SHIP STABILITY

This is an area of naval architecture and ship design

that deals with how a ship behaves at sea. Both in
still water and in waves, whether intact or damaged.

It focuses on center of gravity and center of

buoyancy, metacenters of vessels and on how they
intaract
 Basic Definition
 Heel. A ship is said to be heeled when she is inclined by an
external force.

Example, when the ship is inclined by the action of the waves

or wind.

 List. A ship is said to be listed when she is inclined by

forces within the ship. For example, when the ship is
inclined by shifting a weight transversely within the ship.
This is a fixed angle of heel.
Cont’d
 Righting moment: this exist at any angle of inclination
where the forces of weight and buoyancy act to move
the ship towards the upright position
 Heeling moments: this moment exist at any angle of
inclination where the forces of weight and buoyancy act
to move the ship away fro the upright position
 Cont’d

 Trim: this is the differnce between the draught forward

and aft.

 Righting lever (GZ): this is the horizontal distance,

measured between the center of gravityand the vertical
line of action of the buoyancy force or the lever that in a
ship that seperates between the vertical lines passing
through G and B1
STABILITY INTARACTION PHASES
 TYPES OF FORCES ACTING ON THE
SHIP

Heel due to beam winds

 lifting of weight by the side
High speed turning manoeuver
Grounding ship
 tension on mooring
Ship stability
REACTION
 TYPES OF Ship Stability

ship’s stability can be divided into two parts

namely.

Intact or Statical Stability

Damaged stability
 Intact/Statical Stability

This field of study deals with the stability of a

surface ship when the intactness of its hull is
maintained, and no compartment or watertight
tank is damaged or freely flooded by seawater.
 Damaged Stability

The study of damaged stability of a surface ship

includes the identification of compartments or
tanks that are subjected to damage and flooded
by seawater, followed by a prediction of
resulting trim and draft conditions.
 METACENTERIC HEIGHT (GM)
This is a measurement of the initial static stability of a
floating body. It is calculated as the distance between the
centre of gravity of a ship and its metacentre.
A larger metacentric height implies greater initial
stability against overturning. The metacentric height also
influences the natural period of rolling of a hull, with very
large metacentric heights being associated with shorter
periods of roll which are uncomfortable for passengers.
DIAGRAM SHOWING METACENTRIC
HEIGHT
 Metacentre
When a ship heels (rolls sideways), the centre of
buoyancy of the ship moves laterally. It might also
move up or down with respect to the water line. The
point at which a vertical line through the heeled
centre of buoyancy crosses the line through the
original, vertical centre of buoyancy is therefore
known as the metacentre.
 TYPES OF METERCENTERS

Transverse metacenter/stability

Longitudinal metacenter/stability
 Transverse metacenter/stability GZ

This is the ability of a ship to return to its upright

position when inclined to certain angle or heeled
Longitudinal metacenter/stability

Longitudinal shifts in weights on-board either at

the Aft or Forward part of the ship, or any
longitudinal trimming moment (a moment that
would cause the ship to trim), are aspects that are
discussed under longitudinal stability of a ship.
Diagram
 The metacentre can be calculated
using the formulae:
𝑲𝑴 = 𝑲𝑩 + 𝑩𝑴

𝑰
𝑩𝑴 =
𝑽

Where:

KB = The centre of buoyancy (height above the keel),

I = The second moment of area of the waterplane in metres

𝑳𝑩𝟑
𝑰=
𝟏𝟐

𝑽 = The volume of displacement in metres3

KM = The distance from the keel to the metacentre

 Intact Stability of Surface Ships

The fundamental concept behind the understanding of

intact stability of a floating body is that of
Equilibrium.
 TYPES OF INTACT STABILITY
EQUILIBRIUM

Stable Or Positive Equilibrium

Unstable Or Negative Equilibrium

Neutral Equilibrium
 Stable Or Positive Equilibrium

Statical stability is a measure of the tendency of

a ship to return to the upright if inclined by an
external force.
POSITIVE STABILITY REACTION
 Cont’d
The inclination does not affect the position of G, the ship's
centre of gravity, provided no weights are free to move.
The inclination does, however, affect the underwater
shape and the centre of buoyancy moves from 𝐵0 𝑡𝑜 𝐵1 .
This is because a volume, v, repesented by 𝑊0 𝑂𝑊1 , has
come out of the water and an equal volume, represented
by 𝐿0 𝑂𝐿1 , has been immersed.
If 𝑔0 and 𝑔1 are the centroids of the emerged and
immersed wedges and 𝑔0 𝑔1 = ℎ

Therefore,

𝑣×ℎ
𝐵0 𝐵1 =
𝛻

Where 𝛻 is the total volume displacment

 Moment of Statical Stability
Hence, If moments are taken about G there is a moment to return the ship to

the upright. This moment is referred to as the Moment of Statical Stability

and is equal to the product of the force 'W' and the length of the lever GZ.

i.e. Moment of Statical Stability ˆ

𝑊 × 𝐺𝑍tonnes metres.

The lever GZ is referred to as the righting lever and is the perpendicular

distance between the centre of gravity and the vertical through the centre of

buoyancy. At a small angle of heel (less than 15):

 Cont’d
𝐺𝑍 = 𝐺𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
And moment of statical stability
𝑊 × 𝐺𝑀 × sin 𝜃
Condition for occurrence
 G must be below m
 Gm must be positive
 Up-righting movement = W x GM sin θ
 GZ is the righting arm
 Negative stability
When an external force(s) act on a vessel, the vessel will incline

to port or starboard, depending on the direction from where this

force is coming from. When these forces are no more, instead of

the ship returning back to its upright, these vessel is said to be in

negative state of ship stability. For this to occur the ship must

have a negative GM.

NEGATIVE STABILITY REACTION
 Cont’d
Note:

How G is above M.

A ship in unstable equilibrium which has been inclined to

a small angle, the moment of statical stability, WGZ, is

clearly a capsizing moment which will tend to heel the

ship still further.

 Condition for occurances

G must be above M

GM must be negative

Upsetting movement= Wx – GM sinθ

GZ is right arm.

 Neutral Stability
When an external forces act on a vessel, the
vessel will incline to port or starboard depending
on the direction of the force and when the force
is no more, the ship neither returns back to its
upright nor move further away but remains at
that inclining position, in this case the vessel is
said to be in neutral state of ship stability
NEUTRAL STABILITY REACTION
 Cont’d
BM may be found as follows:
Consider a ship whose volume of displacement is V, lying upright at
waterline WL, the centre of buoyancy being on the centreline of the
ship. If the ship is now inclined to a small angle θ , it will lie at
waterline 𝑊1 𝑂𝐿1 which intersects the original waterline at S Since θ is
small it may be assumed that 0 is on the centreline. A wedge of
buoyancy 𝑊0 𝑂𝑊1 has been moved across the ship to 𝐿0 𝑂𝐿1 causing
the centre of buoyancy to move from B to 𝐵1 .
Let v = volume of wedge

gg1= transverse shift in centre of gravity of wedge

Then

𝑣×ℎ
𝐵0 𝐵1 =
𝛻

Where ℎ = 𝑔𝑔1

But 𝐵0 𝐵1 = BM tan θ

𝑣×ℎ
BM tan θ = 𝛻

Therefore
𝑣×ℎ
BM tan θ = 𝛻𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
 CORRECTION OF UNSTABLE AND
NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM
Correcting unstable and neutral equilibrium When a ship in
unstable or neutral equilibrium is to be made stable, thc
effective centre of gravity of the ship should be lowered. To
do this one or more of the following methods may be
employed:

1. weights already in the ship may be lowered

2. weights may be loaded below the centre of gravity of the
ship.
3. weights may be discharged from positions above the
centre of gravity, or
4. free surfaces within the ship may be removed.
 BASIC PRINCIPLE
The three conditions can be summarized as:

M above G GM and GZ = Positive Stable

M at G GM and GZ = Zero Neutral
M below G GM and GZ =Negative Unstable
 TRANSVERSE STATICAL STABILITY
NOTE:

1. The centre of gravity of a body `G' is the point through which the force of gravity

is considered to act vertically downwards with a force equal to the weight of the

body. KG is VCG of the ship.

2. The centre of buoyancy `B' is the point through which the force of buoyancy is

considered to act vertically upwards with a force equal to the weight of water

displaced. It is the centre of gravity of the underwater volume. KB is VCB of the

ship.

3. To foat at rest in still water, a vessel must displace her own weight of water, and

the centre of gravity must be in the same vertical line as the centre of buoyancy.

4. KM = KB + BM also KM = KG + GM
 PROBLEM

A box of barge of length l and breadth B floats at

a level keel draught d. calculate the height of the
transverse metacentre above the keel
 PROBLEM

A ship of 202m long has a mean draft of 3.2m

with a breadth of 12m acting in a salt water. Its
center of gravity is 3.5m. Calculate the
metacentric height of the ship
 PROBLEM

A ship of 4000 tonnes displacement has KG

5.5m and KM 6.0m. Calculate the moment of
statical stability when heeled 5 degrees.
 SOLUTION
KM=KG+GM
Therefore
GM = KM – KG
6.0 – 5.5 = 0.5
Moment of statical stability
𝑊 × 𝐺𝑀𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
4000 × 0.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑜
174.4 tonnes
 PROBLEM

When a ship of 12000 tonnes displacement is

heeled 6.5 degrees the moment of statical
stability is 600 tonnesm. Calculate the initial
metacentric height.
 SOLUTION
Moment of statical stability =
𝑊 × 𝐺𝑀𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Therefore,
Moment of statical stability
𝐺𝑀 =
𝑊 × 𝐺𝑀𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

600
𝐺𝑀 =
12000 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6.5𝑜

o.44m
 LIST
For a body floating in an upright position, the
centres of gravity and buoyancy are on the centre
line. The resultant force acting on the ship is
zero, and the resultant moment about the centre
of gravity is zero.
 ANALYSIS
If a weight already on board the ship be shifted transversely
such that G moves to G1

This will produce a listing moment of WGG1 and the ship will
list until G1 and the centre of buoyancy are in the same
vertical line.
 Cont’d

In this position 𝐺1 will also lie vertically under M so long

as the angle of list is small. Therefore, if the final
positions of the metacentre and the centre of gravity are
known, the final list can be found, using trigonometry, in
the triangle 𝐺𝐺1 M which is right-angled at G. The final
position of the centre of gravity is found by taking
moments about the keel and about the centre line.
 Note:

When the weight is shifted transversely the ship's

centre of gravity will also shift transversely, from
𝐺 to 𝐺1 . The ship will then list y degrees to bring
𝐺1 vertically under M the metacentre.

𝑤×ℎ
𝐺𝐺1 =
𝑊
 PROBLEM

A ship of 6000 tonnes displacement has KMˆ=

7.3m, and KG = 6̂.7m, and is floating upright. A
weight of 60 tonnes already on board is shifted
12m transversely. Find the resultant list.
 Solution
𝑤×ℎ
𝐺𝐺1 =
𝑊

60 × 12
𝐺𝐺1 =
6000

𝐺𝐺1 = 0.12𝑚
GM = KM - KG
7.3 – 6.7 =0.6m

Therefore, the resulatant list

𝐺𝐺1
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ =
𝐺𝑀
0.12
0.6

Answer = 11
 INCLINING EXPERIMENT
This is a simple experiment which is carried out on the
completed ship to determine the metacentric height, and
hence the height of the centre of gravity of the ship.

The experiment is carried out when the construction of the

vessel is approaching completion and the weight of loads
that are yet onboard are known with their final position.
Also this experiment is carried out when there is a large
alteration on the original design of vessel.
 Cont’d
The experiment is carried out by causing the ship to

heel to a small angle to the vertical by moving known

weight through known distance across the deck and

observing the angle inclination.

DIAGRAM
 A small mass m is moved across the ship through a distance d. This
causes the centre of gravity to move from its original position G on the
centreline to 𝐺1 .

If Δ = displacement of ship
𝑊 × 𝑑 = ∆ × 𝐺𝐺1
𝑊×𝑑
Then 𝐺𝐺1 = Δ

At the same time the ship would be inclined through some angle θ and
will be in a position of stable equilibrium.
𝐺𝐺1 = 𝐺𝑀𝑡𝑎𝑛θ

𝑊×𝑑
𝐺𝑀 =
Δ𝑡𝑎𝑛θ
𝐺𝐺1
Δ𝑡𝑎𝑛θ =
𝐺𝑀
At the same time the draught at which the ship is
floating are observed, from which the weight can
be determined, the resultant angle of heel is
measured either by means of pendulums or by
the measuring instrument (STABILOGRAPH)
which records directly the movement of the ship
in degrees.
 CONDUCT OF EXPERIMENT
 Experiment should be carried out in calm weather when there is little or no
wind.

 It is desirable that the experiment be made when the ship is nearly not
completed.

 The ship must be floating freely. All mooring wires should be slack and
shore gangway removed.

 All loose items such as derrick, boats, etc. should be secured.

 All tanks should be empty or pressed full.

 All workmen. Other than those engaged in experiment, should be send

ashore while those who are involved should at a place when taking the
reading.

 At least two plumb lines should be used one forward and one aft.
 Cont’d

 Any movement of liquid affects the results and therefore all

tanks should be empty or pressed up tight.
 The magnitude and position of any mass which is not
included in the lightweight of the ship should be noted and
it is therefore necessary to sound all tanks and inspect the
whole ship.
 Corrections are made to the centre of gravity for any such
masses.
 INSTRUMENT FOR RECORDING
INCLINATION
STABILOGRAPH: This instrument is in use by
many shipyards.

It consists of a heavy metal pendulum balanced

on knife edges, geared to a pen arm which
records the angle of heel on a rotating drum.
 ADVANTAGES OF USING
STABILOGRAPH
 Permanent record is obtained and the movement
of the ship may be seen as the experiment is in
progress.
 E.g.
If, for instance, the mooring ropes are
restricting the heel, the irregular movement will be
seen on the drum.
STABILOGRAPH
 TRANSVERSE / VERTICAL CHANGE IN
DRAFT
There are two major ways for the transverse
changes in draft namely

Discharge of cargoes
Loading of cargoes
 Discharge of cargoes
In the discharging of cargo the final
displacement is less than the initial displacement
and the
final draft is less than the initial draft.
Taking moment about G
𝑊 × 𝐺𝑔 = ∆ × 𝐺𝐺1

𝑊 × 𝐺𝑔
𝐺𝐺1 =
Δ
So,
∆𝐼 = (∆ − 𝑊)

𝐺𝑔 = 𝐾𝑔 + 𝐾𝐺

𝑊 × 𝐺𝑔
𝐺𝐺1 =
(∆ − 𝑊)
Therefore,
final 𝐾𝐺𝐼 = 𝐾𝐺 − 𝐺𝐺𝐼
and
Final 𝐺𝑀𝐼 = 𝐺𝑀 + 𝐺𝐺𝐼
 PROBLEM

A ship of 10000 displacement has a length of 120m,

breadth of 40m and draft of 3.5m. A weight of 50
tonnes is displaced onboard and list at 3m from the
keel. If the center of gravity of the ship is 4.1m and
GM is 0.7m. Calculate the effect of placing the load
on a distance to ensure the ship is stable
 SOLUTION
Given

Displacment= 10000

L = 120m

B= 40M

T= 3.5M

Weight = 50tonns

KG = 4.1

Kg (distance og the load) 3m

Therefore, KM = KG + GM

GM = 0.7M
Also KM = KB + BM
3.5
KB = = 1.75
2

402
BM = = 38.09
12×3.5

KM = 1.75 + 38.09
KM = 39.84
Therefore,
𝑊 × 𝐺𝑔
𝐺𝐺1 =
Δ
And since Gg = KG – Kg
4.1 – 3 = 1.1

50 × 1.1
𝐺𝐺1 =
10000
0.006m
also
𝐾𝐺𝐼 = 𝐾𝐺 − 𝐺𝐺𝐼
𝐾𝐺𝐼 = 4.1 −0.006

𝐾𝐺𝐼 = 4.094
 Longitudinal Metacenteric height
The longitudinal metacenter is similar to the transverse
metacenter except that it involves longitudinal
inclinations.

Since ships are usually not symetrical forward and

aft, the center of buoyancy at various even-keel waterlines
does not always lie in a fixed transverse plane, but may
move forward and aft with change in draught.
DIAGRAM
 Cont’d
The longitudinal metacenter, like the transverse
metacenter, is substantially fixed with respect to
the ship for moderate angles of inclination if
there is no abrupt change in the shape of the ship
in the vicinity of the waterline, and its distance
above the ships center of gravity, or the ship
resistance to change trim
Inclined Longitudinal Metacenter
The centre of gravity (G) and the centre of buoyancy (B) will be in the
same vertical line and the ship will be displacing her own weight of water.
So
𝑾= 𝒃
If weight `w', already on board, be shifted aft through a distance `d', as
shown in the Figure,

This causes the centre of gravity of the ship to shift from 𝐺0 𝑡𝑜𝐺1 , parallel
to the shift of the centre of gravity of the weight shifted.

so that
𝒘×𝒅
𝑮𝟎 𝑮𝟏 = ˆ
𝑾
Or
𝑾 × 𝑮𝟎 𝑮𝟏 = 𝒘 × 𝒅
 Cont’d

A trimming moment of 𝑊 × 𝐺0 𝐺1 is thereby produced.

Hence,
𝑊 × 𝐺0 𝐺1 = 𝑤 × 𝑑

Therefore,

The trimming moment ˆ= 𝑤 × 𝑑

 Longitudinal Metacenter
Trimming moments are taken about the centre of fotation since this is the

point about which rotation takes place. The longitudinal metacentre (𝑀𝐿 ) is

the point of intersection between the verticals through the longitudinal

positions of the centres of buoyancy. The vertical distance between the centre

of gravity and the longitudinal metacentre (𝐺𝑀𝐿 ) is called the longitudinal

metacentric height.

𝐵𝑀𝐿 is the height of the longitudinal metacentre above the centre of

buoyancy and is found for any shape of vessel by the formula:

𝑰
𝑩𝑴 =
𝑽
Recall that for second moment of inertia for
rectangular waterplane area,

𝐿2
𝐼𝐿 =
12𝑑
And for a triangular waterplane area

𝐿2
𝐼𝐿 =
6𝑑
 EFFECT OF TRIM ON THE
METACENTER
The trim is the difference in draughts forward
and aft. The change in trim angle can be taken as
the change in that difference divided by the
longitudinal distance between the points at which
the draughts are measured.
 Cont’d
Recall that the formulars BM, KM & GM all
assumed that the waterline at each station was
same, namely no trim existed. But in the case of
where substantial trim exist, values for BM, KM
& GM will be substantially different from those
calculated for the zero trim situation.
𝐺𝑀𝐿 = 𝐾𝐵 + 𝐵𝑀𝐿 − 𝐾𝐺
 APPLICATION OF METACENTRIC
HEIGHT
The convenient and frequently used concept is
for the application of metacentric height can be
classified into the following types

Moment to heel one degree. ∆GZsin10

Moment to trim one degree ∆𝐺𝑀𝑠𝑖𝑛10

 Moment to heel one degree.
𝟎
(∆GZsin𝟏 )
This is the moment of weight and buoyancy, or WGZ
when the ship is heeled 1degree, and is equivalent to the
moment of external forces required to produce a 1degree
heel within the range of inclination.

Where the metacenter is stationary, the change in the

angle of heel produced by a given external moment can be
found by dividing the moment by the moment to heel one
degree.
 Moment to trim one degree
𝟎
∆𝑮𝑴𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏
Where 𝐺𝑀𝐿 is the longitudinal metacentric height, we are more
interested, however, in the change in draft produced by a
londitudinal moment than in the angle of trim.
𝑊𝐺𝑀𝐿
𝑀𝐶𝑇 = t.m
𝐿
The expression is converted to moment to trim one cm by
substituting one cm divided by the length of the ship in cm for sin
1degree
𝑊𝐺𝑀𝐿
𝑀𝐶𝑇1𝑐𝑚 = t.m
100𝐿
Note:
In Imperial units the moment to change trim
one inch is usually quoted. In this latter case the
units must be watched. If W is in tonft and L and
𝐺𝑀𝐿 are in feet,

Then
𝑊𝐺𝑀𝐿
Moment to change trim one inch,MCT 1in =
12𝐿
The value of MCT is very useful in calculating the draughts at
which a ship will float for a given condition of loading. Suppose it
has been ascertained that the weight of the ship is W and the centre
of gravity is (x) forward of amidships and that at that weight with a
waterline parallel to the design waterline it would float at a draught
T with the centre of buoyancy (y) forward of amidships. There will
be a moment W(y-x) /MCT taking it away from a waterline parallel
to the design one. The ship trims about the centre of flotation and
the draughts at any point along the length can be found by simple
ratios.
 Change Of Draft Forward And Aft Due To
Change Of Trim

When a ship changes trim it will obviously cause

a change in the drafts forward and aft. One of
these will be increased and the other decreased.
A formula must now be found which will give
the change in drafts due to change of trim.
Consider a ship of displacement Δ and length L, lying at waterline WL
and having a mass m on the deck in the Fig. shown.

The centre of gravity G and the centre of buoyancy B lie in the same
vertical line.

If the mass is moved a distance d aft, the centre of gravity moves aft
from 𝐺 𝑡𝑜 𝐺1 and

𝑚×𝑑
𝐺 𝑡𝑜 𝐺1 =
∆

The ship then changes trim through the centre of flotation F until it lies
at waterline 𝑊1 𝐿1 .

This change in trim causes the centre of buoyancy to move aft from B to
B, in the same vertical line as 𝐺1
Cont’d
Hence, if the vessel trims through an angle θ, the
𝐺𝐺1 = 𝐺𝑀𝐿 tan 𝜃
And
𝑚×𝑑
𝐺𝑀𝐿 tan 𝜃 =
∆
𝑚×𝑑
tan 𝜃 =
∆ × 𝐺𝑀𝐿
1
But tan 𝜃 =
100𝐿

Therefore , where 𝑅𝐿1 parallel to 𝑊𝑅

change in trim = 𝑊1 𝑊+𝐿𝐿1

𝑊1 𝑅
𝑡
= 𝑚
100
 Note
Where t = change in trim due to shifting weight by cm over length (L) in
meters (m)

Then 𝑚 × 𝑑 is the moment to change trim 1cm

𝑡
tan 𝜃 =
100𝐿

Therefore,

𝑡 𝑚×𝑑
=
100𝐿 ∆ × 𝐺𝑀𝐿

𝑚 × 𝑑 × 100𝐿
𝑡= 𝑐𝑚
∆ × 𝐺𝑀𝐿
However, the change in trim may therefore be calculated from a trimming equation

𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚 × 𝑑

It is useful to know the moment which will cause a change in trim of one cm.

𝑡×∆×𝐺𝑀𝐿
𝑚×𝑑 = tonnes meter
100𝐿

Let t =1 cm

The moment to change trim by one cm

∆×𝐺𝑀𝐿
𝑀𝐶𝑇1𝑐𝑚 = tonnes m
100𝐿

𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 =
𝑀𝐶𝑇 1𝑐𝑚

𝑚×𝑑
= 𝑀𝐶𝑇 1𝑐𝑚 by stern
 To find the change of draft forward
and aft due to change of trim
When a ship changes trim it will obviously cause
a change in the drafts forward and aft. One of
these will be increased and the other decreased.
A formula must now be found which will give
the change in drafts due to change of trim.
DIAGRAM
Cont’d
The position of the centre of flotation which is l
metres from aft. The ship's length is L metres and a
weight `w' is on deck forward. Let this weight now
be shifted aft a distance of `d' metres as shown in
the figure above. The ship will trim about𝐹1 and
change the trim `t' cm by the stern as shown in the
figure. 𝑊1 𝐶 is a line drawn parallel to the keel.
DIAGRAM
`A' represents the new draft aft and `F' the new draft

forward. The trim is therefore equal to A-F and, since

the original trim was zero, this must also be equal to the

change of trim. Let `x' represent the change of draft aft

due to the change of trim and let `y' represent the change

forward. In the triangles 𝑊𝑊1 𝐹1 and 𝑊1 𝐿1 𝐶 , using the

property of similar triangles

 Cont’d
𝑥𝑐𝑚 𝑡𝑐𝑚
=
𝐼𝑚 𝐿𝑚

Or

𝐼𝑚 × 𝑡𝑐𝑚
𝑥𝑐𝑚 =
𝐿𝑚

Therefore,

𝐼
Change in draft AFT in cm = ×change in trim in cm
𝐿

Where l ˆthe distance of centre of flotation from aft in metres, and L ˆ

the ship's length in metres

 PROBLEM
A ship 126m long is floating at drafts of 5.5m F
and 6.5m A. The centre of flotation is 3m aft of
amidships. MCT 1cmˆ240tonnesm.
Displacement of 6000 tonnes. Find the new
drafts if a weight of 120 tonnes already on board
is shifted forward a distance of 45 metres.
 SOLUTION
𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑤 × 𝑑
120× 45
= 5400tonnes
𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 =
𝑀𝐶𝑇 1𝑐𝑚
5400
240
= 22.5cm
𝐼
Change in draft AFT in cm = × change in trim
𝐿
60
× 22.5 = 10.7cm (-0.107m)
126
Change in draft forward
66
× 22.5 = 11.8cm (0.118m)
126
Original drafts 6.500mA 5.500mF
Change due to trim -0.107m +0.118m
Therefore new draft 6.393mA 5.618m F
 PROBLEM
A ship of 5000 tonne displacement, 96 m long, floats at
draughts of 5.60 m forward and 6.30 m aft. The TPC is
11.5, GML 105 m and
centre of flotation 2.4 m aft of midship.
Calculate.
(a) the MCTI cm
(b) the new end draughts when 88 tonne are added
31 m forward of midship.
 SOLUTION
∆×𝐺𝑀𝐿
(a) MCTI cm =
100𝐿
5000×105
=
100×96

= 54.69 tonne m
88
(b) Bodily sinkage =
11.5
7.65cm
d= 31 + 2.4
= 33.4m from center of flotation (f)
Trimming moment = 88 × 33.4 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 𝑚
88×33.4
Change in trim
54.69
= 53.74cm by the head
 Cont’d
Distance from f to fore end
96
− 2.4 = 45.6𝑚
2

Distance from f to aft end

96
+ 2.4 = 50.4𝑚
2

Change in trim forward

53.74
× 45.6 = 25.52𝑐𝑚 (0.255)
96
Change in trim aft
53.74
× 50.4 = −28.21𝑐𝑚 (-0.282m)
96

(Converting change in trim into meters= -0.282aft and

0.255forward)
Therefore, new draft forward
5.60+0.076-0.282
5.394m
New draft Aft
6.30+0.076+0.255
6.631m
 PROBLEM
A ship of mass 5000 tonnes, 98m long, floats at draughts
of 5.5 m forward and 6.2 m aft, being measured at the
extreme ends. The longitudinal metacentric height is
104m and the centre of flotation is 2.1m aft of amidships.
Determine the moment to change trim 1 cm and the new
end draughts when a mass of 85 tonnes, which is already
on board, is moved 30 m forward.
 SOLUTION
𝑊𝐺𝑀𝐿
𝑀𝐶𝑇1𝑐𝑚 = t.m
100𝐿
5000×9.81×104
𝑀𝐶𝑇1𝑐𝑚 =
100×98
520.5MNm
85×9.81×30
Change in trim=
520.5
4.81cm
Therefore changes in draft
98 −2.1
2
forward 4.81 × =2.31cm
98
98
2 +2.1
Aft 4.81 × =2.51cm
98
Forward= 5.5 - 0.023 = 5.477
Aft = 6.2 + 0.023 = 6.223
The new draft becomes
5.477m forward and 6.223m AFT
 VARIATION IN STABILITY DURING A
VOYAGE
Ships are liable to a considerable change in stability and
behavior at sea between the time of leaving port and arriving
at another. This is mainly due to the consumption of fuel,
water stores etc, all of which affect the centre of gravity
position. Consider an ordinary cargo ship which in the course
of a voyage consumes say 150 tons of fuel. The displacement
will be reduced by 150 tons, and by referring to the tonnes per
inch curve, there will be a corresponding increase in freeboard.
 Cont’d

The effect on the metacentric height will depend

upon the position of centre of gravity of the fuel.
Mostly fuels are stored either in a double bottom
or wing deep tanks and the centre of gravity will
be below the centre of gravity of the ship.
 DECK LOADS LIMITATION
The weight of deck loads should be limited to an amount such that

throughout the voyage there will always be a margin of metacentric

height and in some cases this may mean sailing from the loading

port with one or more double bottom tanks pressed up with water

ballast. It should be remembered that in the determination of

departure GM considered essential, reductions in GM and thus GZ

will be caused during the voyage by the absorption of water by the

deck loads and by the presences of free surfaces in the fuel and fresh

water tanks.
 STABILITY OF THE SHIP UNDER
DAMAGED CONDITION
The effect of flooding one or more compartments is the same as when a

compartments is bilged during collision or grounding. Whether a ship will remain

afloat depends on the initial reserve buoyancy of the ship. It is clear, however, that

the safety of the ship will depend on how the stability in the intact condition is

affected by flooding. Wether the GM becomes positive or negative after flooding

depends on the circumstances of the cases.

• Consider the case of a small double bottom tank being filled in a ship which is

upright and, before filling begins, has a good metacentric height. While the tank

is filling, the rolling of the ship may be uneasy, but the ship is unlikely to take a

list, and when the tank is filled she will be stiffer than before.
 LOSS OF BUOYANCY USING ADDED
WEIGHT METHOD
Flooding of any compartment will affect the buoyancy and
stability of a ship, and when flooding is in excess of reserve
buoyancy foundering is inevitable. After flooding has
commenced the stability of a ship usually deteriorates, but there
are circumstances in which as flooding proceeds there is a partial
returns to normal stability this can be assisted by actions taken by
the ship’s officer – provided he has a clear understanding of the
behavior of his ship under conditions of flooding.
 EFFECT OF FREE SURFACE ON SHIP
STABILITY
When a tank is completely filled with a liquid,
the liquid cannot move within the tank when the
ship heels. For this reason, as far as stability is
concerned, the liquid may be considered a static
weight having its centre of gravity at the centre
of gravity of the liquid within the tank.
Moment of statical stability = W × 𝐺𝑍
Where 𝐺𝑍 = 𝐺𝑀𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
DIAGRAM
considering the same ship floating at the same draft and having
the same KG, but increase the depth of the tank so that the
liquid now only partially fills
When the ship heels, as shown the liquid flows to the
low side of the tank such that its centre of gravity shifts
from 𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑔1 . This will cause the ship's centre of gravity
to shift from 𝐺 𝑡𝑜 𝐺1 , parallel to 𝑔𝑔1
Moment of statical stability =W × 𝐺1 𝑍1
W × 𝐺𝑣 𝑍𝑣

Therefore W = 𝐺𝑣 𝑀𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
This indicates that the effect of the free surface is to reduce the effective

metacentric height from GM to 𝐺𝑣 𝑀. G𝐺𝑣 is therefore the virtual loss of GM

due to the free surface. Any loss in GM is a loss in stability. If free surface be

created in a ship with a small initial metacentric height, the virtual loss of GM

due to the free surface may result in a negative metacentric height. This would

cause the ship to take up an angle of loll which may be dangerous and in any

case is undesirable. This should be borne in mind when considering whether or

not to run water ballast into tanks to correct an angle of loll, or to increase the

GM. Until the tank is full there will be a virtual loss of GM due to the free

surface effect of the liquid. It should also be noted that even though the

distance G𝐺1 is fairly small it produces a relatively large virtual loss in GM

(G𝐺𝑣 ).
 WAVES

Waves are most commonly caused by wind.

Wind-driven waves or surface waves are created
by the friction between wind and surface water.
 WAVE

A ship is always affected by the wave actions and

ship must not be too stiff, otherwise it will be too
much affected by wave actions nor too tender
otherwise it will capsize. Hence the ship must keep
itself parallel to the surface of the water. The waves
action causes rolling and pitching of the ship.
TYPES OF WAVE ENVELOPES ON SHIPS

Basically, there are two diferent types of wave

impact on ships namely

 Rotational Envelope: This is when a body is not

wholly in one direction (Roll, Pitch, And Yaw)

 Translational Envelope: This is when a body is

wholly in one direction (Heave, Sway, Surge)
 SHIP MOTION
A ship at sea moves in six degrees of motion (freedom) HEAVE, SWAY,

SURGE, ROLL, PITCH, AND YAW. The first three are translational

motion along the vertical Z-axiz (HEAVE, SWAY, SURGE) , HEAVING is

the linear motion along the vertical axis. SWAYING is the motion along

the transverse Y-axis, and SURGING is the motion along the longitudinal

X-axis and the second three are rotational motion along the horizontal axis.

(ROLL, PITCH, AND YAW). ROLLING is a rotation around a

longitudinal axis, PITCHING is a rotation around the transverse axis and

YAWING is a rotation around the vertical axis.

 Ship motion
X
surge

roll

sway
Y
pitch

yaw

Z heave
Due to complicated nature of sea waves, ship experiences six difficult ways of
motion.

Rolling – this motion occur when ship is tipping from side to side.

Pitching – this motion is the sea sawing up and down of the ship.

Yawing – this motion is fish tailing type that is the s hip is not on straight course but
produces ZIG – ZAG movement.

Heaving – this motion is the lifting up and down of the hull of the ship. Surging – in
this type of motion, the ship motion is being retarded and speeded up as a result of
wave action.

Sway – in this motion the ship move from one side or the other.

Among all these six motion rolling and pitching presents the greatest problems.
Rolling setup stresses in the structure, causing discomfort to both passenger and crew.
 Ship’s Stress Due to Hogging
1. Hogging due to waves
consider that the wave crest occurs at amidships while the ship’s bow and the aft are hanging
over the wave troughs. The buoyancy at amidships will be increased; whereas the bow and aft
regions will experience reduced buoyancy. This uneven loading condition produces a
significantly large longitudinal bending moment, which causes the ship to hog.

2. Hogging due to poor loading

In a situation where the ship is heavily loaded at its bow and stern, with no corresponding load at
amidships: the non-uniform gravity forces cause the ship to droop. This leads to hogging of the ship.

3. Hogging due to submarine object

When the amidships rests on a hard submarine object with the bow and stern unsupported, a
bending moment is generated at the pivot. The resulting stress leads to hogging of the ship.
 Ship’s Stress Due to Sagging
1. Sagging due to waves
In a heavy seaway, a ship may be supported at its bow and stern by two successive crests of a wave;
while the amidships hangs over the trough unsupported. Hence, the buoyancy at amidships region
is reduced in contrast to the buoyancies at the wave crest positions (fore and aft) which are
increased. This loading condition produces a bending moment that leads to ship sagging.

2. Sagging due to a amidships concentrated load

Consider a heavy concentrated cargo is loaded at amidships. The poorly distributed gravity force interacting
with a more evenly distributed buoyancy force can be liking to a simply supported beam with a point load
at the middle. This kind of loading causes a concavity (sagging) of the ship hull.

load

buoyancy
buoyancy

3. Sagging due to submarine objects

When the amidships becomes unsupported while the fore and stern rest on hard submarine objects.
With this loading, a bending moment is generated that leads to sagging of the ship.

Ship weight

buoyancy
buoyancy
METHOD OF REDUCTION OF ROLLING
OF SHIP
There is a limit to the extent to which amplitudes
of motion of a ship can be reduced by changes in
hull shape but considerable reductions in roll
amplitudes are possible by other means. From
the aspect of comfort, rolling is in general the
most objectionable of all ships motion.
 The resistances to rolling maybe as
stated as follows
 The resistance of the air upon the exposed surfaces
of the ship.

 The friction of the water upon the immersed

surface.

 Eddy-making resistance due to projections on the

immersed surface.

 Wave resistance caused by surface disturbance.

 Cont’d

Rolling is indeed the biggest problems among all

the other motion in seas.
Roll motion stabilization can be achieved in
conventional ships by changing their hull forms,
however, reduction in roll amplitudes are
possible by other means as well.
 SHIP STABILIZERS

Ship stabilizers are fins or rotors mounted

beneath the waterline and emerging laterally
from the hull to reduce a ship roll due to wind or
waves
STABILIZER
 Stabilizers and stabilizing system
A ship at sea has six degrees of freedom and only
the rolling motion can be effectively be reduced in
practice by fitting the following:
Bilge keel
Anti rolling tank or fin stabilizers
A combination of fins and tanks has potential
advantages in prime cost and effective stabilization
at both high and low speed
 NOTE
Since a ship is a damped mass elastic system, it
has a neutral rolling period and large rolling
motions may be induced by resonance with
relatively small wave forces. Large resonant rolls
can be avoided by generating forces equal and
opposite to the impressed sea force
 Classification of Ship stabilization
Stabilization systems can be broadly classified into

 Passive Systems: This is a system in which no separate

source of power is required and no special control
system like the Bilge keel, anti-rolling tanks (passive),
fixed fins & passive moving weight system.
 Active Systems: In this system, the moment opposing
roll is produced by moving masses or control surfaces
by means of power like the active fins, Anti – rolling
tanks (active), active moving weight & the gyroscope.
 Bilge Keels
They are most popular and fitted to majority of ships. They
are plates projecting from the turn of the bilge and extending
over the middle half to two-thirds of the ship’s length.

To avoid the damage they do not normally protrude

beyond the ship’s side or keel lines, but they need to
penetrate the boundary layer around the hull. They cause a
body of water to move with the ship and create turbulence
thus dampening the motion and causing an increase in
period and reduction in amplitude.
 Cont’d
Although relatively small in dimension, they have
large levers about the rolling axis and the forces on
them produce a large moment opposing the rolling.
Their effect is generally enhanced by ahead speed.
They are aligned with the flow of water past the hull
in still water to reduce their drag in that state. When
the ship is rolling the drag will increase and slow
the ship a little.
Bilge Keel
 Fixed fin

These are very similar in action to bilge keels

with the exception that they extend further from
the ships side and are thus more susceptible to
damage. They are generally less effective at low
speed.
 Passive Tank system
Passive tanks depend upon the oscillation of the liquid
between the tanks, port and starboard, being so tuned to
the ship’s period of roll that the motion of the liquid
tends to lag about a quarter of cycle behind the roll.

The object is to arrange the tanks in such a way

that the greatest volume of the liquid is on the side of
the ship which is rising and is therefore, being raised
against gravity.
Passive Tank
 Passive Moving weight system

This is similar in principle to the passive tank

system but in general is less effective for a given
weight of system. It is effective at low speed and
occupies less space than the tank system.
 ACTIVE SYSTEM

This is a system in which the moment opposing

roll is produced by moving masses or control
surfaces by means of power like the active fins,
anti rolling tanks (active), active moving weight
and the gyroscope.
Cont’d

The active systems are characterized by the fact

that control equipment is required to anticipate
motion and activate the stabilizer to apply the
necessary roll-reducing moments. As with
passive systems the active systems may be
internal or external to the main hull.
 ACTIVE FINS
With active fins, a sensitive gyro system senses
the rolling motion of the ship and sends a signal
to the actuating system which, in turn, causes the
fins to move in a direction such as to cause
forces opposing the roll. The actuating gear is
usually electrohydraulic.
ACTIVE FINS
 Anti-Rolling Tanks (Active)

They are similar to the principle of passive tank

system but the movement of water is controlled
by pumps or by the air pressure above the water
surface. The tanks either side of the ship may be
connected by a lower limb or two separate tanks
can be used.
Anti-Rolling Tanks
 Active moving weight
This can take several forms but in principle, it consists of
a mass (W) attached to a rotating arm of radius (R). when
the arm is at angle θ to the middle line of the ship and on
the high side the
Righting moment = WR sinθ
Such a system is effective at low speeds but the mass is
high and the power requirement large. There could be
effective reduction in statical stability if the system stalled
with the mass all one side.
 GYROSCOPE

Gyroscopic stabilizers are control system that

reduces tilting movement of a ship by sensing
orientation using a small gyroscope and
counteracts rotation by adjusting control surface
or by applying force to a large gyroscope
 Cont’d
Roll stabilization by means of gyroscopes upon
high speed rotation of large masses to produce
stabilizing couples. There is a roll reduction of
about 50 per cent. It is effective at low speeds
but the system is heavy, about 2 per cent of
displacement, has large power requirement and
occupies considerable space in the hull.
 SHIP STRUCTURES
The structures of modern ships are for the greater
part comprised of steel plating, sections and
build up girders inter-connected in various ways
to provide sufficient strength in all parts to
withstand the forces acting upon the vessel under
every condition of service.
 The Structure is made up of the
following
 Frame

 Outer bottom plating

 Inner bottom plating

 Decks

 Bulkheads

 Beams brackets and pillars

 Stern and stem

 Bilge keels and side docking keels

 Propeller shaft supporting

 Superstructure

 Machinery seating.
 BOTTOM STRUCTURE
The double bottom structure which provides
increased safety in the event of bottom shell
damage, and also provides liquid tank space low
down in the ship, only evolved during the early part
of the twentieth century. Smaller vessels such as
tugs, ferries, and cargo ships of less than 500 gross
tonnage have a single bottom construction.
 Keels
At the centre line of the bottom structure is located
the keel, which is often said to form the backbone of
the ship. This contributes substantially to the
longitudinal strength and effectively distributes
local loading caused when docking the ship. The
commonest form of keel is that known as the ‘flat
plate’ keel, and this is fitted in the majority of
ocean-going and other vessels
 Cont’d
A form of keel found on smaller vessels is the
bar keel. The bar keel may be fitted in trawlers,
tugs, etc., and is also found in smaller ferries.
Where grounding is possible this type of keel is
suitable with its massive scantlings, but there is
always a problem of the increased draft with no
additional cargo capacity.
Bar keel
 Single Bottom Structure
In smaller ships having single bottoms the vertical plate
open floors are fitted at every frame space and are stiffened
at their upper edge. A centre line girder is fitted and one side
girder is fitted each side of the centre line where the beam is
less than 10 m. Where the beam is between 10 and 17m two
side girders are fitted and if any bottom shell panel has a
width to length ratio greater than four additional continuous
or intercostal stiffeners are fitted.
Single Bottom
 Double Bottom Structure
An inner bottom (or tank top) may be provided at a
minimum height above the bottom shell, and maintained
watertight to the bilges. This provides a considerable
margin of safety, since in the event of bottom shell
damage only the double bottom space may be flooded.
The space is not wasted but utilized to carry oil fuel and
fresh water required for the ship, as well as providing
ballast capacity.
Double Bottom
 Inner bottom plating
The inner bottom plating may in a general cargo ship be sloped at
the side to form a bilge for drainage purposes. It is not uncommon
however for it to be extended to the ship’s side, and individual bilge
wells are then provided for drainage purposes. In vessels requiring a
passenger certificate it is a statutory requirement for the tank top to
extend to the ship’s side.

This provides a greater degree of safety since there is a

substantial area of bilge which may be damaged without flooding
spaces above the inner bottom.
 Floors
Vertical transverse plate floors are provided both where the
bottom is transversely and longitudinally framed. At the ends
of bottom tank spaces and under the main bulkheads,
watertight or oil tight plate floors are provided. These are
made watertight or oil tight by closing any holes in the plate
floor and welding collars around any members which pass
through the floors. Elsewhere ‘solid plate floors’ are fitted to
strengthen the bottom transversely and support the inner
bottom.
 Cont’d
These run transversely from the continuous centre
girder to the bilge, and manholes provided for
access through the tanks and lightening holes are cut
in each solid plate floor. Also, small air and drain
holes may be drilled at the top and bottom
respectively of the solid plate floors in the tank
spaces.
 Transversely framed double bottom
If the double bottom is transversely framed, then transverse solid
plate floors, and bracket floors with transverse frames, provide the
principal support for the inner bottom and bottom shell plating.
Solid plate floors are fitted at every frame space in the engine room
and in the pounding region.

Also they are introduced in way of boiler seats, transverse

bulkheads, toes of brackets supporting stiffeners on deep tank
bulkheads, and in way of any change in depth of the double bottom.
Transversely framed double bottom
Longitudinally framed double bottom
In a longitudinally framed double bottom, solid plate floors are fitted at
every frame space under the main engines, and at alternate frames
outboard of the engine seating. They are also fitted under boiler seats,
transverse bulkheads, and the toes of stiffener brackets on deep tank
bulkheads.

Elsewhere the spacing of solid plate floors does not exceed

3.8m, except in the pounding region where they are on alternate frame
spaces. At intermediate frame spaces brackets are fitted at the tank side,
and at the centre girder where they may be up to 1.25 m apart. Each
bracket is flanged and will extend to the first longitudinal
longitudinally framed double bottom
 MACHINERY SEATS
It has already been indicated that in the machinery spaces
additional transverse floors and longitudinal intercostal
side girders are provided to support the machinery
effectively and to ensure rigidity of the structure.

The main engine seatings are in general integral with this

double bottom structure, and the inner bottom in way of
the engine foundation has a substantially increased
thickness.
ENGINE SEATS
 FRAMING
The bottom shell may be transversely or longitudinally framed, longitudinal

framing being preferred particularly for vessels exceeding 120m in length.

The side shell framing may also be transversely or longitudinally framed,

transverse framing being adopted in many conventional cargo ships,

particularly where the maximum bale capacity is required. Bale capacities are

often considerably reduced where deep transverses are fitted to support

longitudinal framing. Longitudinal framing may be adopted in larger container

ships and larger bulk carriers, and it is common within the hopper and topside

wing tanks of the latter vessels. Transverse frames are then fitted at the side

shell between the hopper and topside tanks.

 TRANSVERSE FRAMING
In a general cargo ship the transverse framing will consist of main

and hold frames with brackets top and bottom, and lighter tween

deck frames with brackets at the tops only.

Scantlings of the main transverse frames are primarily dependent on

their position, spacing and depth and to some extent on the rigidity

of the end connections. In way of tanks such as oil bunkers or cargo

deep tanks the side frame size will be increased, except where

supporting side stringers are fitted within the tank space.

Cont’d
Frames supporting hatch end beams and those in way of deck transverses where

the deck is framed longitudinally, also have increased scantlings.

Web frames, that are built up frames consisting of plate web and face

flat, where the web is considerably deeper than the conventional transverse

frame, are often introduced along the side shell. A number are fitted in midship

machinery spaces, generally not more than 5 frames spaces apart but may be

omitted if the size of normal framing is increased. Forward of the collision

bulkhead and in any deep tank adjacent to the collision bulkhead, and in tween

decks above such tanks, web frames are required at not more than 5 frame

spaces apart.
SIDE SHELL WITH TRANSVERSE
FRAMING
 LONGITUDINAL FRAMING
If the side shell is longitudinally framed offset bulb sections
will often be employed with the greater section scantlings at
the lower side shell. Direct continuity of strength is to be
maintained, and many of the details are similar to those
illustrated for the tanker longitudinals.

Transverse webs are fitted to support the side

longitudinals, these being spaced not more than 3.8m apart, in
ships of 100m length or less, with increasing spacing being
permitted for longer ships.
 FORE END STRUCTURE
 Stem

On many conventional ships a stem bar, which is a solid round bar,

is fitted from the keel to the waterline region, and a radiused plate is

fitted above the waterline to form the upper part of the stem. This

forms what is referred to as a ‘soft nose’ stem, which in the event of

a collision will buckle under load, keeping the impact damage to a

minimum. Older ships had solid bar stems which were riveted and

of square section, and as the stem had no rake it could cause

considerable damage on impact because of its rigidity.

Cont’d
Small ships such as tugs and trawlers may still have a solid stem
bar extending to the top of the bow, and some existing large
passenger ships may have steel castings or forgings forming the
lower part of the stem. A specially designed bow is required for
ships assigned Ice Class AC notations and additional scantlings
are required for the stems of ships assigned other ice classes.

The solid round bar is welded inside the keel plate at its lower
end, and inside the radiused stem plate at its upper end, the shell
being welded each side
FORE END CONSTRUCTION
FORE END STRUCTURE
 Bulbous Bows
Vessels operating at higher speeds, and those with
high block coefficients, are often found to have a
bulbous or protruding bow below the waterline.
The arguments for and against fitting some form of
bulbous bow are the province of text-books on naval
architecture, but it may be indicated that like most
peculiarities of the immersed hull form this feature
is usually intended to reduce the vessel’s resistance
to motion under certain conditions.
BULBOUS BOW
 AFT END STRUCTURE
Considerable attention is paid to the overall design of the stern in order

to improve flow into and away from the propeller. The cruiser stern was

for many years the favoured stern type for ocean going ships, but today

most of these vessels have a transom stern. A cruiser stern presents a

more pleasant profile and is hydrodynamically efficient, but the

transom stern offers a greater deck area aft, is a simpler construction,

and can also provide improved flow around the stern.

Many forms of rudder are available and the type and form

fitted is intended to give the best manoeuvring characteristics.

 Stern Construction
As the cruiser stern overhang may be subjected to large slamming

forces a substantial construction with adequate stiffening is required.

Solid floors are fitted at every frame space, and a heavy centre line

girder is fitted right aft at the shell and decks. The stern plating is

stiffened by cant frames or webs with short cant beams supporting

the decks and led to the adjacent heavy transverse deck beam.

Further stiffening of the plating is provided, or adopted in lieu of

cant frames, by horizontal stringers extending to the first transverse

frame.
TRANSOM STERN
 STERN FRAME
It has already been indicated that the form of the stern frame is influenced

by the stern profile and rudder type. To prevent serious vibration at the

after end there must be adequate clearances between the propeller and

stern frame, and this will to a large extent dictate its overall size. The stern

frame of a ship may be cast, forged, or fabricated from steel plate and

sections. On larger ships it is generally either cast or fabricated, the casting

being undertaken by a specialist works outside the shipyard. To ease the

casting problem with larger stern frames and also the transport problem it

may be cast in more than one piece and then welded together when erected

in the shipyard.
STERN FRAME
 SHIP RESISTANCE
The power required to propel a ship through
water depends upon.
The resistance offered by the water and air.

The efficiency of the propulsion unit adopted.

The interaction between them.

 TYPES OF SHIP RESISTANCE
The total resistance of a ship moving on a calm
water surface has a number of components, namly
wave-making resistance
frictional resistance
form drag
Eddy making resistance
Air resistance
Appendage resistance.
 Wave Making Resistance
A body moving on an undisturbed water surface
produces a wave making system. There are three types
of waves generally formed when a ship moves through
still water, namely bow and stern divergent and
transverse waves as shown below. The wave system
arises from the pressure field around the ship and the
energy possessed by it is derived from the ship.
DIAGRAM
 Frictional Resistance
When a body moves through a fluid which is otherwise
at rest, a thin layer of fluid adheres to the surface of the
body and has no velocity relative to the body. At some
distance from the body the fluid remains at rest. The
variation of fluid is rapid close to the body but reduces
with increasing distance from the body. This region
where there is a rapid change in velocity is termed the
boundary layer.
DIAGRAM
 Form Drag Resistance
The water particles moving past the hull in their
streamlines cannot always exactly follow the
ships form precisely and break away. The
pressure acting on the stern is reduced so that
there arises a resultant force opposing forward
motion. This force is the form drag or resistance.
 Air Resistance
Air is a fluid and as such will resists the passage
of the exposed portions of the ship through it.
The resistance has both frictional and eddy-
making components. At the full speed of the ship
in conditions of no wind the air resistance is
about 2 to 4 percent the total water resistance.
 Eddy-Making Resistance

When streamline flow breaks down, a disturbed

volume of water is formed in which water
particles revolve in eddies. The energy of this
motion is wasted and can be treated as an
increase in resistance.
 Appendage Resistance

Typical appendages are rudders, shaft, brackets,

bossing, stabilizers and bilge keels. Appendage
resistance is generally small in the order of 10
percent of that of the hull.
 NOTE
In assessment of ship resistance it is customary to group wave-
making resistance, form resistance, eddy resistance and air
resistance into one force termed Residual Resistance.
So that the Total resistance is given by

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑓

Where,
𝑅𝑇 = Total Resistance
𝑅𝑟 = Resisduary resistance and
𝑅𝑓= frictional resistance
 FROUDES LAW OF COMPARISON
If two geometrically similar forms- two ships or a
ship and its model- are run at speeds proportional
to the square root of their lengths corresponding
speeds then their residuary resistance per unit
displacement will be the same.
This is an important law which makes it possible to
estimate the residuary resistance of a ship from
that of her model or from that of a ship of different
size but of the same hull form.
 Model Tests
• To determine the total resistance (Rt) of a ship
from the results obtained in a model test the
procedure is as follows:
• Measure the total resistance (rt) of a
geometrically similar model at its
corresponding speed.
 Cont’d
• Estimate the frictional resistance rf of the model using the
expression given later. The value determined should be
corrected for density.
• Determine the value of residuary resistance rr of the model
from the expression rr = rt – rf.
• By Froude’s law of comparison determine the value of Rr for
the ship in sea water 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑟𝑟 𝐿/𝑙 3 .
• Estimate the value of Rf for the ship by the expression given
later.
• Determine the value of Rt for the using Rt = Rf + Rr
The total resistance so determined represents the resistance
of the smooth or naked hull and does not include appendages
such as bossing etc.
• Frictional Resistance calculation
• Froude in his investigation into frictional
resistance concluded that it depends upon.
• The area of the surface
• The type of surface
• The length of the surface
• The density of the water
• The nth power of the speed.
• Froude found that frictional resistance could
be expressed by the formula
• 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑓𝑆𝑉 1.825
• Where 𝑅𝑓 = frictional resistance in Newtons
• 𝑓 = a coefficient depending on length of
surface
• S = wetted surface area of ship in m2
• V = speed of ship in m/s
 Froude’s Law of Comparison

This, as stated above is an important law. The

law states that the residuary resistance of a ship
and her model vary as the ratio of the
displacement or (length)3 when the ship and the
model are run at corresponding speeds.
 Cont’d
Therefore,
1
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑠 𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑠 2
Corresponding speed = Or 𝑉𝑚
= 𝐿𝑚
= 𝐿𝑚
𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑚
And
1
∆𝑠 𝐿𝑠 3 𝐿 ∆𝑠 3
= therefore, 𝑠 =
∆𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝐿𝑚 ∆𝑚
Also
1/3 1/6
𝑉𝑠 ∆𝑠 ∆𝑠
= =
𝑉𝑚 ∆𝑚 ∆𝑚
And
3
𝑅𝑅𝑠 𝐿𝑠
=
𝑅𝑅𝑚 𝐿𝑚
𝐿
Ship scale 𝜆 = 𝐿𝑠
𝑚

Hence,
𝑆𝑠
wetted surface area at full scale is = 𝜆2
𝑆𝑚

FROUDE NUMBER FOR MODEL EQUAL TO SHIP

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑠
𝐹𝑛 = =
𝑔. 𝐿𝑚 𝑔. 𝐿𝑠
 PROBLEM

A ship of 16,000tonnes displacement has a speed

of 20knots. Determine the corresponding speed
for a similar ship of displacement 12,800tonnes.
 SCREW PROPELLER
Propeller is a revolving screw device that drives the
ship. The screw type propeller consist of a hub and
blades, all spaced at equal angles about the axis.
When the blades are integral with the hub, the
propeller is known as solid propeller. When the
blades are separately cast and secured to the hub by
studs, the popular is known as build-up propeller.
• A screw propeller may be generally classified as either fixed, pitch or
controllable pitch.

• The pitch of a fixed pitch propeller cannot be altered during the operation.
The pitch of a controllable pitch propeller can be change at any time
subject to the bridge or engine room control. The controllable pitch
propeller can reverse the direction of a ship without requiring a change of
direction of the drive shaft. The blades are mounted so that each one can
swivel or turn on a shaft that is mounted in the hub. The thrust and torque
of a propeller are created by the pressure differences on either side of the
blades, which is related to relative velocity and blade geometry.
GEOMETRY OF A SCREW PROPELLER
 Cont’d
The face (or pressure face) is the aft-side of the blade
when the ship is moving ahead. The back (or suction
back) is the surface opposite the face. As the propeller
relates, the face of the blade increases pressure on the
water to move it in positive astern movement. The tip of
the blade is the most distance from the hub. The root of
the blade is the area where the blades join the hub.
The leading edge is the edge that cuts the water first when
the ship is going ahead. The trailing edge (also called the
following edge) is opposite the lending edge. A rake angle
exists when the tip of the propeller blade is not precisely
perpendicular to the axis (hub). The angle formed by the
distance between where the tip really is (forward craft)
and when the tip would be if it were in a perpendicular
position.
 CHARACTERICS OF PROPELLER
The characteristics of propellers are customarily
expressed in the form of nondimensional ratios,
the most commonly used being
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑃𝑅 =
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑃
=
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐷
𝜋𝐷 2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴𝑂 =
4
 Types of propellers
There are different types of propellers namely
 fixed pitch propeller
 Ducted Propeller Or Shrouded Propeller
 Podded And Azimuthing Propulsors
 contra-rotating propeller
 Overlapping Propellers
 Tandem Propellers
 Controllable Pitch Propellers
 Adjustable Bolted Propeller (Abp)
 Assembly Propeller
 Contracted And Load Tip Propellers (Cltp)
 High Skew Propeller
 FIXED PITCH PROPELLER
The fixed pitch propeller has traditionally formed the basis of
propeller production over the years in either its mono-block or built-
up forms.

For fixed pitch propellers the choice of blade number,

notwithstanding considerations of blade-to-blade clearances at the
blade root to boss interface, is largely an independent variable and is
normally chosen to give a mismatch to the range of hull,
superstructure and machinery vibration frequencies which are
considered likely to cause concern.
 DUCTED PROPELLER OR SHROUDED
PROPELLER
This is a propeller placed in a duct i.e. a ring with a
cross section that has a wing-like profile. The duct
offers protection to the propeller blades and
contributes to the thrust generated by the propeller.
The same amount of thrust can be generated from a
propeller of smaller diameter, making it a suitable
solution for small-draght vessels.
 PODDED AND AZIMUTHING
PROPULSORS
Azimuthing thrusters have been in common use for
many years and can have either non-ducted or
ducted propeller arrangements. They can be further
classified into pusher or tractor units The essential
difference between the azimuthing and podded
propellers lies in where the engine or motor driving
the propeller is sited.
 CONTRA-ROTATING PROPELLER
The contra-rotating propeller principle, comprising two
coaxial propellers sited one behind the other and rotating
in opposite directions, has traditionally been associated
with the propulsion of aircraft, Contra-rotating propulsion
systems have the hydrodynamic advantage of recovering
part of the slipstream rotational energy which would
otherwise be lost to a conventional single screw system.
 OVERLAPPING PROPELLERS
This again is a two-propeller concept. In this case the
propellers are not mounted coaxially but are each located on
separate shaft systems with the distance between the shaft
centre lines being less than the diameter of the propellers. The
principal aim of this type of propulsion arrangement is to gain
as much benefit as possible from the low-velocity portion of
the wake field and thereby, increase propulsion efficiency.
 TANDEM PROPELLERS
Tandem propeller arrangements are again not a new propulsion
concept. Perhaps the best-known example is that of Parson’s
Turbiniawhere three propellers were mounted on each of the
three propellers in order to overcome the effects of cavitation
induced thrust breakdown, the principal reason for the
employment of tandem propellers has been to ease difficult
propeller loading situations; however, these occasions have
been relatively few.
 CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLERS

Unlike fixed pitch propellers whose only operational

variable is rotational speed, the controllable pitch
propeller provides an extra degree of freedom in its ability
to change blade pitch. However, for some propulsion
applications, particularly those involving shaft-driven
generators, the shaft speed is held constant, thus reducing
the number of operating variables again to one.
 RUDDERS
All ships must possess some means of directional
control and in most cases this control is affected by
means of a rudder located at the after end of the
ship. Rudders are fitted at the after end of the ship
since in this position they are most effective in
giving control and also they derive benefit from
increased water velocity induced by propellers. This
is particularly at low speed.
 Cont’d
An important feature in directional control is what is known as
the Neutral Point. This is the point in the length of the ship at
which an applied force does not cause the ship to deviate from
a constant direction. This neutral point is in general about one-
sixth of the length of the ship abaft the bow. Thus if force is
applied abaft the neutral point and acts towards the port the
ship will turn to starboard; again if applied forward of the
neutral point and acts towards the port the ship turns to port.
 Cont’d
The radial force acting on a ship during a steady turn is given by the
expression.

∆𝑉 2
𝐹=
𝑅𝑔

Where, F = Newtons

∆= displacement 807m in tonnes

R = radius of the turning circle in m

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.807 m/sec2

 Rudder types
There are many types of rudder in use by ships
today but apart from special rudders and
maneuvering devices they can, broadly be reduced
to four types. The choice of rudder type depends on
the stern; the area deemed necessary and the
capacity of the steering gear to be installed.
 The four TYPES are shown below
Balance type
one support
two supports
Unbalanced type
one pintle
multiple pintle
 Cont’d

When the total area of the rudder is abaft the axis

of rotation the rudder is of the unbalanced type.
In the semi-balanced type a proportion of the
area is placed forward of the axis of turning.
The balanced type
 Generally known as the spade rudder is adopted
where there is a considerable cut-up of the stern
and where the size of the rudder is not too great.
Balanced type
 This is used where the size of the rudder requires
support in addition to that at the bearing and
where partial balance is desired to reduce the
size of the steering gear.
Unbalanced rudders are adopted when the stern
shape is not suitable for the balanced type. The
number of pintles used is decided by considerations
of strength.
 PROBLEM

Determine the radial force required for a ship of

10,000tonnes displacement turning in a 1000m
diameter circle of 1 at a steady speed of 16knots.
 SOLUTION

∆𝑉 2
𝐹= =
𝑅𝑔

10,000 16 ×0.5144 2
500 ×9.81

= 138.5tonnes or 1.36MN
 Rudder Area
The required area of the rudder varies with different types vessels since
the desired maneuvering ability differs considerably and the general
ship design may impose restrictions. In practice the rudder area is
usually related to the area of the immersed middle plane. Values of this
ratio are normally between 60 and 70.

𝐿 ×𝐻
Rudder area =
60 𝑡𝑜 70

Where; L = LBP in metres; H = mean load draught in metres.

 Cont’d
The influence of rudder outline apart from aspect ratio- depth/width
is not very great. Thus most ships have rudders tending towards a
rectangular outline and as such are simple and efficient.

The upper edge of the rudder is generally submerged in the deep

load condition in order to reduce the risk of damage by waves in a
heavy sea; the upper edge usually follows the contour of the stern.

The current tendency in rudders is towards the double plate

balanced or semi-balanced type of rudder.
 FORCES ACTING ON A RUDDER
Rudder Forces

In order to assess the stresses and torque acting on a rudder it is necessary to

determine the force on the rudder and its point of application.

The force on the rudder depends upon:

 The area of the rudder

 The form of the rudder

 The speed of the ship

 The angle of helm, this is limited to 35 degrees to remain outside

the stalled condition.

Many investigators have examined the variations of the normal force Q acting on a rudder as the angle of

helm (θ) is varied.

Baker and Bottomley suggested for middle line rudders behind single screws a formula which when

adjusted for metric units takes the form.

Q=18.0 A𝑉 2 θ Newtons

Where A= rudder area in 𝑚2 , V=m/sec θ=degrees

Gawn suggested formulae which when adjusted for metric units are as follows

For twin rudders behind wing propellers:

Ahead motion Q=21·1 A𝑉 2 θ Newtons

Astern motion Q=19·1 A𝑉 2 θ Newtons

For middle line rudders behind twin screws, both ahead and astern motion:

Q= 15·5 A𝑉 2 θ Newtons

In these formulae V is taken as the true speed of the ship, allowance is made in the coefficient for

propeller race effects.

 PROBLEM

A rudder on the middle-line behind twin screws

has an area of 13.9m2. The ship speed is 15knots.
Determine the normal force on the rudder at an
angle of helm of 35degrees.
 SOLUTION

Q = 15.5 A𝑉 2 θ Newtons

= 15.5 × 13.9 × (15 × 0.5144)2 × 35

= 448,000 Newtons

= 448.9 KN.
 CENTRE OF PRESSURE
In addition to the normal force on the rudder it is
essential to know the position of the centre of
pressure. This is the point on the plane at which the
resultant force on it may be taken to act. It is
necessary to know the torque acting on the rudder to
ensure that the steering gear for the ship will be
capable of turning the rudder at all speeds.
 Cont’d
The French naval constructor Jossell suggested for a flat plate
and empirical formula for the proportion of the breadth of the
plate that the centre of pressure is abaft the leading edge; it is
expressed as
0.195 + 0.305sin 𝜃
So that for a rectangular rudder of breadth b- the distance (x)
of the centre of pressure from the leading edge is given by
X = (0.195 + 0.305sin 𝜃) b
he leading edge is the fore edge when the ship is
going ahead and the aft edge when the ship is
going astern. For balanced rudders of rectangular
form the centres are measured from the leading
edge of the rudder, not from the axis. In general
about 25 per cent of the total rudder area is
forward of the turning axis.
Gawn suggested that for a rectangular rudder, the centre of pressure
is 0.35 times the breadth of the rudder abaft the leading edge if
deadwood in the figure above and 0.31 times abaft if rudder is in the
open in the figure. For astern motion the value of 0.31 is used in
both cases, the leading edge then being the after edge.

For the semi-balanced rudder as shown the normal force and

the centre of pressure are calculated by treating the upper part as
behind deadwood and the lower part is in the open and combining
separate results. In this case for the centre of pressure the upper part
would be subject to the 0.35 rule and the lower part to the 0.31 rule.
Single plate rudders in association with
rectangular-section stern-frames which were
almost universal a few decades ago have been
replaced by casting or welded fabrications of
streamlined form.
A number of different designs have been
produced with variations in detail and some of
these in addition to the figures are indicated in.
 PROBLEM

The centre line rudder on a twin screw ship is as

shown in figure 16-3. Determine for 35 degrees
and ship speed 19.5knots the force and torque on
the rudder.
 SOLUTION
Force = 15.5 A𝑉 2 θ Newtons
= 15.5 × 2.72 × (19.5 × 0.5144)2 × 35
= 397,700 Newtons
Centre of pressure abaft axis = 0.35 × 2.7 = 0.945m
Moment on A = 397,700 × 0.945
= 375,800 Nm Aft
Force on A = 15.5 × 1.6 × 5.3 × (19.5
× 0.5144)2 × 35
= 462,600 Newtons
CP from axis = 0.31 × 5.3 – 2.6
= 0.96m forward of axis
Cont’d
Moment on A = 462,600 × 0.96
= 444,100 Nm forward
Resultant force on rudder = 397,700 +
462,600 = 860,300N
Resultant twisting moment = 375,800 A
444,100 F
68,300 Nm Forward