircraft/Aviation
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1. Residential Upholstery
Also referred to as traditional or domestic upholstery, residential

upholstery applies to furniture from individual residences.
People who have something very specific in mind often seek out
upholsterers to goods.
create furniture
A person who works that is custom-tailored
with upholstery is an upholsterer. to their
specific needs or taste.
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1. Residential Upholstery
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2. Commercial Upholstery
Commercial upholstery extends the services of residential

upholstery to a number of different commercial markets, such as
• hospitality,
•Thehealth
and fitness
goods. A centers,
person who works with upholstery is an upholsterer.
• educational facilities,
• government and
• religious buildings.
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2. Commercial Upholstery
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3. Other Upholstery
• Marine
• Automotive
•TheAircraft/Aviation
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3. Other Upholstery
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3. Other Upholstery
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3. Other Upholstery
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The Manufacturing Process
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Construction
• The consumer usually never sees the construction features of
an upholstered piece, but they are important.
• The overall quality of the materials and construction

techniques used dictate the comfort level of an upholstered
Thepiece and comes
word upholstery its ability to satisfy
from the Middle theupholder,
English word consumer over
which referred the
to an long
artisan term
who help up their
• A basic upholstered piece is composed of a frame, springs,

foam, decking, cushioning, padding, and a cover.
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1. Construction
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1. Frame
• The frame gives structural support and determines the basic
shape of any piece of upholstered furniture. If a frame is
unstable, an upholstered piece will not be durable, no matter
how fine or costly its design, padding, cushioning, or cover.
• Quality frames are generally made of solid wood, rather than

plywood, engineered wood products, a variety of polymers and
metals are also used.
• Hardwood frames are usually constructed from kiln dried

mixed hardwoods. Softwoods make poor frames.
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• Kiln drying reduces the moisture content of the lumber, a
process which inhibits checking, splitting, and strengthens the
finished product.
• Wooden frame joints are often double doweled, which means

that round wooden pegs are fitted into holes in two adjacent
frame
The word sections
upholstery and
comes from glued.
the Middle Epoxy
English coated
word upholder, whichstaples and
referred to an gang
artisan nails
who help up their
are also commonly used.
The gang nail is a metal plate with saw teeth, which immobilizes
the joint when it is pressed into the wood with a hydraulic press.
Major joints need the additional support of corner blocks, which
should be glued and screwed into place.
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2. Frame
Epoxy coated Gang Nails

staples
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3. Springs
• Springs or webbing are attached to the frame to give the seat a
desired amount of elasticity. The most commonly used springs
for furniture are coil springs, sinuous (sag-less) springs, and
the Flex steel ribcage spring system.
• Upholstery with coil springs originated in France during the

reign of Louis XV, replacing the method of stuffing hair or
feathers over webbed frame covers. Coil spring upholstery did
not however come into widespread use until the mid-1800’s
when innovations such as the spring edge and springs in
upholstered backs were popularized.
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• The bottoms of coil springs are normally clipped to the
webbing base on which they sit. These springs are then
compressed and tied with twine to the frame and each other.
Eight-way hand tie (ties with eight knots) has been the
industry standard and is a retail and consumer buzz word.
Springs are tied to give them an initial tension sufficient to
ensure
The word ancomes
upholstery effect
fromof
the order andword
Middle English neatness. They
upholder, which are
referred to analso
artisantied toup their
who help
hold them in the perpendicular position essential to proper
spring action and to prevent shifting of the top of one spring in
relation to the others. Tied springs also help to distribute the
weight rather than placing it all on one or few springs and it
bridges the open spaces inside of and around the top coils to
provide support for filling materials.
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• Coil spring construction produces a firm, uniform seat,
however, other methods which combine different kinds of
springs, only webbing, flexible fabric, or soft cushioning
materials and foams can produce high quality upholstered
products.
• A common spring construction method, which produces a

comfortable soft upholstered front edge, is a spring edge. With
the spring edge, the tops of the springs are positioned well
above the top rail of the frame to form a firm but flexible
floating edge.
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• Sagless springs, webbing, flexible foundation fabric, a drop-in
unit, a simple wood platform of other types of spring units can
be used instead of the more labor intensive hand tied coil
spring constructions. Sagless springs are attached to the frame
with steel clips or tacks. Helical springs are then used to
connect them. The degree of comfort derived from this method
depends
The word upholsteryon the
comes fromresiliency of word
the Middle English theupholder,
spring. which referred to an artisan who help up their
• Webbing, which traditionally consisted of linen or jute band

assembly, has now been largely replaced by synthetic webbing
materials. Webbing and solid panels can also be used as the
deck for top cushions instead of springs.
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• Another type of spring system is the Flex steel blue ribcage
spring system. In the late 1800th founders of Flex steel
purchased Swiss watch spring steel to create a new spring
system. This steel is used in the spring movement of watches
and clocks because of its continuous flexibility and strength.
The steel gets stronger the more times it is flexed. This allows
theupholstery
The word Flex steel
comes ribcage spring
from the Middle system
English word towhich
upholder, give everlasting
referred comfort,
to an artisan who help up their
durability, and reliability for as long as you own your sofa.
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3. Spring
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3. Spring
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4. Deck
• In conventional (coil spring) constructions, layers of padding
are added on top of the springs or webbing to complete the
deck (the area under the seat cushions). In quality upholstery
applications, the deck should be well padded, with no bumps
or lumps.
The padding should extend to the front edge of the deck,
completely covering the spring edge or frame.
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4. Deck
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5. Cushions
• Loose or attached cushions sit on top of the deck. The majority
of cushions are made up of polyurethane foam, which are sewn
in pockets and then attached. Down or synthetic down-like
materials may be used instead of foam in some upholstery
applications.
• Polyurethane foam seat cushions which contain high-density
foam are desirable. They offer better support and durability
than lower density foams. Back cushions do not need foam that
is as dense, but shredded foam which is cheaper to use, may
eventually shift, compact and settle, getting lumpy and uneven
looking.
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• Cushions are normally wrapped or capped (crowned) with
polyester, low-density foam or other soft material for added
surface plushness. This wrapping should give the cushion a
softly rounded look.
• It also helps prevent the fabric from rubbing against the dense
foam
The word corecomes
upholstery andfrom
fills
the cushion
Middle Englishcorners.
word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
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5. Cushion
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Sofa Upholstery Fabrics
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upholstered furniture will be used in different rooms and will
fulfill multiple purposes, it’s important that you select the right
type of materials
1. Natural Fabrics
These upholstery fabrics include linen, cotton, wool, silk, and
leather.
The While
word upholstery linen
comes and
from the silk
Middle are
English both
word very
upholder, whichluxurious, they
referred to an artisan whomust
help up their
be professionally cleaned and should not be used in high traffic
area or homes with young children. However, cotton and wool
are both naturally resistant to stains, fading, and wrinkling. They
often come in blends with synthetic fibers to make them even
easier to clean. With proper care, leather furniture can be both
incredibly comfortable and durable. It can be cleaned with a
damp washcloth or leather conditioner 56
and saddle soap
2. Synthetic Fabrics
Over the years many synthetic fabrics have been developed to
imitate the natural fabrics. These include acetate, acrylic, nylon,
polyester, olefin, and rayon. Even though poorly made synthetic
fibers tend to pill or wrinkle, there are also high quality options
that feel almost identical to their natural counterparts but are
even
The wordmore resistant
upholstery toMiddle
comes from the wear, wrinkling,
English word upholder, and fading.
which referred to an artisan who help up their
By itself, acetate (a good alternative to silk) is not a good choice

for furniture that will see everyday use, while olefin is a very
durable option.
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58
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1. Natural Fabrics
a) Leather
b) Suede
c) Cotton
d) word
The Woolupholstery comes from the Middle English word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
e) Linen
f) Silk
g) Velvet
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01. Standard Leather Upholstery
It is naturally available and is made by tanning animal hides and

skins. Of the three types of leather,
the full-grain (a type of top-grain leather) is commonly used to
make sofa upholstery.
It is obtained from the tough outer skin of animals. It is the
highest quality leather and therefore, doesn’t wear out with time.
Instead, it is known to appear refined and aesthetic by the

development of a sheen on its surface.
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Pros:
• Beautiful and classic appearance.
• Comfortable.
• It lasts for a long time with proper maintenance.
• It collects less dust and mites. Hence less allergenic.
• Easy to clean.
Cons:
• The manufacturing process involves animal cruelty.
• Because it is of the finest quality, full-grain leather is the most
expensive one.
• Air and Water pollution – It is caused by the use of pesticides,
heavy metals and chemicals in tanning processes.
• Leather takes 25-40 years to decompose.
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Cons:
• Exposure to high heat causes cracks in leather upholstery.
Not puncture resistant.
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02. Suede Sofa Upholstery
It is a type of leather with a feel of “raised fibers” (napped), like
the way they are on velvet. Unlike the top grain leather, suede is
made from the inner side of the skin, due to which this material is
soft and less durable than standard leather. Its original intended
use was for making women’s gloves.
Pros:
• It looks like leather and less expensive.
• Softer than leather, comfortable. Sheerness and elstisticity
Cons:
• Soft, hence prone to damage.
• It Absorbs water.
• It Stains easily. Therefore, it requires
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a protective covering.
02. Suede Sofa Upholstery
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03. Cotton for Sofa Upholstery
Cotton is derived from the seed hairs found in seed pods of the
cotton plant. Most of the upholstery material is made of cotton
blends with cotton making up 45%-60% of the fabric.
Pros:
• Withstands fading when not exposed to direct sunlight.
Canvas
• word
The weaves
upholstery are
comes from moreEnglish
the Middle durable. Durability
word upholder, depends
which referred on help
to an artisan who theup their
quality of the weave.
• It is a breathable fabric.
• Machine washing and detergents can do the cleaning.
• Not sensitive to static discharge.
Cons:
• Prone to wrinkles.
• Highly flammable. 66
Cons:
• It has an affinity for moisture and sunlight.
• The low-quality cotton fabric wears and tears easily.
67
04. Wool for Sofa Upholstery
It is derived from animal hair. Most of the woolen upholstery is a
blend.
Pros:
• Durable and strong.
It Doesn’t
• word
The wrinkle
upholstery comes from theor fade.
Middle English word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
• Best fire-resistant fabric.
Cons:
• It feels a little scratchy.
• Difficult to clean if it is not blended with other fibers.
• Can harbor moths. It has to be made moth-proof before using
in upholstery. 68
04. Wool for Sofa Upholstery
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05. Linen for Sofa Upholstery
It is manufactured from flax. When combined with cotton, it
exhibits excellent elasticity. According to ‘the house book’
(Published by Parragon), ‘Linen is a strong natural fabric. It is
available in different weights. It is expensive and creases very
easily, but it feels luxurious.’
Pros:
• Soft and smooth.
• Lustrous
• Linen doesn’t pill.
• It resists soiling.
Cons:
• Not resistant to spills and stains.
• It fades and has to be cleaned 70through dry cleaning.
05. Linen for Sofa Upholstery
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06. Silk for Sofa Upholstery
With its lustrous sheen and smooth texture, the silk is the most
luxurious and expensive material to adorn a home. Silk can be
woven with different patterns, colors and embroidery. Silk is apt
for sofas decorating formal rooms.
Pros:
• Silk is hypo-allergenic. Dust mites do not settle in silk.
• Mould and insect resistant.
• Strong and soft to touch.
• It gives a royal look to home decor.
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Cons:
• It stains quickly.
• It requires professional cleaning.
• Fibers are damaged when exposed to sunlight.
• Not suited for rough or daily use.
• Difficult to maintain.
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07. Velvet for Sofa Upholstery
Velvet is made from synthetic materials like polyester or natural
ones like cotton and silk. Though it is delicate for everyday use,
polyester derived velvet is more durable and comparatively easier
to clean than other types of velvet. According to ‘the house book’
(Published by Parragon), ‘Velvet has a wonderful direction of pile
which
The must comes
word upholstery be used inMiddle
from the theEnglish
same direction.’
word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
Pros:
• Very comfortable and ultra-soft texture.
• Available in a variety of colors.
• It renders a plush look.
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Cons:
• Not suitable for everyday use.
• Cleaning is difficult. The upholstery should not be rubbed to
remove dirt.
• It attracts animal hair.
• Fairly expensive.
The Heat
• word damages
upholstery velvet.
comes from the Middle English word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
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2. Synthetic Fabrics
a) Rexine
b) Artificial leather
c) Faux suede
d) Microfiber/ Micro suede
e) word
The Rayon/
upholsteryViscose (semi-synthetic)
comes from the Middle English word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
f) Olefin
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01. Rexine Sofa Upholstery
It is an imitation leather cloth fabric design developed and
produced by Rexine Ltd. of Hyde, England. Rexine is referred to
as “Poor man’s leather”.
Pros:
• Inexpensive
The Cruelty-free
• word upholstery comes from the Middle English word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
• Easy to clean
Cons:
• It retains heat. Not ideal for hot and humid climates
• It tears easily.
• Non- biodegradable but can be recycled
• Can be disastrous in cases of fire accidents as it is highly
inflammable. 77
01. Rexine Sofa Upholstery
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02. Artificial Leather Sofa Upholstery
Also known as faux leather, leatherette, Vegan leather, PU
leather. It is made from PVC or PU plastic. Artificial leather is
used extensively as a substitute for genuine leather. Pleather is a
type of new artificial leather made by bonding plastic and fabric.
The term ‘Pleather’ is a combination of the two words- plastic and
leather.
Pros:
• Inexpensive
• Cruelty-free
• Gives an elegant look similar to leather.
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Cons:
• PVC is not biodegradable
• Not eco – friendly material. Cancer-causing agents are released
during its manufacturing.
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03. Faux Suede Sofa Upholstery
Faux suede is similar to real suede, but has short fibre and is not
made of animal skin. It is a polyester fabric.
Pros:
• Easy maintenance
Softupholstery
• word
The to touch comesand cozy
from the Middleto sit.word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
English
• Durable, easy to clean
• Cost is lower than that of genuine suede.
• Cruelty-free.
Cons:
• It is prone to discoloration when rubbed with water
• Cleaning technique is sensitive and requires specific cleaning
materials. 81
03. Faux Suede Sofa Upholstery
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04. Micro suede/ Microfiber Sofa Upholstery
Microfiber is a fabric having fiber diameter half that of silk and a
hundred times finer than a human hair. Synthetic microfibers are
made of polyester, nylon, acrylic or rayon.
Micro suede is a newer and purest polyester fabric with

numerous
The tightly
word upholstery woven,
comes from the Middlemicrofibers. Itwhich
English word upholder, imparts the
referred to classy
an artisan who help up their
napped look of genuine suede while being wear-resistant.
Initially, it was called ‘Ultra suede’.
Micro suede is a beautiful combination of luxury and comfort and

has none of the disadvantages of suede leather.
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Pros:
• Repels water and therefore it doesn’t stain.
• Easy cleaning. Simple water and soap will clean the upholstery
effectively.
• This fabric is machine washable and can be dried on a
clothesline.
Theupholstery
• word
The fabriccomes
is breathable. That
from the Middle English means
word upholder, it feels
which cool
referred to an in summer
artisan who help up their
and warm in winter.
• Available in various colors.
• Lightweight.
• Inexpensive than real suede.
• Pet-friendly – the non-woven nature of the fabric discourages
clawing and hence it is scratch resistant.
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Cons:
• Microfibers attract and trap dust and grease.
• The manufacturing process contributes heavily to
environmental pollution.
• The subtle nature of the fiber makes it conducive to heat and
therefore, susceptible to fire accidents.
Notupholstery
• word
The availablecomes in
fromathe
variety of textures
Middle English word upholder,and patterns.
which referred to an artisan who help up their
85
04. Micro suede/ Microfiber Sofa Upholstery
86
05. Rayon/Viscose for Sofa Upholstery
It is a semi-synthetic fabric made from regenerated cellulose.
Rayon, when used for upholstery and other household items, is
called Viscose. It is also called as imitation or artificial silk.
It is absorbent, soft and similar to other natural fibers, but it is

extremely
The flammable.
word upholstery Rayon
comes from the Middle shrinks
English or which
word upholder, stretches, doesn’t
referred to an artisan whoretain
help up their
its original shape, wrinkles, weak and is not durable.
It requires dry cleaning.
87
05. Rayon/Viscose for Sofa Upholstery
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06. Olefin for Sofa Upholstery
It is a polypropylene product derived from ethylene and
propylene. Olefin has a wax-like feel.
Pros:
• Environment-friendly manufacturing process. It is a material
with
The word the lowest
upholstery carbon
comes from the Middle footprint thanwhich
English word upholder, cotton orto an
referred wool.
• Fibers are recyclable
• Mildew, moisture and chemical resistant. Dries rapidly if wet.
• Olefin inherently doesn’t take up stain owing to its chemical
structure.
• It doesn’t require additional anti-microbial, fire retardants or
PFC (Per fluorinated compound) treatments.
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• Strong and light. It retains its shape.
• Easy to clean
• Doesn’t give off static electricity
• Has good abrasion resistance
Cons:
Heat
• word
The sensitive.
upholstery Olefin
comes from breaks
the Middle down
English word and
upholder, melts
which referred in
to anhigh
temperatures. Hence not much suited for outdoor sofa
furniture.
• It should be cleaned carefully and tumble dried or line dried
under shade.
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06. Olefin for Sofa Upholstery
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What to consider when selecting upholstery fabric:
• Weight
• Double rubs
• Weave
• Drape
Weight
• It this the general heaviness of the fabric.
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Drape
• The way a fabric hangs under its own weight.
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Double rubs
• This is a good indication of durability is how many double rubs a fabric has.
The Wyzenbeek test is the standard for measuring double rubs. It tests the
abrasion resistance by rubbing back and forth on the fabric until 2 or more
yarns break or until there is noticeable wear. One double rub is roughly the
equivalent of sitting down and getting up from a chair once. The higher the
double rubs, the more resistant to abrasion.
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Weave
• This refers to how close or loose the weave of the fabric is. Loose weaves are
not recommended for Uphostery.
95
Tool’s for Upholstery
96
The following tools are used during the different phases of the
UPHOLSTERY PROCESS.
The following tools are used during the different phases of the upholstery process.
97
MALLET
• Mallets are sometimes used during the stripping down process
to aid in staple removal. When an upholsterer is unable to
remove a staple with a staple puller alone, they will use the
mallet to hit the end of the tool for extra force.
• When using a mallet for this, be sure to move your hand out of
the way ahead of time and lean away from the staple, as it
could come flying at you upon removal.
98
TACK PULLERS
• Upholsterers use tack pullers to remove any tacks that are
holding fabric in place, at which point they can discard the old
fabric and inspect the layers underneath.
STAPLE PULLERS
Staples
• word
The are
upholstery also
comes fromused toEnglish
the Middle holdword
upholstery
upholder, whichfabric
referred toin
an place,
artisan whoand
help up their
staple pullers serve to remove them so that stripping down can
take place. Just insert the two prongs at the end under the
staple and press down on the handle to pull it out. When
upholsterers need extra force to remove a staple, or when they
want to remove an entire row of staples at one time, they may
use a mallet to knock the end of the staple puller. For that
reason, staple pullers are sometimes 99
called “staple knockers.”
SIDE CUTTERS
• Side cutters are used for cutting wire and removing staples,
especially when the staples are located in narrow channels and
staple pullers will not work. The head of side cutters is
specially designed for easy viewing, gripping, and pulling.
FLAT NOSE PLIERS

• Flat nose pliers allow upholsterers to straighten bent wire,
which is necessary for removing old springs when stripping
down a piece of furniture.
RIPPING HAMMER
• Ripping hammers are double-edged at specific angles to aid in
the stripping of old fabric and100staples.
SPRING CLIP PLIERS
• Spring clip pliers are used to connect seat wire to springs.
PULLING PLIERS
• Pulling pliers are used to remove staples. The angle of the
pliers’ nose is designed to make inserting underneath the
staple,
The word taking
upholstery hold
comes from the of it,English
Middle and word
removing it easy
upholder, which referredeven in narrow
spaces.
101
The following tools are used during the different phases of
WEBBING.
102
TACK HAMMER
• Tack hammers are used to secure webbing in place with tacks.
The magnetized split end of the hammer allows you to hold the
tack before hammering it.
WEBBING STRETCHERS
Webbing
• word
The upholstery stretchers giveEnglish
comes from the Middle upholsterers thereferred
word upholder, which leverage to catch
webbing close to the furniture’s frame. This tool can be used to
attach new webbing or to tighten existing webbing.
STAPLE GUN
• Staple guns are used for stapling webbing in place.
103
The following tools are used during the different phases of SPRINGING.
104
SPRING END FORMER
• Spring end formers are used to bend, or “form,” the end of a
spring so that it does not come out of the spring clip when
mounted on the furniture’s frame. For more complex bends,
you can mount the spring end former in a vise.
KLINCH-IT
• Klinch-its have eliminated the time-consuming process of
sewing springs to the webbing by allowing upholsterers to
fasten them with sturdy steel clips instead. Just fill the klinch-
it magazine with two strips of fasteners, hold the tool upright,
place the nozzle over the spring, press down until the fastener’s
prongs pierce the webbing, and squeeze the lever.
105
SPRING STRETCHER
• A spring stretcher is a tool with a lever that allows you to
position sinuous springs. Attach the spring to one side of the
frame, place the tool’s hook on the second-to-last loop on the
other end of the spring, and use the lever to slowly pull it into
position.
WIRE CUTTER
• Upholsterers use wire cutters to cut springs to the appropriate
length.
106
The following tools are used during the different phases of STUFFING AND
PADDING.
107
ADHESIVES
• Spray adhesives are used to bond foam, stuffing, or padding to
other surfaces or materials.
FILLER BAZOOKA
• A filler bazooka helps fill pillows, pillow backs, cushions,
mattresses,
The word and
upholstery comes frommattress pads
the Middle English wordefficiently without
upholder, which referred the mess.
Just position the back end of the blower above the container of
filling and the front end into the item that’s being filled.
• The tool works with shredded foam, kapok, Styrofoam pellets,

down, and other loose filling materials.
108
UPHOLSTERY REGULATOR
• Upholstery regulators serve to smooth out any irregularities in
the various layers of stuffing before the top cover is applied.
Like needles, upholstery regulators come in different lengths
and gauges.
109
TOP COVER AND FINISHING.
110
SCISSORS
• Upholsterers use scissors to cut the top cover fabric to size.
STAPLE GUN
• A staple gun is used to staple the top cover over the stuffing
and padding.
HOT GLUE GUN
• Upholsterers sometimes use a hot glue gun to attach the final
trim or welting detail.
SEAM STRETCHER
Seam stretchers help upholsterers stretch seams out and smooth
out any wrinkles before blind stitching.
111
This tool can also be used as a caliper to cut large circles and sew
blind stitches.
CURVED NEEDLE KIT

Curved needles are used for slip-stitching cushions, attaching
outer fabric sections, seat work, box edges, and edge rolls.
DECORATIVE NAIL GUN
Upholsterers use decorative nail guns to quickly apply decorative
nails to furniture. Place a handful of decorative nails in the nail
gun’s hopper to avoid frequent reloading.
112
UPHOLSTERY REGULATOR
After applying the top cover, upholsterers use the sharp end of an
upholstery regulator to properly shape a cushion by poking
through the fabric, repositioning filling or foam, and pushing it
into corners or curves. The flat end of the upholstery regulator is
used for finishing pleats or corners and tucking fabric under
metal
The tack strips.
TACK HAMMER
Like with the webbing, a tack hammer is used to hammer tacks
that will hold the top cover in place.
113
DEEP BUTTONING.
114
BUTTON PRESS
Upholsterers use a button press to cut fabric and cover buttons,
custom-making them for each upholstery project. The button
press can be bolted to a table for added stability. Button die
cutters are necessary for the use of a button press.
BUTTON DIE CUTTERS

Button die cutters are used with a button press to cut fabric to
cover buttons. They come in a variety of sizes to create the
appropriate size of fabric for the buttons being used.
115
MALLET
At this point in the upholstery process, upholsterers use a mallet
to cut holes in fabric, in tandem with a belt punch. The mallet
serves to tap the belt punch and add force to cut through the
fabric.
TUFTING NEEDLE
Tufting needles make it easy for upholsterers to add or replace
buttons on upholstered furniture.
BUTTON NEEDLES
Button needles are used for button tufting, to create depressions
in a cushion.
116
BELT PUNCH
Upholsterers use belt punches to cut circles in fabric to an exact
diameter to make buttons in a button press. The fabric should be
placed on a cutting pad, and a wooden mallet or rawhide hammer
(not a steel hammer) should be used to tap the belt punch.
117
Upholstery Method of Tufting
118
Tufting is the term used for a specific method of upholstery. It is
widely used and still very popular in home décor.
Tufting your upholstered pieces adds a very professional finish to

your furniture and can make something simple into something
plusher.
Tufting was created as a way to keep the padding in its place and
add a rounded firmness to the overall finish.
This meant that not only did the furniture look good for longer,
but the actual padding also lasted longer too.
119
Nowadays, with the invention of specially designed foam, tufting
had become more of an aesthetic than a practical necessity.
Tufting is the action of making strategic indentations in the fabric

and padding to create “tufts” and pleats.
The shape of the tufts depends on the method of tufting you are
doing, and when securing the tufts in place, there are a couple of
different ways of doing so.
120
The Different Methods of Tufting
In the world of upholstery, there are three different styles of

tufting;
Diamond
Biscuit
Channel
There are also two ways to finish tufting;
Button
Blind
121
The Different Methods of Tufting
122
What is Button Tufting?
Button tufting is considered the more traditional style and is
frequently used because of the overall aesthetic and general
impression of sophistication that it affords.
Blind tufting, in contrast, is relatively contemporary and has

become
The rather
word upholstery popular
comes in English
from the Middle modern homes.
word upholder, Blind
which referred tufting
to an artisanis
who help up their
minimalist whilst still retaining all the visual interest of tufting.
For button tufting, the most secure option (in our opinion, at
least) is to thread twine or string through the base of the button
(most buttons have a little loop or hole which you can thread
through).
123
Button Tufting
124
What is Blind Tufting?
One method is to take a string or thread of the same, or as similar

as possible, colour as the fabric and using the needle thread the
string up from underneath and over and back down, making a
small stitch about 5 to 10 millimeters long.
The finished article should result in tufts that, from a distance,
make it hard to see what’s actually holding them in place, and
only from up-close can you see the thread.
This method works for both diamond and biscuit tufting.
125
Blind Tufting
A blind-diamnond tufted headbaord
A blind-diamond tufted
headboard
126
What is Biscuit Tufting?
Biscuit tufting is a newer style of tufting in which instead of the
traditional diamond pattern, the tufts are arranged in squares.
This method feels very modern, especially in comparison to

diamond tufting and is very at home with the more contemporary
style
The wordof sleek,
upholstery new
comes fromhomes.
the Middle English word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
Biscuit tufting, like diamond, has incorporated itself into many

different pieces of furniture, from sofas, to armchairs, to
headboards. Using biscuit tufting instead of diamond can really
upscale your home in a different direction whilst still feeling quite
lavish.
127
Biscuit Tufting
128
What is Diamond Tufting?
Diamond tufting is the most popular and widely used method of
tufting.
Its signature diamond arrangement, timeless elegance, and

connotations of luxury and opulence have made it a firm fan
favorite
The for decades
word upholstery and
comes from the itEnglish
Middle shows wordno signwhich
upholder, of referred
slowing down.
Diamond tufting is also varied in the ambience it produces based

on what fabrics you pair it with. Soft, plush fabrics like velvet and
satin feel lavish and feminine, whilst the leather feels more
masculine.
129
Diamond Tufting
130
What is Channel Tufting?
Unlike the previous types which can all be used interchangeably
with one and other, channel tufting is in a league of its own.
A fairly new style of tufting that is quickly stealing the limelight,

channel tufting has become vastly popular.
There are a few different methods on how to create channel
tufting, and in our experience most of the time the method you
use depends on what you are making.
For instance, the backing of a chair or car seat would be different

to say, a headboard.
131
Channel Tufting
132
Tapestry Upholstery
133
Tapestry Upholstery
• Tapestry is a heavy textile with a woven design; used for

curtains and upholstery.
• Most weavers use a naturally based warp thread such as linen

wool
The word or cotton.
upholstery comes from the Middle English word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
• The weft threads are usually wool or cotton, but may include
silk, gold, silver, or other alternatives.
134
• Tapestry is weft-faced weaving, in which all the warp threads
are hidden in the completed work, therefore, could be used on
the reversed side, if preferred but a secondary choice.
135
• Tapestry fabrics are also described as Jacquard because until
the 1990's it used to be woven on a jacquard loom.
• A lot of tapestries are reproductions of the famous tapestries of

the Middle Ages. Also shades of same color woven with a
pattern, or many colors and decorative.
136
History Tapestry Upholstery
• Tapestries have been found to have a Greek influence in the

ancient world.
• Samples of Greek tapestry have been found preserved in the
desert dating from the 3rd century BC.
Tapestry
• word
The upholstery reached a Middle
comes from the newEnglish
stagewordinupholder,
Europe whichin thetoearly
referred fourteenth
an artisan who help up their
century AD. The production originated in Germany and
Switzerland. Over time, the craft expanded to France and the
Netherlands.
• In the 14th and 15th centuries, Arras, France was a thriving
textile town. The industry specialized in fine wool tapestries
which were sold to decorate palaces and castles all over
Europe. 137
• In the 19th century, William Morris, re-introduced the art of
tapestry-making in the medieval style at Merton Abbey. Also
Morris & Co. made successful series of tapestries for home and
church uses.
138
Material
• Wool has been the material most widely used for making the
warp, or the parallel series of threads that run lengthwise in
the fabric of the tapestry.
• The advantages of wool in the weaving of tapestries have been

its availability,
The word workability,
upholstery comes from the Middle English durability, and
word upholder, which thetofact
referred that
an artisan whoit can
help up their
be easily dyed to obtain a wide range of colors.
• Wool has often been used in combination with linen, silk, or

cotton threads for the weft. These materials make possible
greater variety and contrast of color and texture and are better
suited than wool to detail weaving or to creating delicate
effects. 139
Technique
• Tapestry is first of all a technique. It differs from other forms
of patterned weaving in that no weft threads are carried the full
width of the fabric web, except by an occasional accident of
design.
• Each unit of the pattern or the background is woven with a

weft, or thread of the required colour, that is inserted back and
forth only over the section where that colour appears in the
design or cartoon.
• As in the weaving of plain cloth, the weft threads pass over and
under the warp threads alternately and on the return go under
where before it was over and vice
140
versa.
Technique
• Tapestry is first of all a technique. It differs from other forms
of patterned weaving in that no weft threads are carried the full
width of the fabric web, except by an occasional accident of
design.
• Each unit of the pattern or the background is woven with a

weft, or thread of the required colour, that is inserted back and
forth only over the section where that colour appears in the
design or cartoon.
• As in the weaving of plain cloth, the weft threads pass over and
under the warp threads alternately and on the return go under
where before it was over and vice
141
versa.
Technique for Tapestry weaving
142
Technique for Tapestry weaving
143
• Each passage is called a pick, and when completed the wefts
are pushed tightly together by various devices (awl, reed,
batten, comb, or serrated fingernails in Japan).
• The weft threads so outnumber the warps that they conceal

them completely.
• The warps in a finished tapestry appear only as more or less
marked parallel ridges in the texture, or grain of the fabric,
according to their coarseness or fineness.
• The thickness of the warp influences the thickness of the

tapestry fabric.
144
Tapestry Upholstery
145
Tapestry Upholstery
146
How to Maintain Furniture Upholstery
147
Depending on the type of fabric, upholstered furniture may
require varying levels of maintenance and care. If you have
leather furniture, keeping it clean will be fairly simple. Here’s
how you can take care of your leather upholstery:
• Vacuum regularly to get rid of dust

• Use a soft, clean cloth to wipe it down
•
• Treat it with leather conditioner once or twice a year
• Use a dry cloth to wipe all spills immediately
• Use cleaning products that are148suitable for leather

All types of upholstery need proper maintenance if you want your
furniture to last a long time.
One tip that goes for all fabrics is to keep the furniture away from
direct sunlight as much as possible to avoid damage and fading.
149
Can you wash upholstery fabric?
washing upholstery fabric every once in a while seems to be the
only way to keep it spotless. However, not all fabrics are machine
washable. Make sure to check the label for the care codes before
washing your upholstery:
“W” means that you can use only water-based agents and brush
and vacuum only when the fabric is dry.
“S” indicates that you should use mild solvents and dry-cleaning
products which are water-free.
“WS” means that you should use either solvent and upholstery
shampoo or water-based mild detergents.
“X” indicates that the fabric should only be vacuumed or
brushed lightly or professionally150cleaned.
How do you maintain a fabric sofa?
When compared to maintaining leather upholstery, keeping a
fabric sofa in good condition may require a little bit more effort
and care. Fortunately, you can ensure your sofa always looks
brand new by using the following tips:
• Protect the upholstery by applying a fabric-protecting finish

after you purchase the sofa
• Use only non-toxic cleaning agents specifically made for your
type of fabric.
• Deal with stains and spills the moment they happen by blotting
gently with a towel
• Brush and vacuum regularly to remove dust and dirt from the
fabric 151
General consideration and conclusion
152
General Considerations before Choosing a Sofa
Upholstery
• Rub a piece of upholstery fabric against your cheek to check for
its smoothness. That way, you wouldn’t end up with a scratchy,
uncomfortable sofa upholstery.
• The durability of the upholstery fabric is checked by “double-

rubs”. ‘Double-rub’ is a test that measures the wear resistance
of a fabric. It is done by measuring the amount of loss of
substance from the surface of the test fabric by moving a cotton
cloth (duck cloth) to and fro on the sample fabric. Each back
and forth rub constitute a single rub. The more the rubs, the
higher is the durability. Most residential sofa upholstery
fabrics fall in the range of 15,000
153
to 30,000 double-rubs.
• Some fabrics are susceptible to pilling. Pilling simply means
that the fibers of the weave form a fluffy ball due to continuous
friction. Look out for fabrics that resist pilling to prevent the
unsightly appearance of your couch.
• If you need upholsteries made purely of natural fibers without

theupholstery
The word use ofcomes
blends, then
from the Middle you
Englishshould check
word upholder, for the
which referred label
to an artisan ” certified
who help up their
organic”.
• Look for labels that denote the method of cleaning of

upholstery fabric.
• Obtain swatches of upholstery material to collate and decide

on the right one for your needs.
154
In Conclusion
• Leather upholstery is the best in preventing allergies caused by
dust and dust mites. Tight weave fabrics are also
hypoallergenic.
• If you are against animal cruelty, synthetics like microfiber,
faux suede and natural fabrics like cotton will be suitable for
your
The word needs.
upholstery comes from the Middle English word upholder, which referred to an artisan who help up their
• Choose fabrics with higher Higgs index score for eco-friendly
material. For instance, polypropylene, cotton and silk have
higher Higgs index. Higgs index is a tool utilized by apparel
and footwear companies to assess a product’s sustainability in
respect to the environment and human health, from its
beginning at the source to its completion as a product and to
the end of its life cycle. 155
• Pet and children friendly upholstery includes fabrics made of
microfiber, micro suede.
• Upholstery fabrics that are easier to clean are Rexine, artificial

leather, standard leather, microfiber, micro suede.
• Cotton, linen, synthetic microfiber, and olefin are more
durable.
• Pet-friendly upholstery: microfiber and leather are resistant to

stain and clawing. Cotton and linen stains. Suede is difficult to
clean. Velvet and silk upholsteries retain pet hair.
• Synthetics, cotton and blended fabrics are budget friendly.

156

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Furniture, Fitting & Equipments

Year 2, Second Semeter.

A person who works with upholstery is called an

that make up the soft coverings of chairs, sofas, and

• Generally made from leather, cottons other fabrics

• Can be stitched, tacked and stapled glues.

• Quality furniture makers still leather

• Most have a soft foam or similar material under the

until the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, when the first

• Mantelpiece drapes were also very popular, and all types of

• Tall windows were framed with window headings, deep swags

• Elizabethan upholstering materials included:

Jacobean furniture Tooled decorative leather

• People were getting used to the comfort of upholstered

• This chair was referred to as a “sleeping chayre” – you could

• Silk damask, wool moreen, elaborate embroidery were used

19 The evolution of the sleeping chair

• Louis XVI’s chairs were upholstered in pastel blues, pinks, and

Louis XVI chairs Thomas Chippendale’s camelback sofas

• Bold, Rococco revival styles were popular – rich, jewel-colored

• The invention of Nylon was a durable alternative to silk –

• Other inventions, from bent steel to fiberglass to molded foam

• As innovation in technology drives innovation, upholstery and

3. Other Upholstery : Marine, Automotive, Aircraft/Aviation

Also referred to as traditional or domestic upholstery, residential

Commercial upholstery extends the services of residential

• The overall quality of the materials and construction

• A basic upholstered piece is composed of a frame, springs,

• Quality frames are generally made of solid wood, rather than

• Hardwood frames are usually constructed from kiln dried

• Wooden frame joints are often double doweled, which means

Epoxy coated Gang Nails

• Upholstery with coil springs originated in France during the

• A common spring construction method, which produces a

• Webbing, which traditionally consisted of linen or jute band

By itself, acetate (a good alternative to silk) is not a good choice

It is naturally available and is made by tanning animal hides and

Instead, it is known to appear refined and aesthetic by the

Micro suede is a newer and purest polyester fabric with

Micro suede is a beautiful combination of luxury and comfort and

It is absorbent, soft and similar to other natural fibers, but it is

It requires dry cleaning.

FLAT NOSE PLIERS

• The tool works with shredded foam, kapok, Styrofoam pellets,

CURVED NEEDLE KIT

BUTTON DIE CUTTERS

Tufting your upholstered pieces adds a very professional finish to

Tufting is the action of making strategic indentations in the fabric

In the world of upholstery, there are three different styles of

There are also two ways to finish tufting;

Blind tufting, in contrast, is relatively contemporary and has

One method is to take a string or thread of the same, or as similar

This method works for both diamond and biscuit tufting.

A blind-diamnond tufted headbaord

This method feels very modern, especially in comparison to

Biscuit tufting, like diamond, has incorporated itself into many

Its signature diamond arrangement, timeless elegance, and

Diamond tufting is also varied in the ambience it produces based

A fairly new style of tufting that is quickly stealing the limelight,

For instance, the backing of a chair or car seat would be different

• Tapestry is a heavy textile with a woven design; used for

• Most weavers use a naturally based warp thread such as linen

• A lot of tapestries are reproductions of the famous tapestries of

• Tapestries have been found to have a Greek influence in the