POLITECNICO DI TORINO

DIATI

LiDAR (Laser Scanning)

Data acquisition, sensors, planning,
data processing

MARCO PIRAS
GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Introduction
Light Detection and Ranging

Laser scanning is
a techniques
which allows to
acquire milions
of 3D point in
automatic way.
The final result is
called point
clouds, where
for each point is
known the
position (in local
CS) and color (if
a digital camera
is included)

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Introduction
Integration between different acquisition techniques

There isn’t a technique that can be considered independent in the data

acquisition step, without any restriction to the level of details (precision), size of
the object.

The best solutions for the realization of a geometric survey are always the
integration of techniques.

This means that the professional has to be able to manage the principle of all
techniques in order to identify the best solution in terms of quality and cost.

No technique can be a priori excluded and no new technique can

completely replace existing techniques.

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 Techniques for 3D measurements

Destructive Slicing

contact Metric tape and

plumb
No destructive
Coordinate
Measuring
Machine (CMM)
3D measurements
techniques Wave with high
X rays
energy

Laser light
Optical
Contactless
White light

SAR

microwave Echo

Ultra-sound

Sonar

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 Techniques for 3D measurements
Light radiation
Light can be considered as a sequence of photons (set of
electromagnetic energy) where is valid the following equation:

where:
  c/ f
l is the wavelength
f is the frequency of wave
c is the light speed in the object

This relation defines that if the frequency and the material of the object are known,
the wavelength is automatically determined.

Low frequency  high wavelength

GSM works with GigaHz: 900 Mhz -> =33 cm – 1,8GHz -> =17 cm )

In the case of visible light, the wavelength are smaller than GSM, therefore the
frequencies are more bigger. (TeraHz)

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
Speed of light radiation

Speed light is 299.792.458 km/s, but it is generally considered as standard value in

the vacuum equal to c = 300.000 km/s
If the light is in a different medium of the vacuum, the speed decreases.

The ratio between the speed of light in a vacuum and the speed of light in a medium
(air, water, etc.) is called the refractive index:
n = cvacuum /cmedium

Standard air n= 1.00025

Water n = 1.33

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
LiDAR
Laser scanning is based on measurement of the distances using the
electromagnetic wave. It is so called:
LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is based on the

LASER (Light Amplification by

Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

From the point of view of

application, the laser is an tool
that transforms energy from a
primary form (electrical, optical,
chemical, thermal or nuclear)
into a monochromatic and
coherent electromagnetic
radiation with high intensity:
laser light.

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 Techniques for 3D measurements
LiDAR
It is composed by:
• One light frequency (monochromaticity).
• The wave is not emanated in all directions (as
a normal light), but it is propagated up to long
distance and with an extreme directionality
(spatial coherence or unidirectionality).
• waves with the same frequency and same
phase, which allows to reach high intensity
and high power (temporal coherence).

The radiation can have different wavelength, as 

=200 - 400 nm or = 400 -700 nm (visible range)
or infrared = 700-800 nm.

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GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
LiDAR
Incident
When a radiation hits a real body surface (so Reflected
Radiation
called grey body), the radiation is partially Radiation
absorbed (α() partially is reflected (Reflectivity
ρ()) and partially is transmitted (Transmissivity
τ()), consireding the wavelength. Starting from Absorbed
Radiation
the principle of conservation of energy : α+ρ+τ
Transmitted
=1. Radiation

Considering the reflective part only, it is possible to distinguish the surface of the object. The
surfaces completely smoothed reflect as a mirror. A wrinkled surface works like a lambertial
surface: the reflection direction is independent on the incident angle. Moreover, there are the
retro-reflective surface, where the incident direction is equal to reflection direction.

Retro-
reflective
surface

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 Techniques for 3D measurements
LiDAR
Beams are "practically" parallel, therefore they are affected by a slight divergence (working
with limited range, it is absolutely negligible).

In the acquisition if the impact

Theoretical beam area meets two surfaces at
different distances, a non-existent
Real beam Impact area
average point is generated (scan
artefacts)

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 Techniques for 3D measurements
Biological risk

Interacttion between laser beam

and eyes or skin.

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 Techniques for 3D measurements
Biological risk

There are 5 classes : 1, 2, 3A, 3B and 4, where the risk index increase with the
number of the class.

Class 1: In this class, there are all instruments which are «safety».

Class 2: Avoid to watch the beam

Class 3A: Avoid to watch the beam
Class 3B: avoid to watch the beam.
Class 4: it is dangerous for the eyes and skin. Protections are mandatory!

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
LiDAR based on triangulation
This method was developed in VI century B.C. by Talete. Knowing a base x and two angles, it is
possible to solve a triangles and to calculate z: z = x•tan α

Light source On a plane

y=0
𝑝
tan 𝛽= 𝑓
sensors sensors
lens 𝑏
𝑧=
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
object 𝑧
𝑥=
GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
 Techniques for 3D measurements
Precision
0,220
2 2
 1  2  z  2
0,200

X  Y    z    0,180
 tan    cos  
2
0,160
2
 z2  2  z  2
2 0,140

precision Z [m]
 Z     p     0,120

 fb   cos 2
  0,100

0,080

0,060
The precision () changes with the square of
0,040
the distance. at 5-10 m ,  is greater than 1
0,020
cm. For small distance, precisions are close to 0,000
0.1 mm. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Distance [m]

Nowadays, for improving the ditance, the

system is composed by two parts: the laser
scanning (close to the object) and a tracker
(which defines the laser position)
Absolute Tracker T-scan di Leica
Geosystems
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 Techniques for 3D measurements
Some examples
Faro CAM2 Laser Handyscan 3D
Mensi S10 Tracker Creaform
Faro CAM2
3D Imager

Go!Scan 3D
Metrascan 3D Creaform
Absolute TrackerT-scan di Leica
Creaform
Geosystems

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Techniques for 3D measurements
A case study

Es gestae divi Augusti , Temple of Augustus

(Ankara, Turchia) (Rinaudo, Bornaz, Porporato, 2009)
 Techniques for 3D measurements

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
The ToF LIDAR system based on distance measurements

The principle is very easy. This approach is based on the measure of the time of flight
(TOF) Δt which is required by a laser beam to cover the distance between the
instrument and the object and viceversa.

2D = cΔt
The distance measurement unit has
an high precision clock p=10-8 and
λ=20 m
After a time = Δt, signal is back to receiver.
Using this time difference, the distance is
estimated with a SD = 9 m. Oscillator of
reference

t  nT  t a  tb
GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
The ToF LIDAR system based on distance measurements

t  nT  t a  tb
Oscillator of
In order to measure ta and tb with reference
high accuracy, a time-voltage converter
is used. It is composed by a capacitor
which is charged with a constant
current, for the time ta and tb.

Knowing the voltage reached for a

charge time corresponding to an
oscillation period (T), it is easy, with a
simple proportion, to obtain the
required residual times as a function of
the voltage reached by the capacitor

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
The Phase LIDAR system based on distance measurements

The operation is based on the emission of an optical radiation that is modulated and
transmitted to an object (or a reflecting lens); this surface reflects a part of the wave
towards the receiving apparatus which interprets the phase difference between the
emitted and received waves. This phase variation depends on the distance between the
instrument and the object.

  
d  n
2 2 2

n is called ambiguity. For measuring the distance, it

is important to measure φ and to estimate n
without errors

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
TOF system

The position (3D) of the single point is determined as the

traditional «topographic» measurments, using distance and
angles.
X P  X s  d  sen  sen Z
P
YP  YS  d  sen  cos 
Z P  Z S  hs  hp  d  cos  
d
Y
q

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
PRECISION
X  d  sen   cos  X  sen   cos  2   d2  d  cos  cos  2   2   d  sen   sen  2   2
Y  d  sen   sen  Y  sen   sen  2   d2  d  cos  sen  2   2  d  sen   cos  2   2
Z  d  cos  Z  cos2    d2   d  sen  2   2

σd = 3 mm  P   X2   Y2   Z2
σα,β = 0.0022 gon

60 250
250
d= 100 m 400
s.q.m. ang = 0.0022 gon
σd = 15 mm 350

Precisione di Posizionamento (mm)

Precisione di Posizionamento (mm)

50 200 s.q.m. ang. = 0.0038 gon

Precisione Posizionamento (mm)

200
300
40
250

precisione posizione [mm]

150
150
30 200
d= 100 m
100
100 σα,β = 0.0038 gon 150
20

50
100
50 10
50
σd = 3 mm
0
0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0 500 1000 1500
Distanza (m) Precisione Distanza (mm) Precisione angolare (gon) Distanza [m]
GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
Leica
C10
Some examples
Instruments Leica
Leica
Leica P20
• Range and precision HDS7000
HDS8800
• resolution
• Digital image
• Sensors integration

Riegl
Riegl
VZ400 Riegl
VZ6000 Riegl
VZ1000
LPM-
321
Focus 3D
CAM2
Stonex
Trimble x300
TX5 Z+F Z+F
Z+F 5006H 5010C
5006X
Topcon
GLS 1500
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GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
TOF versus PHASE

The phase LIDARs have:

• Limited range (a hundred meters)

• Increase to possiblity to not measure some points

but
• Faster (up to 1000000 punti/s)

• More precise (1-2 mm+ 1-2 ppm)

TOF systems are able to reache some kms.but they are less precise
(5-25 mm+1-2 ppm)

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
Characteristics of some commercial LS
Area Min - max Angular Precision
Model method*
(V x H) dist. [m] precision (distance)

Leica C10 TOF 270° × 360° 0.3–300 0.006° 4 mm @ 50 m

Leica
PS 310 × 360 0.4–79 0.007° 3mm @ 50 m
HDS6200
Riegl
TOF 100 × 360 2.5–1,350 0.0005° 5 mm @ 50 m
VZ- 1000
Riegl VZ-400 TOF 100 × 360 1.5–350/600 0.0005° 3 mm @ 50 m
Optech ILRIS 40 × 40
TOF 3–2,000 0.003° 4 mm @ 50 m
HD-ER (360 × 360)
Trimble
TOF & PS 300 × 360 1–80 0.004° 4 mm @ 50 m
CX
0.6 mm @ 10 m,
Faro Focus3D PS 305 × 360 0.6–20/120 -
0.95 mm @ 25 m
Z+F IMAGER
PS 310 × 360 0.4–79 - 0.7 mm @ 25 m
5006

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 Techniques for 3D measurements
Characteristics
Acquisition speed
It is possible to acquire the points witha speed = 500000pts/s. The greater part of the
data acquisition is due to the instrument setting, data storage and data processing.

Resolution and divergency of the

ray
The scan resolution is theoretically
equal to the value of the rotation
angle between two laser beam. But
in the real case, we have to consider
the divergency of the ray. In some
case, this value is bigger than the
resolution.

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
Characteristics
Real Range
The range depends on the medium where the laser beam passes..
Moreover, it depends on the material and the type of surface.
Moreover, it depends also by other external radiation noise (reflected sunlight,
artificial light).

Field of work
Laser scanning can be fixed (no rotation
of the body) or moving, with a rotation
around 1 or 2 axes.

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements
Characteristics
Scans registration
Some Laser scanning are able to detect automatically some
known objects or elements, with purpose to merge the
scans.

RGB (image acquisition)

Some new Laser scanning have an
integrated digital camera or an
external digital camer, which allow
to acquire a RGB image. These
images are only used to apply the
RGB index to the point clouds.

Autonomy and transportability

They need particular boxes.

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Techniques for 3D measurements

What we have to do? S30 S20

0
S50 0
0
- Planning of the LIDAR S40 S10
0
survey 0

- Orientation of the scans

- Data processing of the
LIDAR raw data.

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Some preliminary conclusions

• Processing of raw data

• Generation of final products

Model orthophoto profile

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 Data acquisition
Laser scanner is a instrument able to acquire
automatically a lot of points (millions)

Smart survey (human brain)

Acquisition is made without any logical
criteria. Usually, we have a lot of points,
where we don’t need and viceversa
(Murphy’s law)

LIDAR (intelligence is replaced by

quantity of data)

There are other problems: the discontinuities (break-

lines) and the economic factor are fundamental. The
dimensions of the objects and the required precisions
vary in a very large range (from a few m to mm).

GEOMATICS: 01RVUMX
 Data processing

If the survey is not SMART, it is necessary to control the planning and

the data processing steps.
It is necessary to use the artificial intelligence, to convert the points in a
shape.
There are two approaches:
1) REDUCTIVE: obtain in a faster and cheaper way the traditional
products
2) PROPOSITIVE generate new tools and products devoted to
describe and represent the complex geometry.

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