Unit IV: Metals in Civil Engineering

Metals are essential in civil engineering due to their strength, durability, and versatility. This unit
covers types of structural steels, special steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, and light gauge steel,
along with corrosion issues, protective measures, and a brief overview of ferrocement.

 ### Types of Structural Steels

Structural steels are specifically engineered for use in construction and architectural projects due
to their strength, durability, and versatility. Here are the main types of structural steels used in
civil engineering:
**1. Carbon Steel:**
- **Low Carbon Steel (Mild Steel):**
- **Properties**: Contains up to 0.25% carbon. It has good ductility, weldability, and
machinability but lower strength.
- **Uses**: Commonly used in construction for beams, angles, channels, and reinforcing bars
in concrete structures.
- **Medium Carbon Steel:**
- **Properties**: Contains 0.25% to 0.60% carbon. It has higher strength than low carbon steel
but less ductility.
- **Uses**: Suitable for making structural steel components like gears, shafts, and axles.
- **High Carbon Steel:**
- **Properties**: Contains 0.60% to 1.25% carbon. It is very strong and hard but brittle.
- **Uses**: Typically used in applications requiring high wear resistance, such as in cutting
tools and high-strength wires.
**2. High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steel:**
- **Properties**: Contains small amounts of alloying elements like chromium, copper, nickel,
and vanadium. These steels have higher strength and better mechanical properties than carbon
steels.
- **Uses**: Widely used in construction for structural members in high-rise buildings, bridges,
and other structures requiring a high strength-to-weight ratio.
**3. Weathering Steel (Corten Steel):**
- **Properties**: Contains elements like copper, chromium, and nickel that allow it to form a
stable rust-like appearance after exposure to weather, which acts as a protective layer to reduce
further corrosion.
- **Uses**: Ideal for use in outdoor structures such as bridges, sculptures, and building facades
where painting or coating is not feasible.
**4. Reinforcing Steel (Rebar):**
- **Properties**: Typically made from carbon steel with surface deformations (ribs) to improve
bonding with concrete. Reinforcing steel is designed to carry tensile loads in reinforced concrete.
- **Uses**: Used extensively in concrete structures such as beams, columns, slabs, and
foundations to provide additional tensile strength.
**5. Stainless Steel:**
- **Properties**: Contains a significant amount of chromium (at least 10.5%), which provides
excellent corrosion resistance.
Depending on the alloy, it may also contain nickel, molybdenum, and other elements.
- **Austenitic Stainless Steel**: Non-magnetic, excellent corrosion resistance, contains
chromium and nickel.
- **Ferritic Stainless Steel**: Magnetic, moderate corrosion resistance, contains chromium but
little or no nickel.
- **Martensitic Stainless Steel**: Magnetic, high strength and hardness, moderate corrosion
resistance.
- **Uses**: Used in structures where corrosion resistance and aesthetic appearance are
important, such as in facades, handrails, and architectural trim.
**6. Tool Steel:**
- **Properties**: Contains alloying elements such as tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, and
vanadium, which provide high hardness, wear resistance, and the ability to retain shape at high
temperatures.
- **Uses**: Typically used for manufacturing tools, dies, and molds.
**7. Maraging Steel:**
- **Properties**: Contains up to 25% nickel, along with other elements like cobalt,
molybdenum, and titanium. Known for high strength and toughness with good machinability.
- **Uses**: Employed in high-performance applications such as aerospace, tooling, and
engineering parts requiring high strength and durability.
### Special Steels
Special steels are developed for specific applications that require unique properties not found in
standard structural steels. These steels are alloyed with various elements to enhance their
performance in specific environments or under particular conditions. Below are the primary
types of special steels used in civil engineering and related fields:
**1. Tool Steel:**
- **Properties:**
- **High Hardness:** Due to elements like tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, and vanadium.
- **Wear Resistance:** Maintains sharp cutting edges.
- **Heat Resistance:** Retains hardness at high temperatures.
- **Uses:**
- **Cutting Tools:** Drills, saw blades, and milling cutters.
- **Dies and Molds:** Used in manufacturing processes requiring high precision.
- **Metalworking Tools:** Punches, dies, and other forming tools.
**2. Maraging Steel:**
- **Properties:**
- **High Strength and Toughness:** Due to aging process that forms precipitates.
- **Good Machinability:** Easier to machine in its annealed state before aging.
- **Dimensional Stability:** Minimal distortion during heat treatment.
- **Uses:**
- **Aerospace Components:** Landing gear, rocket motor cases.
- **High-Performance Engineering Parts:** Shafts, gears, and tools.
- **Tooling:** High-strength molds and dies.
**3. High-Speed Steel (HSS):**
- **Properties:**
- **Retains Hardness at High Temperatures:** Ideal for high-speed cutting operations.
- **Durability:** Resistant to wear and deformation.
 - **Alloying Elements:** Contains tungsten, molybdenum, chromium, and vanadium.
- **Uses:**
- **Cutting Tools:** Drills, taps, milling cutters, and saw blades.
- **Machine Tool Bits:** Lathe tools and planers.
**4. Advanced High-Strength Steel (AHSS):**
- **Properties:**
- **High Strength-to-Weight Ratio:** Combines high tensile strength with good ductility.
- **Energy Absorption:** Superior crash resistance in automotive applications.
- **Multiple Phases:** Combination of different phases like martensite, ferrite, and austenite.
- **Uses:**
- **Automotive Industry:** Structural components, safety cages.
- **Construction:** High-strength structural members requiring lightweight solutions.
**5. Stainless Steel:**
- **Austenitic Stainless Steel:**
- **Properties:** Non-magnetic, excellent corrosion resistance, contains chromium and nickel.
- **Uses:** Food processing equipment, chemical tanks, architectural applications.
- **Ferritic Stainless Steel:**
- **Properties:** Magnetic, good corrosion resistance, contains chromium but little or no
nickel.
- **Uses:** Automotive parts, industrial equipment, architectural trim.
- **Martensitic Stainless Steel:**
- **Properties:** Magnetic, high strength and hardness, moderate corrosion resistance.
- **Uses:** Cutlery, surgical instruments, valves.
**6. Duplex Stainless Steel:**
- **Properties:**
- **High Strength and Corrosion Resistance:** Combines features of austenitic and ferritic
stainless steels.
- **Good Weldability and Toughness:** Suitable for harsh environments.
- **Uses:**
- **Marine Applications:** Shipbuilding, offshore platforms.
- **Chemical Processing:** Piping, heat exchangers, and storage tanks.
**7. Superalloys:**
- **Properties:**
- **High Temperature Resistance:** Retains strength and stability at elevated temperatures.
- **Corrosion and Oxidation Resistance:** Performs well in extreme environments.
- **Nickel or Cobalt-Based Alloys:** Often includes elements like chromium, molybdenum,
and titanium.
- **Uses:**
- **Aerospace:** Turbine blades, engine components.
- **Power Generation:** Gas turbines, nuclear reactors.
**8. Bearing Steel:**
- **Properties:**
- **High Hardness and Fatigue Strength:** Resists wear and deformation under load.
- **Cleanliness and Precision:** Low impurity content and precise manufacturing standards.
- **Uses:**
- **Bearings:** Ball bearings, roller bearings, and needle bearings.
- **Mechanical Components:** Shafts, gears, and other high-stress parts.

### Alloy Steel

Alloy steels are steels that are alloyed with a variety of elements to improve their mechanical
properties and to tailor them for specific applications. These alloying elements typically include
manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, and boron. Alloy steels can be
broadly categorized based on the amount of alloying elements they contain and their intended
use.
#### Categories of Alloy Steel
1. **Low-Alloy Steel:**
 - **Properties:** Contains a total of alloying elements up to 5%. These steels offer improved
mechanical properties over carbon steels.
- **Uses:** Typically used in structural applications such as bridges, buildings, pipelines, and
pressure vessels.
2. **High-Alloy Steel:**
- **Properties:** Contains more than 5% alloying elements. Stainless steels are a common
example, characterized by high resistance to corrosion and oxidation.
- **Uses:** Used in environments that require enhanced resistance to corrosion, high
temperatures, or wear, such as in chemical processing, medical devices, and kitchen equipment.

#### Common Alloying Elements and Their Effects

- **Manganese (Mn):** Improves strength, hardness, and wear resistance. Enhances toughness
and hardenability.
- **Nickel (Ni):** Increases toughness, strength, and corrosion resistance. Improves low-
temperature performance.
- **Chromium (Cr):** Increases hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Essential in
stainless steels for enhancing corrosion resistance.
- **Molybdenum (Mo):** Increases strength, hardness, and high-temperature performance.
Improves resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion.
- **Vanadium (V):** Increases strength, toughness, and wear resistance. Refines grain structure.
- **Silicon (Si):** Improves strength and hardness. Enhances magnetic properties in electrical
steels.
- **Boron (B):** Increases hardenability significantly even in small amounts.

#### Types of Alloy Steel and Their Uses

1. **Structural Alloy Steels:**
- **Properties:** Optimized for high strength, toughness, and wear resistance. Often heat-
treated to achieve desired properties.
- **Uses:** Construction of buildings, bridges, cranes, and other structures requiring high
load-bearing capacity.
2. **Tool Steels:**
 - **Properties:** Contains high amounts of carbon and alloying elements for hardness and
resistance to abrasion and deformation at high temperatures.
- **Uses:** Manufacture of cutting tools, dies, and molds used in machining and
metalworking.
3. **Stainless Steels:**
- **Austenitic Stainless Steel (e.g., 304, 316):**
- **Properties:** Non-magnetic, excellent corrosion resistance, good formability and
weldability.
- **Uses:** Food processing equipment, chemical tanks, architectural applications.
- **Ferritic Stainless Steel (e.g., 430):**
- **Properties:** Magnetic, good corrosion resistance, generally less expensive than
austenitic stainless steels.
- **Uses:** Automotive trim, industrial equipment, architectural applications.
- **Martensitic Stainless Steel (e.g., 410, 420):**
- **Properties:** Magnetic, high strength and hardness, moderate corrosion resistance.
- **Uses:** Cutlery, surgical instruments, valves.
4. **High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels:**
- **Properties:** Higher strength-to-weight ratio compared to carbon steels, often includes
small amounts of alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, niobium.
- **Uses:** Automotive chassis, structural members in high-rise buildings, pipelines.
5. **Heat-Resistant Alloy Steels:**
- **Properties:** Retains strength and resists oxidation at high temperatures due to alloying
elements like nickel, chromium, and silicon.
- **Uses:** Turbine blades, exhaust systems, heat exchangers.
6. **Wear-Resistant Alloy Steels:**
- **Properties:** High hardness and abrasion resistance, typically contains chromium and
manganese.
- **Uses:** Mining equipment, earthmoving machinery, and industrial crushers.
### Light Gauge Steel
Light gauge steel, also known as cold-formed steel, is a type of steel used in construction that is
formed by rolling or pressing thin sheets of steel into desired shapes at room temperature. This
method of forming steel results in precise and strong structural components that are lightweight
and easy to handle.
#### Properties of Light Gauge Steel
- **High Strength-to-Weight Ratio:** Light gauge steel offers excellent strength while being
much lighter than traditional structural steel, making it ideal for use where weight savings are
important.
- **Durability:** Resistant to warping, rotting, and termite damage, which are common issues
with wood construction.
- **Dimensional Stability:** Does not shrink or swell with changes in humidity and temperature,
ensuring precise dimensions and alignment over time.
- **Non-Combustible:** Inherently fire-resistant, adding to the safety of structures built with
light gauge steel.
- **Recyclability:** Can be recycled easily, making it an environmentally friendly option.
#### Manufacturing Process
1. **Cold-Forming:** Light gauge steel is manufactured by rolling or pressing steel sheets at
room temperature into desired shapes, such as C-sections, U-sections, or hat sections.
2. **Galvanization:** To enhance corrosion resistance, the steel sheets are often coated with a
layer of zinc (galvanization) before forming.
3. **Cutting and Punching:** Sheets are cut to length and holes are punched for fasteners,
making assembly on-site quicker and more efficient.
#### Common Shapes and Profiles
- **C-Sections:** Often used for studs and joists.
- **U-Sections:** Used as tracks or channels.
- **Hat Sections:** Used for purlins and girts.
- **L-Angles:** Used for bracing and reinforcing.
#### Uses and Applications
1. **Framing:**
 - **Wall Studs:** Light gauge steel studs are used for interior and exterior wall framing,
offering a straight and strong framework that is easy to install.
- **Floor Joists:** Provides a lightweight yet strong support system for floors.
- **Roof Trusses:** Used in roofing systems, offering high strength and flexibility in design.
2. **Partition Walls:**
- **Non-Load Bearing Walls:** Ideal for creating interior partitions due to ease of installation
and ability to accommodate wiring and plumbing.
3. **Roofing and Cladding:**
- **Roof Panels:** Lightweight panels for roofing systems, which are easy to install and
provide good weather resistance.
- **Exterior Cladding:** Used for building facades and exteriorwalls, offering aesthetic
versatility and durability.
4. **Prefabricated Buildings:**
- **Modular Construction:** Light gauge steel is often used in prefabricated buildings and
modular construction due to its ease of assembly and precision.
5. **Temporary Structures:**
- **Construction Sheds and Temporary Housing:** Quickly assembled and disassembled,
making it ideal for temporary structures.
#### Advantages of Light Gauge Steel
- **Ease of Handling and Installation:** Lightweight components are easy to handle and can be
quickly assembled on-site.
- **Precision:** Manufactured to precise specifications, ensuring consistency and reducing the
need for on-site modifications.
- **Reduced Construction Time:** Pre-punched holes and ready-to-assemble components speed
up the construction process.
- **Adaptability:** Suitable for a wide range of building types and architectural styles.
#### Disadvantages
- **Thermal Conductivity:** Steel is a good conductor of heat, which can lead to thermal
bridging issues. This can be mitigated with proper insulation.
- **Corrosion:** Although galvanized, light gauge steel can still be susceptible to corrosion if
the protective coating is damaged. Proper maintenance and protective measures are required.
- **Cost:** Initial material cost can be higher compared to traditional wood framing, though this
is often offset by savings in labor and reduced construction time.

### Corrosion of Concrete and Reinforcing Steel in Various Environments

Corrosion of reinforcing steel within concrete structures is a significant concern in civil
engineering, as it can compromise the structural integrity and durability of buildings and
infrastructure. Understanding the mechanisms of corrosion and the environmental factors that
influence it is essential for preventing and mitigating damage.
#### Mechanisms of Corrosion
1. **Electrochemical Process:**
- **Anode and Cathode Formation:** Corrosion of steel in concrete is an electrochemical
process where anodic (oxidation) and cathodic (reduction) reactions occur. At the anode, iron
(Fe) is oxidized to iron ions (Fe²⁺), releasing electrons.
- **Oxygen and Water:** These electrons move through the steel to the cathode, where they
react with oxygen (O₂) and water (H₂O) to form hydroxide ions (OH⁻). The overall reaction
produces rust (iron oxide), which expands and causes cracking in the concrete.
2. **Carbonation:**
- **Carbon Dioxide Ingress:** Carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere can penetrate the
concrete and react with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) in the cement paste to form calcium
carbonate (CaCO₃), reducing the pH of the concrete.
- **Reduced Alkalinity:** Lower pH reduces the protective passivation layer on the steel,
making it susceptible to corrosion.
3. **Chloride Ingress:**
- **Chloride Sources:** Chlorides can come from de-icing salts, seawater, or contaminated
aggregates.
- **Breakdown of Passivation Layer:** Chlorides penetrate the concrete and reach the steel
reinforcement, where they disrupt the passive oxide layer, leading to localized pitting corrosion.
#### Environmental Factors Influencing Corrosion
1. **Marine Environments:**
- **High Chloride Levels:** Structures exposed to seawater or coastal environments are at
high risk due to the presence of chlorides.
 - **Moisture and Oxygen:** High humidity and presence of oxygen accelerate corrosion
processes.
2. **Industrial Environments:**
- **Acidic Pollutants:** Industrial areas may have acidic gases such as sulfur dioxide (SO₂)
and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), which can lead to acid rain. Acid rain lowers the pH of concrete,
increasing the risk of corrosion.
- **Chemical Exposure:** Concrete in industrial plants may be exposed to various chemicals
that can degrade concrete and corrode steel.
3. **Urban Environments:**
- **Carbonation:** High levels of CO₂ in urban areas can accelerate carbonation, especially in
poorly ventilated or enclosed spaces.
- **Pollutants:** Presence of other pollutants can further aggravate corrosion processes.
4. **Cold Climates:**
- **De-Icing Salts:** Use of de-icing salts on roads and bridges introduces chlorides,
increasing the risk of corrosion.
- **Freeze-Thaw Cycles:** Repeated freeze-thaw cycles can cause physical damage to
concrete, allowing easier ingress of corrosive agents.
5. **Subterranean Environments:**
- **Soil Chemistry:** Certain soil conditions, such as high sulfate content, can be aggressive
to concrete and steel.
- **Moisture Levels:** Subsurface moisture can facilitate electrochemical reactions,
promoting corrosion.
#### Measures for Corrosion Protection
1. **Material Selection:**
- **Corrosion-Resistant Rebars:** Using stainless steel, galvanized steel, or epoxy-coated
reinforcing bars can reduce susceptibility to corrosion.
- **High-Performance Concrete:** Using concrete with low permeability and high-quality
cementitious materials can enhance resistance to corrosive agents.
2. **Design and Construction Practices:**
- **Proper Cover Depth:** Ensuring adequate concrete cover over the reinforcement to reduce
chloride ingress and carbonation.
 - **Crack Control:** Designing concrete to minimize cracking and using appropriate
reinforcement detailing.
3. **Protective Coatings and Sealants:**
- **Surface Treatments:** Applying sealers and coatings to concrete surfaces to reduce
permeability and prevent ingress of chlorides and CO₂.
- **Cathodic Protection:** Implementing sacrificial anodes or impressed current systems to
protect steel reinforcement.
4. **Maintenance and Monitoring:**
- **Regular Inspections:** Conducting regular inspections to detect early signs of corrosion
and deterioration.
- **Repair and Rehabilitation:** Promptly repairing damaged areas and using corrosion
inhibitors in repair materials.

### Electrochemical Process and Measures of Protection During Construction

#### Electrochemical Process of Corrosion
Corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete involves an electrochemical process that includes the
following key components:
1. **Anodic Reaction:**
- At the anode, iron (Fe) is oxidized to ferrous ions (Fe²⁺), releasing electrons.
- \( Fe \rightarrow Fe^{2+} + 2e^- \)
2. **Cathodic Reaction:**
- At the cathode, electrons react with oxygen (O₂) and water (H₂O) to form hydroxide ions
(OH⁻).
- \( O_2 + 2H_2O + 4e^- \rightarrow 4OH^- \)
3. **Formation of Rust:**
- The ferrous ions (Fe²⁺) further react with hydroxide ions (OH⁻) to form iron hydroxide,
which eventually converts to iron oxide (rust).
- \( 4Fe^{2+} + 2H_2O + O_2 \rightarrow 4Fe(OH)_3 \)
- \( 4Fe(OH)_3 \rightarrow 2Fe_2O_3 \cdot 3H_2O \)
The overall corrosion process results in the formation of rust, which expands and causes cracking
and spalling of the concrete cover, further exposing the steel to corrosive agents.

#### Measures of Protection During Construction

1. **Material Selection:**
- **Corrosion-Resistant Reinforcements:** Use of stainless steel, galvanized steel, or epoxy-
coated rebar to resist corrosion.
- **High-Performance Concrete:** Low-permeability concrete reduces the ingress of water,
oxygen, and chlorides.
2. **Design Considerations:**
- **Adequate Concrete Cover:** Ensuring sufficient concrete cover over reinforcement to
protect it from external environments.
- **Crack Control:** Using appropriate reinforcement detailing to minimize cracking and
ensuring that any cracks that do occur are within acceptable limits.
3. **Protective Coatings and Sealants:**
- **Surface Coatings:** Application of sealers and protective coatings on concrete surfaces to
prevent ingress of chlorides and CO₂.
- **Epoxy Coatings:** Coating rebar with epoxy to create a barrier against corrosive elements
4. **Cathodic Protection:**
- **Sacrificial Anodes:** Use of zinc or aluminum anodes that corrode in place of the steel
reinforcement.
- **Impressed Current Systems:** Applying an external current to counteract the
electrochemical reactions causing corrosion.
5. **Proper Mix Design and Curing:**
- **Water-Cement Ratio:** Maintaining a low water-cement ratio to reduce concrete
permeability.
- **Admixtures:** Use of corrosion inhibitors and pozzolanic materials (such as fly ash, silica
fume) to enhance concrete durability.
- **Proper Curing:** Ensuring adequate curing to develop optimal concrete strength and
density.
6. **Environmental Control:**
 - **De-Icing Salt Management:** Reducing or controlling the use of de-icing salts on
structures.
- **Environmental Barriers:** Using barriers to protect structures from aggressive
environmental conditions, such as marine splash zones.

### Ferro-Cement: Composition and Properties

#### Composition
Ferro-cement is a composite material made of cement mortar and closely spaced layers of small
diameter wire mesh or steel fibers. The key components include:
1. **Cement Mortar:**
- A mixture of Portland cement and sand in a ratio of about 1:2. The mortar is usually quite rich
in cement to ensure high strength and impermeability.
2. **Reinforcing Mesh:**
- Layers of wire mesh or expanded metal mesh, usually with a diameter of 0.5 to 1.5 mm and
mesh openings of about 6 mm to 12 mm. Multiple layers of mesh are used to ensure adequate
reinforcement.
3. **Water:**
- Clean water is used to mix the cement and sand to achieve the required workability.
#### Properties
1. **High Strength-to-Weight Ratio:**
- Ferro-cement structures have a high strength-to-weight ratio, making them ideal for thin,
lightweight constructions.
2. **Durability:**
- Highly resistant to cracking and weathering, provided that proper mix design and curing
practices are followed.
3. **Flexibility and Toughness:**
- The closely spaced wire mesh reinforcement provides excellent toughness and the ability to
withstand significant deformation without cracking.
4. **Impact Resistance:**
- High impact resistance due to the distributed reinforcement, which helps in absorbing energy.
5. **Fire Resistance:**
- Good fire resistance due to the cement matrix, though prolonged exposure to high
temperatures can weaken the structure.
6. **Permeability:**
- Low permeability to water and other fluids, making it suitable for water tanks, boats, and
other structures requiring water-tightness.
7. **Versatility:**
- Can be molded into various shapes, making it suitable for a wide range of architectural and
structural applications.
#### Applications
1. **Building Construction:**
- Walls, roofs, and floors of residential and commercial buildings.
2. **Water Retaining Structures:**
- Water tanks, swimming pools, reservoirs, and dams.
3. **Marine Structures:**
- Boats, barges, and other marine vessels.
4. **Infrastructure:**
- Bridges, culverts, and drainage channels.
5. **Architectural Applications:**
- Decorative elements, sculptures, and facades.