SOCIO NOTES

 Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955

o Civil rights – defined in sec 2 – as any rights accruing to a person by reason of the abolition of
untouchability by article 17
o Scheduled castes – meaning – clause 24 of article 366
o Punishment for enforcing religious disabilities – like preventing from entering or worshipping or
bathing, using waters from – in the same manner as is allowed to other people- imprisonment for a
term of not less than one month and not more than six months- fine not less than 100rs but max is
500
 Iske explanation me – lingayatats, etc , buddhist, sikh, jain etc are all hindus
o Punishment for social disabilities p like access to public places, or prevention to carry profession,
use of river or access to – burial ground etc – imprisonment – 1 month – 6 mahine and also with
fine – 100 – 500 rs
o Punishment for refusing to admit in hospital – or any act which discriminated after admission to
hospital – same punishment as earlier
o Punishment for refusing to sell goods to any person at the same time and same place and same
terms as the person does to other persons in ordinary course of business – then liable – same
punishment
o Punishment for preventing any right as given under article 17 by reason of abolishing of
untouchability
 Or molests, annoys wagerh’
 Encourages untouchability by words or written or gestures
 Insults a SC
 Person deemed to boycott- when refused to permit to occupy house or land for
hire or receive any service from him
o Abstains from social relations
 Even justification of untouchability on historical philo or religious griunds – or tradition –
liable
 Same punishment
o Ex communicates person for not practicing untouvhability, denies right to person of community as
is given to others – Liable – same punishment
o Unlawful compulsory labour – like scavenging, carcass remove etc – liable
o Punishment for refusing to sell goods or render services – Court can cancel licenses
o Where manager or trustee of public worship or edu institute or hsotel - government can suspend or
resumption of grant
o Public servant who wilfully neglects the investigation of any offence punishable under this act as
abetment
o State gov can impose collective fine
 When inhabitants of an rea abetted or concerned with offence
 Person aggrieved by that can file a petition against such c0ollective fine
o If convicted twice
 Imprisonment – 6 months – 1yr
 Fine- 200 rs – 500
 Third offence – 1 yr – 2 yr and fine – 500-1k
o When any act constituting an offence under this is done – to a SC – courts presume it was done on
grounds of untouchability
o If a company does it – whoever was responsible to conduct of company – liable
 But not liable if proves offence with consent of director or manager or other officer of
company and then that person liable
 Offence committed without his knowledge or he exercised all due diligence for
prevejntion of such crime – not liable
o no action against legal proceeding – if central or state gov does the act in good faith.
 State gov should ensure – ki legal aid wagerh – adequate facilities’=

The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989

 Economic boycott-
 o Refusal to deal with, work for hire or do business with other person
o Refuse to do anything on terms which commonly is done in the ordinary course of business
o Abstain from professional/business relations
 SC and ST – meanings assigned to them as under clause 24 and 25 of article 366 of Constitution
 Social boycott – refusal to permit a person to render to other person or receive from him any
customary service or abstain from social relations
 Victim – suffered physical, mental, psychological, monetary or emotional harm or harm to property –
and includes his relatives, legal guardian and legal heirs
 Whoever who is not SC/ST –
o Puts inedible or obnoxivous substanve in mouth
o Dumps excreta, sewage or carcasses in premises or such entrace of sc st
o Intent to injure, insult or annoya
o Or garlands wit footwear or parades naked or semi naked
o Or removes clothes, moustache, paints face, body or anything derogatory to human dignity
o Interferes w enjoyment of his rights, including forest rights or water or irrigation facilities
o or dispossesses a member of SC or ST from his land
o wrongfully cultivates on land
 like fabricates records

makes sc st a devdasi
o forces to vote or not to vote
o or after poll – injures
o forces to not file nomination
o and kaafi sare hai – dekhlena bare act bhai
o in sab ka punishment – imprisonment – 6 months – 5 years and with fine

The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers And Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013
o Hazardous cleaning – manual cleaning of sewer or septic tank without protective gear and
other cleaning devices
o Insanitary latrine – latrine – requires human waste to be cleaned or handled manually, either
in situ or in open drain or pit- where excreta is discharged, before excreta is fully decomposed
o If in railwats- water flush latrine – doing – but w devices and protective gear – not liable\
o Manual scavenger- person employed for manually cleaning, carrying or disposing of, or
handling – excreta – from insanitary latrines- before excreta fully decomposes is a manual
scavenger
 Employed or engaged – on a regular or contract basus
 If person cleans but with devices and protective ear – then not liable.
o Within 6 months of commencement of act – occupier of insanitary latrine to either convert or
demolish it
o Local authority can extend the period but not more than 3 months
o Can construct within 9 months – sanitary community latrines
o Within 3 yrs of commencement of this act – municipalites, cantonment boards and railway
authorities – adequate no of sanitary community latrines
o Every state government – to constitute a Vigilance Committee
 The vigilance committee shall ->
 Oversee eco situation of manual scavengers
 And their social rehabilitation
 Advise DM for actions to be takrn
o Every state government- state monitoring committee
 That monitors and advise state gov and local authorities for effective implementation
 Co-ordinate the functions of all concerned agencies
 Look into matters concerned w implementation of this act
o Central - Central Monitoring Committeee
 Same as state wala. But at central level
o Section 31- National Commission for Safai Karamcharis
 Monitor implementation of this act
  Enquire into complaints regarding contravention of the provisions of this Act
 Advise central and state gov for effective implementation
 Take sou motu notice of matter relating to non implement ation
o State government -m designate a state com for safai karamcharis
o Good faith me hai agar toh no suit against state and central government
 Penal Provisions
 a. The Bill provides, for the first contravention of the provision prohibiting insanitary latrines
and manual scavenging, imprisonment upto one year or fine upto rupees fifty thousand, or both, and
double the period of imprisonment and fine, for the second and subsequent offences.
 b. The proposed Bill also provides, for the first contravention of the provision relating to hazardous
cleaning of sewers and septic tanks, imprisonment upto two years or fine upto rupees two lakh, or
both, and imprisonment upto five years and fine upto rupees five lakh, for the second and subsequent
offences.

 c. Offences to be cognizable and non-bailable

 Clause 22 of the Bill provides that offences under the Act would be cognizable and non-
bailable.
 Trial of Offence
 Clause 21 of the Bill provides that the State Government may confer the powers of a Judicial
Magistrate on an Executive Magistrate for conducting the trial of offences under the Act. The offences
may be tried summarily.
 Identification of Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation
 Chapter IV of the Bill, contains detailed provisions for the identification of manual scavengers in
urban and rural areas.
 Implementation Mechanism.
 Clauses 18 and 19 of the Bill provide that the appropriate Govt. shall confer powers on the local
authorities and the District Magistrates to carry out the provisions of the Act and imposes duties on
them to ensure that all provisions of the Bill are complied with, and that in particular, (i) no one
constructs or maintains an insanitary latrine, (ii) no person is employed as a manual scavenger, (iii)
violators of the provisions of the Bill are investigated and prosecuted, and (iv) the manual scavengers
are rehabilitated.
 Vigilance Mechanism
 a. Clause 24 of the Bill provides for constitution of a Vigilance Committee for each district and
Sub-Division, to tender advice to the DM or SDM regarding the action which needs to be taken to
ensure proper implementation of the Act; to oversee the rehabilitation of manual scavengers; to
monitor the offences under the Act and their investigation and prosecution.
 b. Clauses 26, 27, 29 and 30 of the Bill envisage constitution of the State and the Central
Monitoring Committees and provide their composition and functions.
 c. Clause 31 of the proposed Bill assigns to the National Commission for Safai Karmacharis, the
duty of monitoring the implementation of the Act, and vests it with necessary powers for the purpose.
Clause 32 of the Bill empowers the State Govts to designate an appropriate authority (like the State
Commission for Safai Karmacharis or The State Commission for Scheduled Castes, etc.) to monitor
the implementation of the Act and enquire into complaints regarding its violations at the State level.

 Duty of local authorities to use, and of the appropriate governments, to promote the use of
technological appliances in the cleaning of sewers, septic tanks, etc.
 Clause 33 of the Bill casts a duty in this regard so as to eliminate the need for manual handling of
excreta in the cleaning of sewers and septic tanks.

Right of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016

 This is an act – gives effect to UN convention on rights of persons with disabilities
 Barrier means – any factor including communicational, cultural, economic, environmental,
institutional, political, social, attitudinal or structural factors which hamper the full and effective
participation of them
 Disctimination – in relation to disability – any distinction or impairs in exercising any rights in any
field and denial iof reasonable accmodation
 Government should take steps to make their life equal with others
 Person with disability- right to live in communith
 Gov to see they are not obliged to live in any particular living arrangement
 And given access to personal assistance
 No person w disability shall be subject to research without his or her informed consent
 Aggrieved person – right to free legal aid
 Gov should ensure people w disabilities – have access to appropriate information regarding
reproductive and fam planninh
 No subject to medical procedure leading to infertility
 Child to not e separated w parents except by comptetent court – on ground of disability
 Polling stations should be accessible – ensured by EC and SEC
 NALSA and SLSA make sure ki reasonable accommodation for access to schemes and facilities
 Gov – ensure ki people w disabilities have right, equally w others, to own or inherit property, movable
or immovable, control their financial affairs and access to bank karza, etc
 13(3)- IF CONFLICT berween person providing support and disabled – in particular financial prop, or
economic transcation – then such supporting person shall abstain frim providing support to the person
IN THAT TRANSACTION
 Disabled – can alter modify support arrangement and seek support of another
 Limited guardian under 14- person w disability- unable to take legally binding decisions – been
provided adequare appropritate support but still is unable to – then limited guardian
o It is joint decision – mutual trust between guardian and disabled
o Shall be limited for a period
o Or specific decision or situation
 16 – duty of edu institutions
o Admit them – provide edu and sport opportunities ad recreational – equally as others
o Campus, building accessible
o Appropriate modes and means or communication- person deaf or blind
o Detect learning disabilities – take suitable pedagogical and other measures
o Monitor participation
o Provide transportation facilities – and also attendant of children w disabilities
 Gov and appro. Authority- following measures
o Conduct survey of school going children every 5 yrs for idenitfying
o Establish adequate no of teaching training institute
o Train – empliy trachers – including w disability qualified in sifn and braille and of intellectual
disability
o Scholarships do in appropiritate cases of benchmark disability
o Suitable modifications – like extra time – facility of scribe or armanuensis, exemption from
second and third language courses
o Promote research to imp learning etc
 Measures to promote, protect and ensure participation of diaabled in adult education and continuing
edu programmes equally w others
 19- Vocaational training and self-employment – schemes and programmes including provision of loans
at concessional rates to facilitate and support employment of persons w disabilities- for vocational
training and self employment
o Exclusive training programmes for autism
o Loans at microcredit and concessional rates
o Marketing products made by persons w disabilities
 20- no discrimination in employment
o But government can exempt certain work according to regard w nature of it
o No promotion denied
o Reasonable accommodation and appropritate barrier free conducive environment
o IF employee after acquiring disability – not suitable for post they were holding
 Be shifted to some other post w same pay scale and service beenfits
 If not possible to adjust post
 o Be kept on supernumerary psot until suitable post available or he
attains age of superannution – whiever earlier

Gov can frame policies for transfer and posting of them
o Every establishment – equal opportunity policy
 Government establishment -to make grievance redressal mechanism
 Government – formulate schemes to promote social rights
o For them to safeguard their rights, live independently
o Quantum of assistance should be atleast 25 percent – higher than similar schmes applicable to
others
o Schemes like
 Access to good living conditions, support in naturel disaster, woman w disability for
livelihood of children
 Safe dr9nking water, aids and appliances, mediciene
 Disability pension – subject to such income ceiling
 Unemployment allowance – person w disabilities
 Care giver allowance- with high support needs
 Comprehensive insurance scheme- for person w disability
 25 – healthcare- gov and local authorities should
o Free healthvcare – subject to fam income – in rurak area
o Priority in attendant and treatment
o Various methods of preventing disability
o Screen all children atleast once a year fir indentyfing
o Sexual reproductive – for women
o Durinf natural dixasters
o Create awareness
 Should make insurance schemes for employees w disabilities – GOV and local authorites
 To promote and protects rights to have cultural life and participate in recreational
o Facilities
o Art accessible
o Disability istory museum\
o Sponsorship to artists and writers w fisability
o Redesigining courses in cultural and arts subject
o Developing tech to maje recreational inclusive
o Ppl w hearing issues – can have access to television programme
 30- sporting ka
o Restructure courses
o Redesign infrastructure
o Devlop tech to enhace potentiak and ability in sports
o Multisensory essentials
o Allocate funds for infra
o Disability specific events
 31- free edu for benchmark disabilities
o Age 6-18
o Free edu in neighbourhood or special school, of his choise
o Gov and local authorities to ensute this
 All government institutions og higher edu or institutions receiving grant
o Reserve not less than 5 percent seats for benchmark disabiliites
 Gov – identify posts in establishment
o Held by respective category of persons w benchmark disabilities
 In every government establishment – 4 percent for benchmark disabiliites
o And 1 percent usme for
 Blindness or low vision
 Deaf and hard of hearing
 Locomotor disability – celebral palsy, leprosy, acid attack victims and muscular
dustrophy etc
 o And 1 percent usme for
 Autism, learning and intellectual disa
 Multiple disabilities under earlier mentioned
 Incentive to employer in private sector- atleast 5 percent of workforce of benchmark disability
 Special schemes
o 5 % in agricultural land with appropriate priority w benchmark disability
o 5% in poverty alleviation
o 5% in allotment of land on concessional rates
 Central gov – in consultation w chief commissioner. Formulate rules for accessibility
 41- access to transports
o Facilities w disabilities at bus stops
o Accessibility to roads
o Personal mobiluty bechicles at affordable cos – by incentives and retrofittinf and personal
mobility assistance
 Accessibility in info and communication
 General use for person w disabilities – promote such goods
 5 sall me existing infra to be made accessible
 Human resources for purposes of this act
o Mandate training on disability rights
o Induct disability as component in all school, uni, college, and social eo5ker offivers
 State advisory board on disability
 Central government – appoint chief commissioner for persons with disabilities
o Identiy – provision of law inconsistent w this act
o Inquire deprivation of rights
o Measures to safeguard review
o Review factors that inhibit enjoyment of rights of persons
o Make recommendations after looking at international treaties lawes
o Awareness promote
o Monitor implementation and utilization of funds
 He ca summon witnesses
 Has same powers as of a civil code while trying a suit
 Requisition public record
 Evidence on affidavit
 Issuing commissions
 Shall submit an annual report
 State government – apna state commissioner
o Should have special knowledge
o Same as oehle wale ka kaam at a state level
 Any recommendation made by state commissioner 0- authority should take necessary action and
inform within 3 months
 Same powers as that of civil court etc etc
o Annual report
 State gov- make special court – w concurrence of CJ of that HC
 National fund for them
 State fund
 Punishment for contravention of act – 10k max
o And second baar – 50k- 5 lakh
 Fraudulently saying having benchmark disability – 2 yrs or w ith fine – extend to 1 lakh or with both
 Punishment for atrocities’
o Imprisonment – 6 months – 5 yrs and with fine
UN CONVENTION ON RIGHTS OF PERSON WITH DISABILITIES

t was adopted in 2006 in the New York headquarters of the United Nations and entered into force The
Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is the expert body that monitors the implementation of the
convention by parties.
 All parties to the convention are obliged to send reports to this committee stating how they are
implementing the convention and the progress made so far.
 The first report is to be sent within two years of signing.
 Subsequently, the report should be sent every four years.

 in 2008.
 Currently, the convention has received 177 ratifications.

 The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities states that
individuals who believe their rights as per the convention have been violated can bring their complaints
to the UN Disability Committee (only after they have exhausted the option of seeking redress with their
respective national government).

 he Parliament enacted the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 with a view to fulfilling the
obligations under the UNCRPD. Read more about the Act in CNA dated July 17, 2020.
 The government also launched the Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan (Accessible India Campaign) with the
objective of making government buildings more accessible to the disabled people.
 981 was the International Year of Disabled Persons; an outcome of year was the World Programme of
Action Concerning Disabled Persons. The Year was followed by the Decade of Disabled Persons,
1983–1992
 The Convention defines "reasonable accommodation" as "necessary and appropriate modification and
adjustments not imposing a disproportionate or undue burden, where needed in a particular case, to
ensure to persons with disabilities the enjoyment or exercise on an equal basis with others of all human
rights and fundamental freedoms" in Article 2 and demands this all aspects of life including inclusive
education.
 Article 8 of the Convention stresses parties' commitment to awareness raising to foster respect for
rights and dignity to counter disability discrimination. Parties
 In its Article 9, the Convention stresses that persons with disabilities should be able to live
independently and participate fully in all aspects of life. To this end, States Parties should take
appropriate measures to ensure that persons with disabilities have access, to the physical environment,
to transportation, to information and communications technology, and to other facilities and services
open or provided to the public. Accessibility can be grouped into three main groups. 1. physical
accessibility 2. service accessibility 3. accessibility to communication and information.
 Article 12 of the Convention affirms the equal recognition before the law and legal capacity of persons
with disabilities
 Article 13 of the Convention affirms the effective access to justice for persons with disabilities,

Article 29 requires that all Contracting States protect "the right of persons with disabilities to vote
by secret ballot in elections and public referendums". According to this provision, each Contracting
State should provide for voting equipment which would enable disabled voters to vote independently
and secretly.
 Article 29 also requires that Contracting States ensure "that voting procedures, facilities and materials
are appropriate, accessible and easy to understand and use."
 rticle 23 of the Convention prohibits compulsory sterilization of disabled persons and guarantees their
right to adopt children.
 he convention's Article 24 states that persons with disabilities should be guaranteed the right
to inclusive education at all levels, regardless of age, without discrimination and on the basis of equal
opportunity
 arties are to take appropriate measures, such as: endorsing the learning of Braille, alternative
script, augmentative and alternative modes, means and formats of communication and orientation and
mobility skills, and facilitating peer support and mentoring;
 and employing teachers, including teachers with disabilities, who are qualified in sign
language and/or Braille, and to train education professionals and staff about disability awareness, use of
 augmentative and alternative modes and formats of communication, and educational techniques and
materials to support persons with disabilities.
 The Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities' General Comment Number 4, adopted in
August 2016
 rticle 25 specifies that "persons with disabilities have the right to the enjoyment of the highest
attainable standard of health without discrimination on the basis of disability."
 nable persons with disabilities to attain and maintain maximum independence, full physical, mental,
social and vocational ability, and full inclusion and participation in all aspects of life.
 The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is a side-agreement
to the Convention which allows its parties to recognise the competence of the Committee on the Rights
of Persons with Disabilities to consider complaints from individual

FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM BY G.S GHURYE

 Caste is the most general form of social organization in India but also because it
presents such a marked contrast to the social grouping prevelant in Euroope or am
 Two features
o Ubiquity
o Strangeness
 These has made scholards study
 Megasthenes account of caste in 3rd centyry Bc is the earloes
o Brings two of the features to the forefront
o Yet fails to give a complete idea of the system
 Segmental division of society
o Status not depended on wealth but in which it was born
o In class based soc- class no standind to regulate conduct and morals of
members
o Governing body of caste – panchayat
 Quasi sovereignity of caste
o Caste a group with sep araangement for meeting out justice to its members
o Caste council was prepared to retry crim offences decided by courts of law
o Members of caste ceased to be mebrs
o Members owed moral allegiance to caste
o Caste is its own ruler
o Difference in morals and customs in castes
 HIEARCHY
o Hierarchy of groups
o John Fryer – visited india – 1670
 In any one of the linguistic division of india
 There are many as two hundred castes which can be grouped in classes
 RESTRICTIONS ON FEEDING AND SOCIAL INTERCOURSE
o Practices in matter of food and social “ – divide india into 2 belts
 Hinfustan proper – caste divided into 5 grps
 Twice born
  Those casres at whose hands twice can take pakka food
 Those “ at whose hands twice cannot take palla food but may
take water
 Castes, that are untouchable, yet twice borneven cannot take
water
 Whose tiuch defiles not only twice born but any hindu
 All food in – two classes – kachcha and pakka
 Food in which warer has been used – kacha
 All food cooked in ghee without addition of water – pakka
 Man never eats kacha food apart from one from his own caste –
whether caste or subcaste
 Brahhman acceot kaccha not from any other caste but only theirs
o The ideas about power of certain castes to convey pollution by touch are not
that developed in norh as in south
 In Bengal, castes divided into
o Brahmins
o Shudras
 This is divided into 4 sub classes
 Sat Shudra Group – includes Kayastha etc
 Jalacharaniya Shudras – being those caste – notbelonging of nabashakh
grp- from which brahmins can take water
 Jalabyabaharya Shudras
 Castes from whose han brahmin cannot take water
 Asprishya Shudras
 Touch so impure as to pollute the ganges
 They are thus the untouchables
 Bengal me there are castes that will not accept kaccha food from even
a brahmin
 Pakka food can not only be taken fro. Higher or ones caste but also
caste of confectioners- myras and halwais
 iN South benga, Gujarat, and souther india
o no such distinction between kacha and pakka food
o where brahmin accepts no food than from own caste
o ad other caste also more or less follow this
o this rule is not as strict whej accepting water
 CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS DISABILITIES AND PRIVILEGES OF DIFF
SECTIONS
o Segregation of individual casres of grps of castes
o Southern india – stands out distinct in the rigidity of these rules
o In northern india- maratha and karanese regions – only untouchables
segregated
o In southern india there are certain parts of villages and towns that are not
accessible to certain castes
 Under rule of marathas and peshwas, maahars and mangs were not
allowed within the gates of poona after 3PM and before 9pm
 Because their shadow defiles
o In dravadian india- prescribed what sort of houses untouchables be build and
what material they can use for construction thererof
  Shanars and izhavas – not allowed bild house above one storey
 Not allowed to carry umbrellas
 to wear shoes
 in Malabar, brahmins alone permitted to sit on boards foemed in shape
of tortoise, and others if do, capital punishment
o In Malabar – house is called by diff names according to occupant’s caste
o Certain sacraments- cannot be performed by any caste other than brahmin
 Most sacred literature – shudras cannot read
o
o Each sub- caste and caste – endogamous hota
 Principle of strict endogamy – dominant aspect of caste society
o In some parts of Punjab, especially hills – Higher caste man can marry lower
caste woman
o In Malabar, the younger sons of Nambudiri and other Brahmin consort with
kshatriya and naayr woman
 Other authentic case where intercaste marriage is allowed is that of some of the
artisan castes of Malabar
o if not followed – out of his own subcaste
 Writer says to regard endogamy as chief characteristic of caste is to treat all sub castes
as the real castes
o 2 reasons/issues w this
 Contrary to native feeling om the subject and highly inconvienent in
practice
 Would create a bewildering multiplicity of castes

MULTIPLE REFERENCES IN INDIAN CASTE SYSTEM

 Modern Indian urban or metropolitian type of stratification

o Open unbounded system
o Urban stratification – universalistic as well as infinitely expansible
o High or low positions in society – measured largely according to qualities set
against the general urban scale of higher and lower qualities
 SANSKRITIZATION AND WESTERNIZATION
o Sanskriitixzation – seems – to have occurred – through Indian his and still
continues to occur
o Westernization, refers to changes introduced into Indian society during british
soc and which continues in some cases, in independent india
o Westernization unlike the other is not confined to any particular section of the
Indian population and its importance is increasing
 Achievement of independence – quicked – in some ways – westernization
 Sanskiritization – process by which ‘lower’ hindu caste or tribal group, changes its
customs, ritual, ideology and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently
twice born caste
o Such changes followed by a claim to higher position – caste hierarchy
o Claim made over a period of time – a generation ortwo before the arrival it is
conceded
o Occasionaly, - caste claims a position which its neighbouts not willing to
concede’
  The dispute between claimed and conceded status may not – only in
realm of opinion but more impotant realm of institutionalized practice
 Ex harijan castes in mysore not accepting cook food and
drinking water from smiths- who are though superior to
harijans
 Because of their claim of Vishwakarma brahmins
 Sanskritixation – accompanied generally by – upward mobility
o But mobility can occur without Sanskritization and vice versa
o But mobility is positional change and not structural change
 Saanskritizxation is not confined to hindu castes – also amongst tribal and semi trubal
groups
 Milton Singer – 4 models of Sanskritization
 Local version uses 4 varna labels
o Brahmin
o Kshatrya
o Vaishya
o Shudra
 Relative prestige and rank of these different varnas tend to vary with locality, time
and group.
 First three varnas – dwija or twice born
o As only they entitled to don the sacred thread at the ceremony of upanayana –
interpreted as sacred thread
 Some elements of local culture common to all castes living in a region – like speaking
the same language, observing common festivals, and share certain local deities and
beliefs -Vertical Solidarity
 Horizontal solidarity – members of single caste or varna have
 K.M Panikkar – historian – no such thinbg as kshatriya during last 2K years of history
 Nandas – last true kshatriyas – disappeared in 5th cent Bc
 Onr of the most imp functions of genealogist and bardic castes was to legitmzw
mobility friom ranks of lower to kshatriya – by proviind suitable genealogical linkage
and myth
 Somw caste – in omnibus category of – shudra may have highly sanskritized style of
life
 Whereas others minimally sanskritizwd
 DOMINant caste – for a caste to be dominant,
o Own a sizable amts of arable land locally available
o Numerical stenghth
o High place in local hierarchy.
 There can be more than1 dominant class ina. Village
 But over time one dom class may give way to another
 This happened evn in pre british india
 New factors affecting dominance – like western jobs, urbans sources
of income
 Intro duction of adult franhise and panchayati raj
o New sense of sself respect
o And power for harijans
o This is a threat to dom class
 Endemic factionalism in dominant class also another threat to its continued enjoyment
of power
 Caste which enjoys dom in 1 illage – can find they have to reckon w dom castre at
regional level
 Landownership crucial in establishing dominance\
o Pattern of in rural india that bulk of arable aknd concentrared in hands of a
relatively small no
o Landownership confers not only power but prestige
o This affects their relations
 TWO distinct tendencies implicit in caste system
o First an acceptance of existencd of multiple cultures
 Including moral and religious law
o Such acceptance followed by a feeling that some institutions, ideas, beliefs
and practices are relevant to one’s grp while others ae not
 A pesant – proud of agriculture
 An artisan similar attitude towards their own occupation
 Occasjinally,a man is heard making slighting remakrs about hereditary
occupation of other caste
o Other tendency inherent in caste system
 Is imitation of wsys of higher caste
o Influence of dom castes extend ro all areas of social life
 Including fundamental matters as the principle of descent and
affiliation
 S.L KALIA – described process of tribalization occurring in jaunsar bawar region of
up
o Where higher caste hindus temp reside among tral ppl
o And take over latter’s mores, rituals and beliefs
o Whch are antithetical to their own
 Those brahmins also told him who had sex with hilly woman
 Purify themsekves when they cross jumna and return to
Dehradun
o BUT such a situation is diff from that in a multi caste
village dominanted by single caste
o Each caste knows rules and ounishments
o But even these does not deter tbe non dominant class to
admire dominant
 Small no of brahmins and hugher castes follow
and may assimilate fratures of dom class
 They may go native instead of being agents of
sanskritixation
 Culture of brahmins not always sanskritized
 Sanadh brahmins of western uo
 Pte bitish india – expiating sins and religious merit toh gift land hosue gold to
brahmins
 Gifts given on occasion like coronation, death, birth of prince, marriage
 Centres of pilgrimage and monasteries also sources of Sanskritization
o Each pilgrimage centre – its own hinterland
 Later vedic texts – record conflict between brahmins and kshatriyas
  Claims that Kshatriya had no superior and priest was only follower of the king
 Jainism and buddhism show traces f this conflict

Ecological Conflict and the Environmental Movement in India by Madhav Gadgil and
Ramchandra Guha

 Dharna – narmanda river pe for Sardar Sarovar Dam

 Pm – assured them will be reviewed
 Not being allowed to move further – dharna on Gordah River bridge
 Social conflicts over nature and natural resources add a third category to the two
generic forms of conflict
o Over cultivated land and
o Within Factory
 Nature based conflict- v hardly documented
 Peasants of mandal – hugged trees
 Novel techniques and Gandhian Associations – Chipko movement rapidly acquired
fame
 In tribal india - forest conflicts often have a sharper political edge
 Inception of Indian Forest department – 1984
 Takeover of large areas of forest by colonial state
o Political watershed- represented an enormous expansion of powers of state
o Social Watershed – by curbing access – radically altered trad patterns of
resource use
o Ecological watershed – emergence of timber as an imp commodity was to
fundadmentallu alter forest ecology
 Imperatives of colonial forestry were largely commercial]
 1913- gov committee in madras presidency stuck by hostility towards forest
department
 Popular resistance to State forestry- embraced forms of protest that minimized
element of confrontation
 Post independence – accelerated
 New ecological dimension addednto moral/ political/ eco dimensoons
 Popular movrments – in defence of customary rights- control of woodland – revert to
communal hands w stqte withdrawing from ownership and management
 Those opposing forest management – contrast beyween subsistence oritentwtion of
cvillagers and commercial orientation
 rotesting against the allotment by the state of village pasture land to a polyfibre industry which
intended to grow eucalyp- tus on it, the peasants of Kusnur and surrounding villages organized a
‘Pluck-and-Plant’ satyagraha demonstration on 14 November 1987, when they symbolically plucked a
hundred eucalyptus saplings and replaced them with useful local species. Less than a year later, and
probably without knowledge of the Kusnur precedent, Chipko activists in the northern state of
Himachal Pradesh were arrested on charges of causing ‘damage to public property’

 Dharwad and chamba – conflict between village interest and commercial of state
forestry
 Most Areas – forest dependent artisans have yet to be politically organized
o No longer the case with millions of tribals in central india
 For merchants – most lucrative minor – is tendu leaf (I am the most lucrative minor)
 Several areas – tribal forest labourers organized by left wing revolutionaries
 Coordinated opposition to draft forest Bill- of 1982
o Act sought to strengthen punitive powers of forest dept
 Space vacated by forest- occupied by dams
o This shift – seen in first 2 citizen reports on state of india’s environment
o 1st one dedicated to Women of chimoli
 Originators of Chipko movement
o Second – dam displaced people of india
 Critics of multipurpose river valley –
o From economic perspective – gvt overvalues benefits and undervalues costs
 Siltation rates have usually been much higher than anticipated
 Shortens life of reservoirs
o Ecological
 Waterlogging
 Submergence of forests
 And of forests
 Disrupts fish life and water borne diseases
o Social implications of dam – evoked popular response
o Last three decades – more than 11.5 million people displaced by development
projs without rehabilitation
 First precursor – Mulshi Satyagraha
o Dam near Bombay by Tatas
o Near lonavala
o When tatas came for second phase of proj
 They ran into trouble
o Company would test trenches without legal formalities pehle
o Opposition led by Congressi – Senapati Bapat
 Halted – for a year
o Bombay gov – ordinance where tatats can acquire by payment of
compensation
o Resistanve split into 2
 Brahmin landlords – owned much of lsnd in Mulshi- in favor
 Tenants and Senapati Bapat – against
 They failed in 3rd year
o Compensation pocketed by landlords
o When satryagraha broke out – british district collector came
 Remarked this would light up bombay’s latrones and criticism on this
o Proj
 One and a half lakh – electrical house power would be created by
mulshi peta dam
 525,000 coals a year
 Water can be directed for agri purposes
o Henry hart – if first wave of large dams built in independent India
 Noted resentment of villagers confronted w prospect of displacement
o 1953- Narayan deva keri – ke rsidents – hoped it will not submerge their town
o Most standing opposition to tehri dam – river bhageerathi
 Seismic sensitivity of the fragile mountain chain
 Submergence of large areas of forest, agricultural land and historic
town of tehri
  Deforestation
o Chandi prasad – resistance building of dam at Vishnu prayag
 On alakananda river in eastern garhwal
o Koel karo dam – opposition in Bihar
o Bhopalpatnam – Inchampalli – Maharashtra – Madhya Pradesh bihar
o In both cases – threatned tribal gros put defece – demonstrations
o Koel struggle establisegd by left winf pol grps like cpi, Jharkhand mukti
morcha
 Initiated by baba amte
o Uttara kannada farmers = foeced to abandon dam
o Silent valley
 120kw dam – kerala
 Marxisant movement
 Kerala sastriya sahitya parishad
 KSSP – technoeconomic reasons
o Claude Alvares- worst greatest planned environment disaster – Narmada
valley
o 30 major dams on narmada
o 100,000 people will be rendered homeless according to 1981 census
o Medha Patkar – first talked of rehabilitation
 When realized no land available in MP/Maharashtra and Gujrat then
opposed the construction
o Movement really fathered ince 1989
o Sangharsh Yatra – from rajghat to ferkuva
o Narmafa how diff than other protests and movements -
o SPEED
 Acticist grps working in 3 states
 Covered in print media
o ACTIVE COUNTER MOVEMENT
 Politicians, and social activist
 Rallied behind rich farmwers
 Social base of forest and anti damn
o Amongst the tribals and poor peasantry
 rd
3 category of nature based conflicts
o Artisanal fisherfolk
o Dependence on a living resource – undermined in recent years – their living
resource
o Problems of ocen going fisherfolk – work of John Kurien displays
o Most intense in southern states
o For centrueis fishing controlled by smol artisans and big businesses entered
o Majority faced brunt of direct competition from trawlers
o This conflict gave rise to movement
o Partial ban in 188-89 resulted un increased harvest during monsoon
 Free the Ganga
 Bhagalpur bihar movement
 2 families asserted hereditary rights over 50 mile of ganga
 Waterlords levied taxes on 40k fisherfolk
 Since 1980s- ganga mukti andolan
  Mines and Misery
o Conflicts – imposed by one kind of economic activity
o Open cast mining
o Doon Valley
 Northwest india
 Watering hole of the Indian elite
 Limestone quarring
 Friends of doon and Save musoorie- safeguard habitat of valley
 These grps characterizedaas NIMBY envitronmentalist
 1sr grp – politicias lobbied
 2nd – sit ins to stop quarring
 One of NIMBY activist said minimg shifted to interiror hills- so that
Dehradun mussosrie be safged
 She unaware that it was already happening in inner hils
o Kumaun – long history of social movements
 Sangarsh Samitis – struggle committees- village level
 Laxmi ashram – in Kausani – Sarla devi started- involved women in these protests
 Sambalpur district – gandhamardan – BALCO
o Bauxite extraction caused deforestation, erosion and pollution of water
 3 day strike in front of block development office
 Followed by 2 month later – bloickade of BALCO vehciles
 3 units of Gwalior rayons – owned by Birlas- affects economic life and welfare
 1987- people protested in raigadh district for discharge of efulents- demanded 10
million in damages-south asia’s largest distilery
 World environment day – 1984- ambur 0 site of tanneries – hartal and total strike
 INDIAN Envrionment movement
o Material

o Political- organization by social action grops, promotion of environmental
message through use of media, informal means like tours,
 These hv been doneb by grps outside of formal party politivs
o Ideological expressions
 Fostering of a public debate on development options – ideological
expression
 6 types of protest forms used by environmentalists
o Pradarshan – collective show ofstrenght by communities
 Form of provession, meeting near official power like dam porj
site, dm residence
 Intended to show popular dissastisfaction
o Dharna
 Aims at stopping eco sctivities


Variant fprm of dharna is gherao- here senior buruecrat or politician surrounded and heckled
untik rescued by polis or accedes to demands

Rasta roko - ,ore wider target than gherao- block channels of communication- that may not be
related to object of disaffection
 5th – jail bharo andolan
o Mostly violates 144 of crpc
 Bhook hartal
o Above methods are collective in nature
 Narmada –
o Sangharsh yatra
o Jal samadhi = water burial – immerse themselves in rising waters than be
displaced
 Eco development camp
o Widely used by action grps to promote afforestation
o Yakshagana- dance drama related to environmental abuse and renewal
 Padyatra – walking tour
o Vinoba bhave used
o 1st environment padyatra- 4k km – sunderlall bahaguna – Kashmir to Kohima
o Save the western ghats- along 2500km long mountain chain
 To study first hand env degaradations and its consequences and try to
activate local grps as a watchdog role
o Save the Sivalisms
 200km sivalik range in J and K
o Kanyakumari march
 Water
 Organized by national fisherfolk forum in 1989 under sologan protect
waters, protect life
 Widen peoples awareness of link between water and life
 Form a network of tese issues
 Pressurize government
 Access damage alr done
 DGSM
o Chandi prasad bhatt
o Reconstruction at grass roots
o Afforestation work
o 75 percet survical rate of samplings- as opposed to 14 in forest dept
plantations
 Second example of eco restoration
o Sangli district of Maharashtra
o Socialist workerz
o 2 villages inspired by socialist and science actisvitst
 Built small dman that sporadically contained water
 As peasants faced w drought persistent
 For this they llowed permission to sell sand from river bed
 But admin auctioned to private merchants
 And reluctant to sanction damn
 Hunger strikes, gherao, processions forced govr toabandon it
 Finally bali raj memorial dam – 1988
 aNNA Hazare
o ralegaon siddhi
o drought prone
o realised problem is retention of rainwater
 o organized villagers in building storage ponds and embankmenrs
o hazare mobilized – to plant 400,000 saplings
 macro level org to coordinate w various grps and activities
o process got boost w destructive development in harsud 1989
o formation of jan vikaas andolan – 5th anniversary of Bhopal disaster- initiated
by grps participated in harsud rally
o JVA objectives
 Coordinate collective action
 Provide national solidarity
 Mobilize wider oublic opinion
 Work towards alternative vision
 3 distinct ideological perspectives
o Crusading gandhian
 Moral religious idiom
 Rejection of modern way of life
 Environmental degradation and social conflict- moral problem
 Materialism and consumerism draws humans away from nature
 Eastern culture essence is indifferenfe
 Hostility to economic gain
 Precolonial/precapitalist village society
 Gandhi’s invocation of ram rajya taken literally than metaphorically
 Cite hindu scriptutres as traditional reverence for nature and lifeforms
o Marxist
 Problem see in pol economic terms
 Not on question on values
 It is unequal access to resources
 Rich destroys nature in pursuit of profit
 While poor do so to survice
 For ecological Marxist – creation of just society economical – is
logical precondition of social and ecoclogical harmony
 Most closely associated w people science movdments
 Like kersla sastra sahitya parishad
o Both can be seen as representing ideological and pol extrenes
o Appropriate technology
 Less strindent in opposition to industrial soc
 Working sytneshsi for western and easterb
o Modern and rraditional
o Angriculture and industry
 Demonstrates a set of socio technical alternatives
o All three depicted ub Chipko
 Marxist – uttrakhand sagarsh vahini
 Appropriate technologies - dashauli gram swarajya mandal
 Gandhian – subderlal bahaguna
o Crusading gandhians reject socialism as western
o And leads to them ignoring or justifying inequalities
o App technologists – influenced y marxsism to acknolwege presence of
inequaiutes
 Bur rarely dhow will to change social hierarchies in practice
o Gandhian consider science- responsible for worst excesses in society
 o Marxists – scientific temper – indjspensable ally
o Appropriate technologists – work on a micro scame
o Gandhians- largest attempted rech - \
o Ma4rcists – intermediate range –
o Rural romaniticism in gandhians- emphazie exclusively agrarian
environmental problems
 BB VOHRA – public attention to kland and water degradation
 Neiher wilderness protection nor scientific conservation – look upon state as ultimate
guarantor of protection
o Their lobbuing- widelife protection act
o Forest conservation act
 Environmentalismt – expansion of leisure
 Theoru that poor countries not interested and this is upper midle class
 Theory wrong as poor country interested but somethings diff like
o Social origins of environmental impulse – 1st world v 3rd world
o In Indian cae – shortages 0 threaten livelihof and survical
o And both have different trajectories In eco development
o Environmental destructions in west –ermged out of threats of leisure options
o Diff forms of protest – in india – direct action – hugging, demonstrations,
attacks on officlal property
o Usa – litigation, lobbying and use of media, politicians
 But this is changing
 India me litigation and usa me direct action
o In usa – scientist play eke role in movement
o India me don’t

SILENT VALLEY

 Kunthipuzha river
 1970- kseb proposes hydroelectric dam across kunthipuzha dam
 Submerge 8.3 sq of untouched moist evergreen forest
 Generate electricity for state of kerala w installation of four units of 60MV
each
 Irrigate an additional 100 sqkm in mallapuram and Palghat district
 Provide employeemt
 1971- steven green p raised concerens
 1973- planning commission approved but no suffiicebt funds toh delayed
 1976- national committee – zafar futehally – studies ecological problems that
could be precipitated byproj
o Conservationists say
 Entire lower valley subermged
 10 percebt liss projected by gov far worse
 Workforce brought will reside and destruct the area for years
 1977- Sathish Chandran nair
o Awareness in academic circles
 Report of VS Vijayan of kerala forest research institute suppressed
 General assembky of IUCN urges gov to stip
 Many emninnet people like madgav, Subramaniam swam etc write to stop
  Salim ali says short sighted proj
 BNHS and geological surbey of india – ask to be declared a natural bioreserve
 1979 – proj begins
 1979- stay order from hc kerala
 Charan singh institutes central committee to investigate ubder M.S
Swaminathan
 State gov sets its panel of environmentalists to support
 1980- worj stars
 Small no of ppl meet governor and say stay order until central committee
gives report
 Leading Malayalam projs earlier supported prih
 By time, rhetoric changed
 Lion tailed macaque – became symbol of wildlife
 The express, local daily an exception – pro conservation newspaper
 1981- Indira Gandhi declares it wll be protected
 1983- centre- commission charied by MGK menon- to reexamine issue
 1983- called off proj
 1985- rjiv Gandhi – inuagrates silent valley national park.


Discussion Paper- Reddy

 The origin of modern environmentalism and environmental movements in India can

be ascribed to the Chipko movement in the central Himalayan region in the early
1970s. Chipko movement, launched to protect the Himalayan forests from de
struction, has its' roots in the pre-independence day

 early 1973 the forest department refused to allot ash trees to the Dashauli Gram
Swarajya Sangha (DGSS), a local cooperative organization based in Chamoli
districts, for making agricultu ral implements. On the other hand, the forest
department allotted ash trees to a private company, i.e., Symonds Co. This incident
provoked the DGSS to fight against this injustice through lying down in front of
timber trucks and burning resin and timber d epots as was done in Quit India
movement. When these methods were found unsatisfactory, Chandi Prasad Bhat - one
of the leaders, suggested of embracing the trees and thus 'Chipko' was born (for
details see Bahuguna, 1990 and Guha, 1989). This form of prot est was instrumental
in driving away the private company from felling the ash trees. With its' success the
movement has spread to other neighboring areas and then on the movement is
popularly known as Chipko movement internationally. Only during 1970s thi s [now
Chipko] movement started tending toward concentrating on ecological issues such as
depletion of forest cover and soil erosion.

 The local people consider Chipko as a fight for basic subsi stence denied to them by
the institutions and policies of the State

 reover, as aptly described by Guha (1989, p. 178) the 'private' face of Chipko is more
a peasant movement, while its public profile is seen as an environmental movement.
Further, it has a face o f womens' movement as well (Omvedt, 1993). It is interesting
to note that in the later stages when Chipko ceased to go beyond environmental
 concerns, i.e., limiting itself to protecting and conservation of trees, the problems
started surfacing.

 The second aspect is with regard to the nature of agitation. Unlike other
environmental movements Chipko has strictly adhered to the Gandhian tradition of
freedom struggle, i.e., nonviolence.

 n this manner Chipko had, knowingly or unknowingly, successfully ex ploited the

ambiguities in the dominant ideology of the Indian state'

 hirdly, the simplicity and sincerity of the leaders like Shri Sunderlal Bahuguna and
their access to national leaders like Mrs. Indira Gandhi and other politicians and
officials also helped to the success of the movement to a large extent.

 Despite its popularity and success Chipko movement is still considered to be

incomplete and modest as it limited itself to ecological aspects [in the later stages] of
protecting trees to the neglect of local people’s requirements. In fa ct, to start with,
Chipko movement has had six demands - only one of which is complete stoppage of
commercial cutting of trees. The other demands include: (i) on the basis of minimum
needs of the people, a reorganization of traditional rights should take place; (ii) arid
forest should be made green with peoples participation and increased tree cultivation;
(iii) village committees should be formed to manage forests; (iv) forest related home-
based industries should be developed and the raw materials, money and technique for
it should be made available; and (v) based on local conditions and requirements, local
varieties should be given priority in afforestation

 The other popular movements of importance in India, which have environmental

protection as one of their objectives, relate to major dams. Notable among them are
Tehri Dam, Silent Valley Project and Narmada Valley Projects. The longest s truggle
among the anti-big dam protests was the opposition to Tehri Dam, being constructed
on the river Bhageerathi in the Garhwal region. The Tehri Baandh Virodhi
Sangarshan Samithi, committee for the struggle against the Tehri Dam founded by
veteran fre edom fighter Veerendra Datta Saklani, has been opposing the construction
for more than a decade. The major objections include, seismic sensitivity of the
region, submergence of forest areas along with Tehri town, etc.

 The most popular movement in the environmental history of India is the movement
against the Narmada River Valley Project. Though the movement started as early as
late 1970s, along with the clearance of the project, it received momentum only during
late 1980s. To start with, this movement was centered around the issue of human
rights. In fact, some of the main leaders of the movement at present like Medha
Patkar were working toward proper rehabilitation programmes for the dam displaced.
Due to improper implementation of the rehabilitation programmes by the State the
human rights activists have become the articulators of anti-dam protests. Their
demands included complete stopping of the dam, resettlement and rehabilitation
benefits to the oustees

 o list a few instances: Japanese environmentalists persuaded their government in

blocking the money advance for the project. Similarly, the US environmental groups
have worked hard to stop World Bank funding (Gadgil and Guha, 1994, p 173). With
this international support, the leaders of the movement received a sympathetic
hearing from an US Congressional Sub-Committee
  the wake of the World Bank's independent review committee report, the European
Parliament urged its member countries to instruct their World Bank directors to
suspend all further aid to Sardar Sarovar and in the final voting all the donor
countries v oted against funding while poor recipient countries voted for continuation

The success or popularity of Chipko movement can be attributed to its long history, multiple
objectives which have changed over time, committed leaders and their stature at local and national
level. As the struggle against forest policy of the state had started during the pre-independence time, it
has accumulated over the period a wider local support base and provided a strong ground for the
Chipko movement. Chipkos' strength lies in its' multiple objectives with a wide range such as, p
rotecting the livelihoods of peasants, anti-liquor campaign, greening the hills in a sustainable fashion,
etc. Over the time, the articulation of the problems has also changed. Due to this reason Chipko is
often titled/confused as peasant/ womens'/ enviro nmental movement. However, of late chipko
movement has tended to concentrate on ecological issues alone and hence started losing its' popular
base. Some of its' early success can be attributed to the commitment of the leaders and their influence
on common people as well as political leaders. But the same leadership (Shri Sunderlal Bahuguna)
could not have similar success in mobilizing the people or convincing the state in the case Tehri dam.

The absence of popular support in the case Tehri Dam may be attributed to its' more or less single
objective which is rather ecological (seismic impact and submergence of forest lands). The people
involved are nonhomogeneous community w ith modern influences [people from Tehri town] and
hence difficult to mobilize. Similarly, in the case of Tehri the approach of following different
strategies for drawing the support of a various national and international forum is missing. Besides,
Tehri Dam does not depend so much on external funding as is the case with Narmada.

While the success of the movement against Silent Valley Project, without any grassroots support, is
mainly of intellectual nature, the popularity of Narmada has many dimensions. Narmada movement,
like Chipko, has started with addressing the problems of livelihoods of local people [tribals], traversed
into human rights issues and focused on environmental concerns while suggesting an alternative
development paradigm

On the other hand, the Bhopal tragedy does not seem to have these qualities of a mass movement. It
was a sudden tragedy dawned upon a heterogenous urban community. Moreover, the Bhopal Act by
the Government of India was passed in March 1985 consolidating all claims arising out of Bhopal
disaster and making the government the only competent authority to represent the victims. This has
left no space to mobilize people around the issue of livelihoods. In the absence of any direct link betw
een livelihoods and environment the later was neither given due importance nor articulated. The issue
has always been the compensation for the victims but never with regard to future policy on
environmentally hazardous industries. For, at that particular point in time any issue other than
compensation would have drawn a blank in terms of local support. Therefore, environmental issues
per se may not have the potential to draw mass response.

he main lacuna on the part of the State is that no proper Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is
carried out at the initial stage for many of the projects. Even when it is carried out it i s never put
before the public for discussion which is a prerequisite for any EIA study. On the other hand, the
evidence shows that environmental concerns/issues gain prominence only at a latter stage of the
contemporary social movements in India. This may be to attract wider popularity and support. For, in
the absence of environmental awareness at the grassroots level these issues draw little support from
the local people and hence the issues have to be articulated in a fashion that attracts spontaneous r
esponse from the people.

But, the popularity received by Narmada Bachao Andolan can mainly be attributed to the
strategies followed to gain external influence, including foreign NGOs and governments. Though
Narmada Andolan is considered as a partial success this does not reflect a healthy trend as far as
Indian en vironmental movements are concerned at least on two accounts. Firstly, the interference of
outside agencies appears to be more political than ecological as their influence was conspicuously
absent in the case of other strident environmental problems like the Bhopal tragedy. Secondly, unless
the pressure for protecting the environment comes from the local people themselves, it is unlikely that
they would succeed. For, Sates' actions are often determined by the demands of the majority rather
than their requ irements. In the absence of awareness among the people, the state always serves class
(certain) interests.

two of the most successful movements at the micro level which integrated the environmental as well
as development aspects. These are: (i) Ralegan Sidhi experiment (named after the village); and (ii)
Pani-Panchayat (w ater council), which are located in Maharastra State and not far from each other.

In the case of Ralegan Sidhi, Shri Anna Hazare (the man behind the success) followed a philosophical
path of Gandhi and Vivekananda where he used religion and cultural factors to bring the desired
change in a degenerated society.

After winning the confidence of the people he put forward four principles without which sustainable
development and removal of poverty would not have been possible in the village. These include four
bans, namely: sterilization, prohibition, ban on grazing and ban on tree felling. As a result, liquor was
totally banned from the village, a large scale afforestation programme was started by planting trees in
the catchment areas of various watersheds, grasslands were conserved through social fencing thus
preventing cattle, goats and sheep from entering certain portions of grazing lands. Farmers were
encouraged to stal l feed their cattle as the availability of grass has increased and thus increasing the
milk yield. This was followed by watershed development programmes which have enhanced
agricultural yields in a more sustainable fashion

The approach of Pani Panchayat (Water Council) is somewhat different from that of Ralegan
Siddhi. Shri Vilasrao Salunke (the force behind Pani-Panchayat) tried to convince the villagers by
explaining them the importance of soil c onservation and water harvesting mechanisms in a drought
prone region. As he failed to convince the poverty-stricken villagers (who used to migrate in search of
work) he had himself taken the responsibility of demonstrating the impact of a watershed devel
opment programme which is critical for sustainable development in the drought prone regions. He had
leased in some 40 acres of land and started cultivating through watershed management approach. It
took three years for the villagers to realize the benefit s of the environment friendly cultivation
practices.

In about ten years the number of lift irrigation schemes has gone up to more t han 100 and most of
them are functioning in a sustainable fashion.
The reason behind the success of these schemes and their sustainability is the unity between the
villagers and strict adherence to the rules and regulations laid down by the pani-pancha yat which
is a unanimously elected body among the villagers

Some of the important rules include: (i) water rights which are attached to household or individual
rather than to land; (ii) restricting cropping patterns to low water intensive crops; (iii) equal
distribution of water on the basis of household size and distribution of water to land less labor who
can sell water or share crop; and (iv) contribution by the households for the schemes in the initial
stage, i.e., 25 per cent and the rest is taken on loans which is also paid by the farmers in installments

The interesting part is that two different paths are followed in these cases. While socio-cultural
aspects were found useful in Ralegan, demonstration of economic gains was proved successful in the
case of pani-panchayat.

owever, the success of these two cases is also attributed to other factors like socioeconomic
homogeneity of the villages, especially the economic. All most all the villagers were struggling for
their survival before the schemes and th ey knew very well that the benefits can be sustained only if
they work united. But, as the pani-panchayat schemes spread, it is becoming increasingly difficult
to control the individual farmers to restrict to the suggested cropping pattern as they prefer to grow
high value water intensive crops like sugar can

This in turn is affecting the sustainability of the schemes both in terms of availability and distribution
of water. Moreover, the success of these cases is highly dependent o n the committed leadership
which is hard to find in the present context of socio-political development in the country

in most of the villages community management of natural systems like forests and other natural
resources is disappearing fast because decentralized democratic system and the resulting party politics
have made serious dents in the village unity

TRIBAL MOVEMENTS : CASE OF DONGRIA KONDH’S NIYAMGIRI

MOVEMENT

 Lanjigarh area’s inhabitants against the Vedanta, which was about to set up a bauxite-
aluminum factory near Niyamagiri Hill
 Odisha has a special place because of its large tribal population. The state’s tribal population
is 22.85% of the total state population. It has the country’s third-largest tribal concentration.
There are 62 tribal communities; of which, 13 are Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups
(PVTGs).
 About 44.70% of the state’s geographical area is under Scheduled Areas, covering 118 of 314
blocks in 12 districts. Throughout India, social movements among the tribal communities have
been meant to reaffirm their stand to protect their own culture, traditions, and, most
importantly, their rights over their forest and lan
 Right from the occupation of the Odisha in 1803 by the British, the local population and the
aborigines were deeply degraded by their policies such as the introduction of the
landlords,moneylenders, kadars (contractors
  They challenged the British and their subordinates and organized themselves against the kings
and their supporters or sympathizers, imposing caste supremacy on them. They gathered the
courage against such exploitations in the form of rebellion and movements such as the Santhal
Revolt of 1855, Ghumsar rising (1834–1856), Bhuinya rising (1868 and 1890), Sambalpur
revolt (1827 and 1864), Nayagarh uprising (1849–1852), the Kandha uprising of Kalahandi
(1882), Gangapur uprising (1895), Munda revolt (1895–1901), the tribal movement of
Midnapur (1918–1919), Santhal movement in Malda (1924–1932), and tribal and national
movement in Orissa (1921–1942). All of these movements were launched and organized by
the leaders and the chieftains of their respective tribes. However, these movements were
initiated against the policies of the government and the exploitations of the local oppressors.
Still, with time, these movements merged with the national movement for Indian
independence. But most of these movements were suppressed by the British who forcibly
imposed their policies on them, and some were appropriated with some minor changes such as
the introduction of passing the Scheduled Districts Act (1874), the introduction of protective
administration, and excluded tribal areas under the Government of India Act, 1935.
 uch movements happened across the tribal belt in India, but the movements in Odisha such as
Nilagri (1947); Mayurbhanj (1949) and Kharswan (1947) were the few that played a
significant Role in those movements.
 The majority of development projects in Odisha have to remain unfavorable for the local
inhabitants who have been facing displacement from their ancestral land without any
compensation and surety for their livelihood and rights
 This aggressive industrialization and Odisha being the honey ground for foreign direct
investment (FDI) and the multinational corporations have seriously exploited the natural
vegetation of the forest and, most importantly, the rights of the indigenous population of
Odisha and the neighboring states
 etween 1951 and 1995, 2,155,317 tribals were displaced, and 360,999 tribals were impacted
by several state development projects.

By December 2014, the state had signed 93 Memorandum of Understanding (MoUs) worth `2.15 trilllion (USD
33 billion) with enterprises to set up steel (48), power (28), aluminum (3), and other factories around the state

Under the jargon of the development, the major market players have been placed in an area where a major
population, about 80%, is engaged in agriculture, an occupation that has never got its space in the contemporary
neoliberal market. This juggernaut of development has not just forced them into a mere refugee or a migrant, but
they are also paying the cost of the benefits reaped by the big corporates

Tribal women took part actively in huge numbers, organizing dharnas (protests), peaceful marches, and other
activities, among men.

Displacement has negatively impacted their living standards and reduced their social status among the tribal
community. They used to have full control over their life and livelihood from what to grow and where to sell
their products and where and how to work; now, they say that everything has fallen all of a sudden. It has made
them dependent on men; in addition to these, now they are working as laborers in one such mine or at
construction sites as their husband, son, or father has become addicted to liquor or

This addiction has also raised the cases of domestic violence and prostitution in the slums where they liv

he Rehabilitation and Resettlement Bill, 2007, made provisions for providing benefits and compensation to
people who got displaced out of land acquisition or any other involuntary displacement.

Similarly, provisions were made to carry out a social impact assessment of the large-scale displacement. Steps
were taken to set up the eligibility and disburse minimum benefits to the displaced population, ranging from
land, house, and skill development to monetary compensation and jobs
established project-specific regulatory bodies to look after implementing and formulating the policies made for
rehabilitation and resettling of the displaced population

The grievance cell was also established through this bill to address the issues related to rehabilitation and
resettlement. Orissa Resettlement and Rehabilitation Policy, 2006, classified rehabilitation and resettlement
programs for different projects such as mining, industrial, urban, and other industrial projects.

Around the lush green districts of Rayagarh and Kalahandi lies the range of Niyamgiri hills, which spreads over
the 250 sq. km in Odisha. Niyamgiri Hill is located in the Lanjigarh block of Kalahandi district with an altitude
of 4,284 feet above sea level. The rich biodiversity in the Karlapat and Kotgarh landscapes is part of Niyamgiri
Hill.

iyamgiri represents Kondhs’ mythical origins and identity. Their social, economic, and cultural lives have an
emotional bonding with Niyamagiri hills. These Niyamgiri hills in the Eastern Ghats are massively diverse and
dense, which cover almost 75% of the total landmass.

iyamgiri represents Kondhs’ mythical origins and identity. Their social, economic, and cultural lives have an
emotional bonding with Niyamagiri hills. These Niyamgiri hills in the Eastern Ghats are massively diverse and
dense, which cover almost 75% of the total landmass.

Sc in second verdict – approved Vedanta – forest diversion proposal – special purpose vehic;e

Kondhs started protesting did not allow to enter

3 member tem of DR USHA Vinod Rishi and JK Tiwari – unable to form a case for report

Ministry of environ and forest -4 member – Naresh Saxena, amita baviskar, promode kant – fera act v-and tribes
to be protected under this