Minimal Rocket Trajectories
D. F. LAWDEN1
College of Technology, Birmingham, England
The problem of the navigation of a rocket vehicle be-
tween two fixed terminals in space, in such a manner as to
minimize the fuel expenditure, is analyzed in a general
fashion, account being taken of a gravitational field,
variable in space and time. The motion is assumed to
take place in vacuo. The transit time may or may not be
regarded as specified. The solution trajectory is shown to
comprise a number of null-thrust arcs, separated by j u n c -
tions at which impulsive thrusts are applied. The condi-
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tions to be satisfied at these junctions are calculated.
The theory is applied to the special case of the optimal
transfer of a rocket between two coplanar elliptical orbits
about a center of attraction.
1 Introduction
T HE object of this paper is to solve in general terms the
problem of the transfer of a rocket between two terminals,
at which its velocity is to be as specified, the trajectory of
transfer and the programming of fuel expenditure to be such
that the over-all fuel consumption is minimized. No restric-
tions will be placed upon the gravitational field to which the
vehicle is supposed subject, but the motion will be supposed to
take place in vacuo, so that atmospheric resistance forces are
absent. The solution obtained is therefore applicable to
problems concerning the navigation of a space ship between
two points of the solar system, when it is necessary to take
account of the fields of various gravitating bodies. Particular
problems of this type have already been studied by the author
(l), 2 (2), (3). Problems of a similar type, in which air resist-
ance has been taken into account but the trajectory has been
assumed rectilinear and gravity uniform, have been discussed
by Tsien and Evans (4) and by Hibbs (5).
A feature common to the solutions to all problems of this
nature so far studied, is the occurrence of impulsive thrusts.
Thus Tsien and Evans require that for optimum performance
of a vertically ascending rocket, an initial impulsive thrust
shall be applied to bring the velocity up to a certain critical
value, and this they propose shall be generated by a booster
which falls away as the rocket proper leaves its launching
tower. Hibbs shows that if a rocket craft is to achieve maxi-
mum range in horizontal flight over a flat earth, its launching
velocity must take a certain critical value, this being achieved
by means of an initial impulsive thrust. In the simple case of
the optimum transfer of a rocket between two points of a uni-
form gravitational field, all other resistive forces being neg-
lected, the author has proved (6) that it is necessary to apply
impulsive thrusts at each terminal, the rocket being in a state
of free fall during the period of transit. That such impulses
must always be present in the solution to the general problem,
will be found demonstrated in (3). The existence of impulses
in the solution will clearly complicate the mathematical
analysis of the problem. Another, and greater difficulty, is
that any trajectory of null-thrust is clearly a minimal trajec-
tory, and yet it is found that the orthodox Euler characteristic
Received March 6, 1953.
1
Senior Lecturer in Mathematics. Fellow of the British In-
terplanetary Society.
2
Numbers in parentheses refer to the References on page 382.
360
equations for this problem are indeterminate for such a solu-
tion. For this reason, we shall find it convenient to solve an
allied mathematical problem in which this latter anomaly does
not arise, but which can be made to approach our actual prob-
lem as a limit.
2 T h e General Theory
We shall first consider the problem of the optimum transfer
of a rocket between two terminals lying in a plane, it being as-
sumed that all gravitational forces and the jet thrust are
parallel to this plane and that the rocket trajectory is con-
tained in the plane. This restriction to two dimensions is not
essential, but serves to reduce somewhat the number of terms-
occurring in our expressions. Our final results will be general-
izable in an obvious manner to the three-dimensional case.
Let Ox, Oy be fixed rectangular Cartesian axes in the plane of
motion, and let (7, m) be the direction cosines of the direction
of the jet thrust at the instant t when the rocket is at the point
(x, y). If c is the exhaust velocity and M is the rocket mass,
we may write the equations of motion in the form
where dots denote differentiations with respect to the time
variable and (—/, —g) are the components of the resultant
force per unit mass acting on the rocket due to gravity. It is
not assumed that the direction of motion and of thrust are
necessarily coincident, nor is it assumed that the gravitational
field is steady and therefore independent of t. We shall take
/ and g to depend explicitly upon the variables t, x, y only.
Since I2 + m2 = 1, it follows from Equations [1] that
- ^j% = {(x+fr+ (y + gYYh [2]
whence, by integration over a time interval (to, t\), we obtain
c lo
§ S° = f {<*' + f)2 + (y + gY2\1/sdt-- [3]
Mi Jh
Mo, Mi being the mass of the rocket at the commencement and
end of the interval, respectively.
If the rocket is to be transferred from a point (x0, yQ)} at
which its velocity is (u0, V0), to a point (xh yi), at which its
velocity of arrival is to be (ui, Vi), the navigational problem is
to select functions x(t) and y(t), determining the trajectory of
transit, subject to the boundary conditions
x(t0) = X0 x(t0) = UQ x(t\) = X\ ±(ti) = Ui
y(U) = 2/o y(t0) = v0 y(k) = yi y(ti) = ih [4]
From the field of such functions, we shall show how to deter-
mine those which minimize the mass ratio Mo/Mi, i.e., the
integral in Equation [3] is to be minimized relative to varia-
tion of the functions x(t), y(t) and of the interval of transit
(to, ti).
Before proceeding to an analysis of this general problem,
we shall consider the very special case when / = g = 0, our
object being to illustrate the difficulties which inevitably arise
in the general case. We have then to minimize the integral
f 1 (s2 + # 2 ) 1 / a < t t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [ 5 ]
J to
ARS JOURNAL
 under the boundary conditions [4]. Assuming a specified assume initially that one impulsive thrust only is applied and
transit time, the Euler characteristic equations for the prob- this when \ = y. Having found the conditions to be satisfied
lem are on either side of such a thrust, we will then remove this
restriction. Let V be the magnitude of the velocity incre-
g
- r * -i=* r i r6i ment due to this impulse. Equation [12] can then be written
dt2 l(x* + y2)1/2J dt2 L(x2 + £2)1/2J LJ
HdX + I Hd\ + V......... .[14]
or £ = m = 0 (7, m) being the direction cosines of the thrust. a JT+0
Integration provides us with the general solutions If now x = x(X) + bx(X), y = y(\) + 8y(X), t = t(X) +
I = A + Bt m = C + Dt. .[7] 8t(X), (a ^ X ^ jS) defines a neighboring rocket trajectory,
satisfjdng the boundary conditions [4] at the instants k +
but in view of the identity I2 + m 2 = 1, we must take B = 8to, t\ + bh, respectively, the impulse being varied so that the
D = 0 and A and C such that A2 + C2 = 1, i.e., the direction velocity increment caused b}^ it is altered by bV, then from
of thrust must remain constant during the maneuver. Only Equation [14]
one independent arbitrary constant therefore remains and it is
not possible to satisfy all eight of the boundary conditions [4] /•7-o p r bH bH bH bH
81 — St + — 8x + — By + — , bt'
in general. This inadequac}^ of the characteristic equations ~ J« JT+O|_ bt bx by bt'
extends to the general case (5), and it therefore proves to be bH , bH bH dH dH 1
necessary to minimize the integral — bx' + — by' , bt1 + — bx" + — ; by" \d\ + bV. [15]
bx by' dt" dx by J
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1=
JT ^ + /)2 + ® + g)2 + e2Vhdt-
finally letting e -> 0. The characteristic equations corre-
sponding to this latter integral are non singular and their gen-
eral solution contains its full complement of arbitrary con-
stants.
If we integrate Equations [1] over the short interval i of
application of an impulsive thrust, we obtain
• [8] The following notation will now be adopted. Variables
which are to be given their values at X = a will have a sub-
script 0 attached, and those which are to be calculated at
X = /3 will have a subscript 1 attached. A variable which is
to take its value immediately prior to the impulse, will be
modified by the subscript —, whereas, if it is to be calculated
immediately after the impulse, a subscript + will be shown.
Then

lc\ \x\i mc log r = \y\i .[9]

bV = S\(x+ x-Y+ (y+ - y-YYh
(x+ — -)(bx+ - bx-) + (y+ - y-)(by+
• [16]
where |x|t-, \y\i denote the increments in the two components {(x+ - x~y+ (y+ - 2/-) 2 } Va
of velocity due to the impulse, and r is the mass ratio for the
But
maneuver. We are justified in neglecting the integrals I / dt,
x'/t'
r
I g dt since/ and g remain finite during i. The direction (I, m) t'bxf - x'bt'
bx = [17]
has been supposed not to vary during the thrust. t'2
Squaring and adding Equations [9] we find that
with similar equations for y and by. Substituting from Equa-
:logr = V |z|? + \y\\. • [10] tions [17] into Equation [16] we obtain

(x+ft-f - x-'t+'){t~'2(t+'bx+' - x+'bt+') - t+'2(t~'bx-' - x~'bt-')}

+ (y+'t-r - y~'U'){t-'2(t+'by+' - y+'bt+') - t+'*(t-'by-' - y-'bt-')}
bV =
t+'H-'2{{x+'t-' - x-'u-'Y -f (y+ft-r - y-'t*')*}1/*
• • [18]

This implies that the contribution of such an impulse to the This expression for bV may now be set in Equation [15].
integral [3] is equal to the magnitude of the vector velocity Integrations by parts simplify the various integrals occurring
increment it causes. The corresponding contribution to the in this equation thus:
integral [8] will be the same, since e also remains finite l i k e /
and g and hence may be neglected by comparison with x and y.
I — bt' d\ = — bt - I — ( •— ) 5£ d\
We now make t and hence x and y depend upon a parameter J bt' bt' J d\\ bt'/
X of no physical significance and such that, as X increases
C bH „ bH C d (bH\
monotonically from a to /3, t increases from £0 to h. Denoting
differentiations with respect to X by primes, we have
bH ,
x' y' .. Vx" - t"x' ty - ty r , Btd\.[l9]
—y3— y= ^^—..[ii] bt" d\ \bt"J J d\2 \bt"J
y - ?

etc. I t now follows t h a t E q u a t i o n [15] is of t h e form

and hence the integral I is of the form
: bl = -Aobto + A-bt- + B- bx- + C-by- - A+bt+
I = I h(t, x, y, x, y)dt =
— B+bx+ — C+by+ -f Ai^i — Gobto — J0bXof
P H(t, x, y, t', xr, y', t", x", y") d\.. [12] -Koby0' + Lbt-' + Mbx-' + Nby-' - Pbt+f

where - Qbx+' - Rby+' + GM + JibxS + Kibyi'

H(t, x, y, t', x', y', t\ x", yn) = t'h(t, x,y,x,y) [13] + V + r (Tbt + Xbx + Yby) d\ . . . . [20]

Supposes = x(\)f y = y(\), t = ^(X), (a ^ X ^ jS) specifies a since Sx0 = byQ = bxi = by1 = 0 by application of the boundary
rocket trajectory satisfying the boundary conditions [4] and conditions [4]. The expressions A, B, etc., are listed as
corresponding to a minimum expenditure of fuel. We shall follows:

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1953 361

 bHI _ d_ /bH\ _ bH _ ^ /bH\ quantities 5£o, 5J-, 5a:-, etc., are a r b i t r a r y , a n d since t h e integral
A = / is being varied a b o u t i t s m i n i m u m value, t h e first variation
bt ' ~ dX \bt") ~ bx' dX \bx")
bl is zero for all a r b i t r a r y small variations of t h e trajectory,
bH d /b&
C ==
by' " dX \by 0 a n d this can only be so if

AQ = A+ - A- = B+ - B- = C+ - C~ - Ax - 0
L=M=N=P=Q=R=0
bt" bx" by X ~ Y ~ T ~ 0 [28]
X-'(x+'tr-' - x_ t+') + y-'(y+'t-' - y~'t+') If t h e i n s t a n t s of d e p a r t u r e a n d arrival are prescribed,

m-
\bx"J-
+ t-' {(x 't-'
2

t-'\(x+'t-'
+ -x-'t+'Y

- x-'t+'Y2 +
+ (y+'t-' -
x-'t+'
(y+'t-'
y-'t+'Y}V2

y-'U'W
5£o = dti = 0 a n d we can dispense with t h e conditions A0 =
A\ = 0. If t h e time of t r a n s i t only is specified, bt0 = btx b u t
are otherwise a r b i t r a r y . I n this case, A0 = A\ b u t are n o t
necessarily zero.
y+'t-' - y-'t+' T h e last t h r e e of E q u a t i o n s [28] are differential equations
* = (-) t-'{(x+'t-' - a ; - / ^ / ) 2 + G/+'*-' - y-'t+'YYh for t h e characteristic curves a n d it is well k n o w n (7) t h a t only
r two of these are independent. P u t t i n g X = t in t h e equa-
x+'(x+'t-' — %-'£+') + y+'(y+'t- — y~'t+')
tions X = Y = 0, we obtain t w o i n d e p e n d e n t equations for
t+'2{(x+'t-' - x-'t+'Y + (y+'t-' - y-
f
t+'YY/z these curves in t h e form
x+'t-' — x-'t+' ^
\bx"/ + t+'{(x+'t-' - x-'t+'Y + (y+'t-' - y~'t+'YYh
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y+'t-' - y~'t+' dt2 \bx) +

bx ~ °
2
d fbh\ bh ,
W/+ t+'{(x+'t-' - x-'t+'Y + {y+'t-' - y-'t+'YY /z r

dX2 \bt"J dX\bt'J bt Referring again t o E q u a t i o n s [11] a n d [13] we obtain

bH bH /bh bx bh bij\
7
dX2 \bx") d\ \bx') bx — = h+ + )«'
/bH\ _ d_ /bH bH bt' \bx bt' by bt'/
.[21] 1 , /3t"x' - 2t'x"\ bh (Zt"y' - 2t'y"\ bh
dX2 \by") d\ \by' )+>»

Since x = x'/t' and 2/ = y'/tf are prescribed by the bound- bJH _ fbh bx^ __ t/bh
ary conditions at the terminals, the quantities bx' bx bx' t'2 bx '
t'bx' - x'bt' t'iy' j'bt' bH bh by t" bh
bx -
z~, = «' r:: T ^ = - jr% c: [32]
by' by by' t'2 by
a r e zero at X = a a n d X = 0. Hence
Equations [24]-[26] together with these latter results now
to' - x'W'A' V = y'St'/t' • [22] imply that

a t these i n s t a n t s . A t X = a or X = /3 therefore . _ -, _ , *h _ .. bh . d_ /bh\ . d /bh\

bx by dt \bx) dt \by/
GW + Jbx' + W - - I - ~ V + — , x' + — ; ?/' [23] d (bh\
t' \bt" bx by" J
dt \bx)
E q u a t i o n s [11] a n d [13] yield
d (bh\
bH t /bh bx bh by\ x[ bh y^bh
bt" " \bx bt" by bt") ™ ~~ t'2 bx ~ £'2 d#
1 / bh bh\ Conditions [28] require t h a t these three expressions shall be
continuous over t h e impulse. I n addition, if t h e i n s t a n t s of
d e p a r t u r e a n d arrival are n o t prescribed, t h e expression [33]
1 dfc m u s t vanish a t b o t h terminals.
[25] Consider now t h e conditions M = Q = 0. E m p l o y i n g
da;'7 bx bx" ? bx
E q u a t i o n [25], we find t h a t these are equivalent t o
d# t bh bl _ 1 cU
•[26] {M\ = x+ - x- ^ = /d/A [36]

\bxj- {(£+ — x-Y + (y+ — y-Y}1^2 \bx/+

Substitution of these results in E q u a t i o n [23] now proves
that Similarly, N = R = 0 yield t h e conditions

Gbt' + Jbx' + Kby' = 0

\byj- {(x+ - x-Y + Q/+ - y-Y)1/2 \bg/+ '' J

a t either terminal. E q u a t i o n [20] accordingly reduces t o

The identity
5/ = -AobtQ -f A-bt- + B-dx- + C-by- - A+bt+ - B+bx+
bH bH bH
- C+by+ + Aidti + Lbt-' + Mbx-' + NSy-' - Pbt+'
bt bx by
X Y-0
follows from E q u a t i o n s [24]-[26], a n d hence t h e conditions
(!T5« + Xbx+ Yby)dX. [27] L = p = 0 are linear combinations of t h e conditions expressed
J7+0
by E q u a t i o n s [36] a n d [37].
B u t since bt, bx, by are continuous over t h e impulse, bt„ = 8t+, Since h = {(x + / ) 2 + (y + g)2 + € 2 } l / 2 , E q u a t i o n s [36]
bx- =« 5o;+, by- = 5^/+. A p a r t from these relationships, all t h e a n d [37] m a y b e written

362 ARS JOURNAL

 x+f x = X + e£ y = Y + erj
f (x + / ) 2 + (y + <?)2 + e2} V2 {(*+ ~ x-y + (2/+ ~ 2/~)2}l where X and Y are any functions satisfying the equations
y+ y- x+f = y + g- o [46]
\(x+f)2 + (y + g)2 + 62}1/ \(x+ x-Y+ (y+ - 2 / - ) 2 } 1 / 2
...[39] i.e., we shall determine solutions in the neighborhood of the
trajectories of null-thrust and which will tend to the latter as
both equations to be satisfied immediately prior and immedi-
ately subsequent to the impulse. It is required therefore that Substituting for x and y from Equations [45] we find that
both (x + / ) and (y + g) shall be infinite in the ratio (x+ —x~~)
'(y+ ~ V~) °n both sides of the impulse. Further, since x+f - X + el+ f{t} X + e£, Y + en)
the square roots appearing in Equations [3] and [8] are to be
taken positively, it follows that all square roots which take - X+f(t,X, Y) + «(* + | | * + ^ p ) +°(g2)
their origin from these are to be taken with the same sign.
= tp + 0(€2) [47J
In particular, those roots appearing in the conditions [39] are
positive and hence x+f and x+ — x~ are of like sign, as are where
the pair y + g and y+ — y~. This being understood, we have
the conditions

x+f x+ — x-
^+^+S" [48]
x+f=y+g= • [40] Similarly
y +g y+ - y-
ij + g = eq + 0(e>) [49J
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The physical significance of these conditions is clear after

reference to Equations [1], viz., the direction of rocket thrust where
immediately before and immediately after an impulse must
coincide with the direction of the impulsive thrust, and the og dg
+ +
*-* ^ Sr'"""" [50]
magnitude of the thrust must tend to infinity as the instant of
application of the impulse is approached from either side.
We now proceed to calculate the quantities A, B, C as given Substituting for x+f and y + g from these latter equa-
by Equations [33]-[35]. Substituting for h we find that tions in Equations [44], we find that these may be written

(x* + / ) / + (y + g)g + e2 ... a/ og

= 0
A - u + u —• + v —
(x+fY + (y + g)* + * 2 } 1 / 2 oX bX
d r x_±i i _1_ & _L ^ A • [511
+ x
dtl{(x+f)* + (y + g)2 + e2}1/2J
dV y+g 1 where
[41]
^ LU{( (** ++ / ) 22 ++ (y + g)2 + e 2 } I/2 J*' u = p/(p2 + q2 _|_ iy/2 v = q/(p2 + ffa + iy/\ . . [52]
x+f and terms 0(e) have been neglected.
[42]
+ (y + g)2 e.jv.J- Solving for the functions p and q in terms of u and v, we
obtain
y +g
[
^ L { ( * + / ) 2 + (y + g)2 + €2
[43] 2
V = u/(l - u - v*)
1/2
q - v/{l - u2 - v2)1/2. . . [53]
We have now found the conditions to be satisfied in the The functions p and q are completely determined by these
neighborhood of any impulse which is applied at an instant equations, apart from terms 0(e) which were neglected in
lying between to and t\. If an impulse is to be applied at Equations [51]. Equations [48] and [50] then specify £, y] to
either of these end points, a similar analysis shows that the the same order of accuracy, and Equations [45] then fix (x, y)
direction of the rocket thrust must be continuous as we pass to 0(e).
from the impulsive regime into the finite thrust regime, and We shall assume the functions / and g to be differentiable
that the quantities x+f and y + g must tend to infinity as any number of times with respect to all their variables. X
the impulse is approached. The signs of these quantities are and Y are then differentiable functions of t to an}^ order, as
also limited in the neighborhood of the impulse as explained are the functions df/dX, etc. Equations [51 ] therefore define
above. No other conditions have to be satisfied at such points. u and v as differentiable functions of t and, in particular, these
Turning now to the characteristic equations determining the functions will be bounded for finite values of t. Referring to
trajectory in the intervals between impulses, we substitute for Equations [53], we see that in this case p and q are differen-
h in Equations [29 ] and so obtain the following equations tiable functions of t, but will both tend to infinity as (u2 + v2)
approaches unhvy. Except in the neighborhood of such an
*+/ J instant, £ and rj, as given by Equations [48 ] and [50 ], will there-
L { ( * + / ) 2 + iv + g)2 + e2 |-A
* 2'UO fore be differentiable and bounded. As we approach an in-
stant where u2 + v2 = 1, however, p and q tend to infinity
( * + / ) v + (y + a)T and Equations [48] and [50] reveal that £ -*• <» and ?}--* °°y
+
OX OX though £ and r\ will remain finite. In view of the bounded-
{(x+f)2 + (y + g)2 + e 2 } 1/2 =
° ness of these latter quantities, the quantities e£, er?, will re-
main small with e and the approximations made in order to
4i2 r — y +g
derive Equations [51] from Equations [44] remain valid in
^ U ( * + / ) 2 + (y + g)2 + e2 F] such a neighborhood. If therefore we integrate Equations
[47]-[53] for the functions £ and rj and substitute in Equa-
tions [45], the resulting solution for x and y will be valid even
{ ( * + / ) 2 + (y + g)2 + 62}V2 --[ J in the vicinity of an instant when u2 + v2 = 1. As we ap-
proach such an instant, however, although x and y will remain
We will first look for solutions of the form finite, x ~> oo and y -> °o with £ and ij» Such an instant ig

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1953 363

 therefore an appropriate one at which to apply an impulsive
thrust.
Suppose then that integral [8] has been minimized, relative
to the boundary conditions [4], by trajectory arcs specified by
equations of the form given at [45], these arcs being connected
at junctions at which u2 + v2 = 1 and at which impulsive
thrusts are applied. Suppose that the conditions, which we
have found must be satisfied at end points and at such junc-
tions, are indeed satisfied. We now let e ->- 0 to obtain the
corresponding solution to our actual problem. Since £, i\ are
bounded everywhere, Equations [45] show that the trajectory
arcs tend to arcs of null-thrust. In the limit therefore, we
arrive at a number of null-thrust arcs, separated by junctions
at which impulsive thrusts are applied. It remains to calcu-
late the limiting forms of the conditions to be satisfied at these
junctions and the two end points.
Suppose that x = Xh y = Fx and x = X2, y = F 2 represent
two parts of the minimal rocket trajectory separated by an
impulsive thrust when e is small, but nonzero. Associated
with the first arc there will be a solution of Equations [51]
u = uh v = Vi, and with the second arc a solution u = u2>
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v =*= v2. At the impulse u\ + v\ = u\ + v\ = 1. In addition,
Equations [40] require that on either side of the impulse
£+ - x- X+ f ep + 0(e2) p
r = —— = . A/ „* = - + 0(e)
y+ - y- y + g *g + 0(e2) q
As e —• 0, this condition approaches the limiting form
V U
^ ^ = -= - ....[54]
y+ - y- q v
Physically, these conditions mean that on either side of an
impulse, (u, v) must represent the direction cosines of the
direction of thrust.
Equations [53] show that if p and q are to be real, at all
points of the trajectory, it is..necessary that u2 + v2 ^ 1.
For the type of trajectory specified by Equations [45], the
quantities A, B, C, as determined by Equations [41]-[43],
may be expressed, by using Equations [47] and [49] in the
form
A = uf+ vg + Xu + Yv + 0(e)
B - - it + 0(e)
C = - v + 0(e)
Letting e -> 0, these approach the limiting forms
A - uf -f vg + Xii + Yv, B = -it, C = - b . . [55]
It is therefore a requirement that these three quantities
shall be continuous across an impulse when e = 0. Since
(uy v) tend to the direction cosines of the direction of thrust as
we approach a junction from either side, these quantities are
continuous across such a junction. The gravitational field
components (/, g) must also be continuous across a junction
and hence (uf + vg) is continuous. The continuity of A
therefore involves the continuity of (Xu + Yv), i.e., since
(u, v) are continuous
x+u + y+ v = x- u + y-v
or
(x+ — x~)u + (y+ — y-)v = 0 [56]
Equation [54] proves that this condition is equivalent to
uu + vi) = 0
or
- (u2 + v*) - 0 [57]
at
The quantity (u2 + v2) is therefore stationary at the value
364
unity on either side of a junction, and since u2 + v2 Z 1, this
stationary value must be a maximum.
To sum up, the conditions to be satisfied at a junction are
(a) (u, v) must be the direction cosines of the thrust,
(b) (it t v) must be continuous,
(c) (u2 + v2) must be a maximum, and in addition, clearly,
(d) (x, y) must be continuous [58]
If the instants of departure and arrival are variable, A = 0
at the end points. If the time of transit is specified, A must
take the same value at each end point.
At an end point, an impulsive thrust may similarly be shown
to be permissible, provided (u, v) can represent at this instant
the direction cosines of the thrust.
At a junction between two null-thrust arcs at which no
impulse is applied, it is clear that X, Y, X, Y will be continu-
ous and hence X, Y will continue to represent the same solu-
tions of Equations [46], i.e., the two arcs will not be distinct.
Further, assuming such a junction, we obtain the first varia-
tion of / in the form shown in Equation [20] with
provided we allow onfv those variations which do not intro-
duce an impulse at the junction. For such variations, dx, 8y
are continuous over the junction (i.e., 8x+ = 6x~, 8y+ = 8y~)
and since from Equations [59] and [24]-[26] we may write
Lht-' + M8x~' + Nby-' - P8t+' - Q8x+' - R8y+'
/t'8x' - x'bt'\ /dh\ _ ft'8yf - y'8t'\ /dh\
~ \ t'2
/ + W + "" \ t'2 /+W+
fdh\ fbh\ fdh\ . /dh\
- [ ( S ) - - ( a ] + * K l ) . - ( s ) J •••'«»
it follows immediately that dh/dx, dh/dy are continuous over
the junction. In the limit as € ->• 0, these two quantities
tend to u and v, respectively, and hence u and v are continuous
over the junction. But u and v are continuous across a junc-
tion, and u and v satisfy second-order differential equations.
We may therefore conclude that the solutions of these equa-
tions on either side of the junction are not distinct. We may
accordingly disregard as trivial the possibility of a junction at
which no impulse is applied.
This completes the discussion of the minimization of /
employing null-thrust arcs and impulsive thrusts applied at
their junctions. As has already been mentioned, the non-
existence of minimal trajectories of nonzero thrust has been
established in (3). No other possibilities therefore remain to
be considered.
3 A First Integral
If neither / nor g depends explicitly on t, i.e., the gravita-
tional field is time invariant, a first integral of Equations [51 ]
is readily obtainable. For, differentiating the equations
X + f(X, Y) = 0 Y + g(X, Y) = 0. . . . . . . . [61]
with respect to t, we obtain
bf . df . - dg . dgf .
ARS JOURNAL
 and then, multiplying Equations [51] by X and F, respec- denote differentiations with respect to 6 throughout this sec-
tively, and adding, it follows that tion, we have
v = v"02 + vr'e, [74]
Xu + Yv - Xu - Yv = 0 [63]
Integration yields immediately Equation [68] gives

Xu + Yv - Xu - Yv = const [641
' - W " [75]
Employing Equations [61], this first integral may also be ,,2 \ p
written in the form and this, upon differentiation with respect to t, leads to
uf -f vg + Xu + Y b — const [65 ]
S--*tJ---^iAn(fl + y) [76]
Reference to Equations [55], shows that this latter equation r3 \ p r6
implies that A = const. Since A is continuous across each
having employed Equation [69].
junction between null-thrust arcs, A must therefore assume the
Equation [74] can now be written
same constant value over the whole trajectory in the case of a
time-invariant field. If we are minimizing with respect to a
variable time of transit, A = 0 at the end points and hence v = ^ - */' - ^ z ; ' sin (0 + 7) [77]
universally. pr4 r3
and hence the second of Equations [51] is equivalent to
4 Inverse Square Law Field {1 + e cos (0 + 7) }v" — 2ev' sin (0 + 7) — Su sin 0 cos 0
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In this section we will calculate the form taken by the func- + v (1 - 3 sin20) = 0 [78]
tions (u, v) when the gravitational attraction is always
Simplification of this equation may be effected by changing
directed toward a fixed point 0 of the field and is of magnitude
to new dependent variables (w, z)} related to the variables
p/r2 per unit mass, r being distance measured radially from 0.
(u, v) according to the equations
Null-thrust traj ectories are then conies with foci at 0. Taking
Cartesian axes Ox, Oy in the plane of such a trajectory, let w = (u cos B + v sin B) {1 + e cos (B + 7)} [79]
(r, 6) be polar coordinates referred to 0 as pole and Ox as
initial line. Then z = ( — u sin B + v cos B) {1 -f e cos (B + 7)} [80]

x = r cos 0 y = r sin 0 [66] In terms of w and z, Equation [78] will be found to take the
form
and the trajectory has equation
z" + 2w' = 0 [81]
- = p{l + ecos(0 + y)} ....[67] Equation [81] integrates immediately to yield
r
z' = Ee - 2w ' [82]
where 1/p is the semilatus rectum, e is the eccentricity, and y
is an angle determining the orientation of the trajectory in i£ being an arbitrary constant.
the xy-plane. We have also the angular momentum equation Since/and g do not depend explicitly upon t, Equation [64]
is available.
r20 = vVp [68] Differentiating the equation x = r cos 6 with respect to t
Differentiating Equation [67] with respect to t, we find that x = r cos B — r0 sin 0
r =» V^MP e sin (0 + 7) cos 0
- = pe sin (0 + 7) 0
r2 - \/M?>{ 1 + e cos (0 + 7)} sin 0
= V/*p(e sin 7 ~ sin 0) . . . [83]
and, in view of Equation [68], this can be written
Equations [67] and [69] having been employed in the reduc-
r = \/iipe sin (0 + T) [69] tion.
Differentiating Equation [83] again, we obtain
The quantities / and g are given by the equations
n vx »x x = — V pp cos 0 0 [84]
f — - cos 0 = —= — —77 Similarly we may show that since y = r sin 0
r2 r 3 (x 2 -j- y2) /2
g = -- S l n 0 = _-- = [70] 2/ = \/jup(e cos 7 + cos 0) [85]
r2 r 3 {x2 + y2) n
Whence ^ = - V 7 MP sin 00 . [86]

2 2 2 Equation [64] is now seen to take the form

df y - 2x 1 - 3 cos 0
bx {x2 + y 2 ) n r3 (e sin 7 — sin B)ur + (e cos 7 + cos 0)i/ -f-
of og Sv-xy 3M sin 0 cos 0 u cos 0 + v sin 0 = 0 [87]
=
o~y o~x = " (x2 + y2T/2 =
"" 7 " 2I
the constant on the right-hand side being given the value zero
dg x2 - 2y2 1 - 3 sin 2 0 in order that minimization may be effected with respect to
transit time.
oy {x2 + ?/ 2 ) /2 r3 Transforming to the variables w and z as defined by Equa-
and these quantities may now be substituted in Equations tions [79] and [80], this latter equation becomes
[51], it being understood that r is given in terms of 6 by Equa- e(l + e cos ^)sin xp w' + (1 + e cos \J/)2z' +
tion [67]. (e2 + 2 + 3e cos +)w = 0... [88]
Clearly 6 is more suitable as the independent variable of
Equations [51] than is t in this context. Using primes to where \p has been written for 6 + 7.

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1953 365

 Equations [82] and [88] specify between them the func-
tions w and z. Elimination of z' between them provides us H (£// - V) = (u cos 0 + v sin 0)r2
with a first-order linear equation for w, viz., V

(1 + e cos ^)sin \p w' + (e — cos \p — 2 e cos2 \j/)w — ' {V + U) = (-u sin 6 + v cos 0)r2. • [97]
- E(l + ecost/0 2 [89]
But u, v, r, and 6 are to be continuous across a junction for a
The integrating factor is found to be (1 + e cos \p)~~2 minimal trajectory, and it therefore follows that the quanti-
sin" 2 \p and the solution for w accordingly ties
w = (1 + e cos \J/) (De sin \p + E cos \p). • [90] 1
(Uf - V), (7'+ tf). [98]
where D is a second arbitrary constant.
Substituting from Equation [90] into Equation [82], we are also continuous across a junction.
obtain upon integration for z We can now write down all the conditions to be satisfied by
an optimal trajectory in an inverse square law field. The
z = DiX + e cos t//)2 - E sin ^ (2 + e cos ^) + F. . . [91] resulting equations are of practical importance, since the
major part of the track of any future interplanetary rocket
F being a third constant of integration. will lie in such a field.
We now introduce new dependent variables (£7, V) defined
by the equations 5 Transfer Between Two Similar Orbits
w The problem of optimal transfer of a rocket between two
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U
1 + e cos \p coplanar orbits of identical sizes and shapes and described in
z the same sense, but differing as regards their orientation, has
[92] been solved in (1). This exercise will now be employed to
1 + e cos T/' = — u sin ( test the accurac}<r of the theory developed in this paper. The
Equations [90] and [91] can then be written method of attack used in (1) was quite distinct from that
advocated here.
U = De sin \J/ + i? cos \p. . • [93] Taking the elements of the orbits to be (p, e, y), (p, e, —7),
so that the initial line is a line of symmetry, we shall reduce
T. , . F - E sind
V = D(l + e cos ^) - # sin ^ + . . .. [94] the labor, as in (1), by assuming the trajectory of transfer
1 + e cos \p also to lie symmetrically with respect to the two terminal
IfkO'u, O'v are rectangular Cartesian axes in a plane, we trajectories (see Fig. 2). The elements of the transfer orbit
may interpret the quantities (u, v) as the resolutes of a certain will therefore be taken as (p', e', 0). Impulses are applied
displacement vector O'P. Equations [92] then show that at P and P' to effect transfer from a terminal orbit into the
(U, V) are to be interpreted as the resolutes of the same vector orbit of transfer and from the latter orbit into the second
with respect to axes O'U, O'V making an angle 6 with the terminal orbit. Let P have polar coordinates (r, 6). Then
axes Ofu, O'v as indicated in Fig. 1. At a junction, (u, v) P' has coordinates (r, —6). It is shown in (3) that, during
the short duration of an impulsive thrust applied to a rocket
at the point (r, 6) in a conic orbit, the elements (p, e, 7) of the
rocket's orbit, vary according to the equations
pe cos {6 + 7) = s — p [99]
pe sin (6 + 7) = (s - p1/2W) tan 0 [100]
where s = l/r, <£ is the angle defined in the previous section
fixing the direction of thrust, and jil^W sin 0 is the component

FIG. 1 EELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UV- AND ?7F-PLANES

represent the direction cosines of the thrust direction, and

hence, if we suppose 0'u} O'v to be in the directions of the
axes Ox, Oy, respectively, the vector O'P will then be a unit
vector in the direction of the thrust. Also, O'U, O'V will be
in the directions of the radius vector r and the perpendicular
to this line, respectively. (U9 V) are accordingly the resolutes
of the unit vector in the direction of the thrust, taken along
the radial and transverse directions. If, therefore, 0 is the
angle made by the direction of the thrust with the forward
transverse direction, the following equations are valid at a
junction
U = sin <f> V = cos 0. [95]
Differentiating Equations [92] with respect to t, we obtain
U = V6 + u cos e + v sin 6
V = - Ud - u sin 6 + b cos 6 [96]
FIG. 2 THE TERMINAL ORBITS (pf 6, ± 7 ) AND THE TRANSFER
or, employing Equation [75] ORBIT (pr, e't 0 )

;366 ARS JOURNAL

 of t h e rocket's velocity in a direction normal t o t h e t h r u s t . Elimination of Ef between E q u a t i o n s [106] a n d [107] gives
T h i s l a t t e r component is unaffected b y t h e t h r u s t . If (0, W)
correspond t o t h e t h r u s t a t t h e point P, we have, in view of 1 + e' cos 0
tan cf> tan 0 = •[111]
these equations 2 -f e' cos0*

pe cos yp = s — p [101] E q u a t i o n s [110], [111] represent t h e result of eliminating

pe sin ^ = (s - pl/iW)
p'e' cos 0 = 5 - p'
D} E, F, E\ Employing E q u a t i o n s [101]~[104] we m a y
tan 0 [102] p u t t h e m in t h e form derived in (1).
Squaring a n d adding E q u a t i o n s [103] a n d [104], we get
[103] ^ (s - p>y + (5 - p'^W)2 tan 2 £ . . . . . [112J
vnen

p V sin 0 = (s - p'x/tW) tan 0 [104] Division of these t w o equations also gives

l
where ^ = 6 + y. On account of t h e s y m m e t r y , t h e t h r u s t 8 _ p> /*w

a t P' is characterized b y p a r a m e t e r s (T •— <£, W) a n d it m a y tan 0 = tan<£... . . . . . . . . . . [113},

« — P
b e verified t h a t t h e above equations m a y also b e obtained b y
consideration of t h e t h r u s t a t Pf. E q u a t i o n [103] m a y be written
L e t t h e three a r b i t r a r y constants associated with t h e func-
tions (U, V) in E q u a t i o n s [93] a n d [94], t a k e t h e values (D, 1 + e' cos ( s
.[1141
Ey F) while t h e rocket orbits in t h e ellipse (p, e, y) t a k e
t h e values (D'} E', F') in t h e transfer orbit. W e shall find E q u a t i o n s [111], [113], a n d [114] now yield
t h a t all our minimizing conditions can be satisfied b y t a k i n g
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t h e values of these quantities in t h e final orbit t o be (— D, E, s(p' — s)

—F). This is accounted for b y t h e existence of s y m m e t r y . tan 2 4> = [115]
(p' + s) (s - p'l'*W) '
E q u a t i o n s [95] will now be found t o be satisfied a t t h e
junctions P a n d Pf provided Substituting for t a n 2 <£ in E q u a t i o n [112], we find t h a t

De sin \J/ + E cos \p = D'e' sin 0 + E' cos 0 = sin <f>

E sin \l/ F' E' sin 0
D ( l + e cos \p) — E sin \p + = cos <f>
1 + e cos \p = D'(l + e' cos 0) - E' sin 0 + 1 + e' cos 0
— D'e' sin 0 + E' cos 0 = sin <f>
F' + E' sin 0
— D' (1 + e' cos 0) — # ' sin 0 ——; — = cos <f>. . [1051
1 + e' cos 0
I t is now clear t h a t D ' 0, a n d hence these equa- «/, (3 - p ' ) (TTs - p'V 2 )
=
tions reduce t o .[1161
p' 3 /'(s + p / )
De sin ^ + E cos ^ = E' cos 0 s i n <f>. .[106]
F r o m t h e last equation a n d E q u a t i o n [114] we now d e d u c e
JF* - E sin tfr that
D ( l -f e cos i/0 — j& sin ^ +
1 + e cos \f/ sis - V') (Vfl/t 4- TF)
2 + ef cos 0 e'2 + e' cos 0 — .[117]
p /3//2 (s + p ' )
-J0'sin0 — = c o s 0 . . 107
1 + e' cos 0 Employing E q u a t i o n s [102], [104], [114], a n d [115], we
T h e quantities [98] being continuous across a junction, m a y also show t h a t
there are also t h e equations l
s2(.p' _ s)(s _ v /*W)
ee' sin 0 sin ^ (1 + e' cos 0) = - ^ ' \ , \ - . . . . . [118]
JL / ^ s i n ^ - F _ \ 1_ # ff'sisin0 pp'2(p' 4- 8)
. [108]
p 1 / j \ 1 + 6 cos ^ " / p , 1 / 2 ' 1 + e' cos 0' Multiplying E q u a t i o n [110] t h r o u g h o u t b y ef a n d e m p l o y -
J _ |~ff e + E cos ^ - Fe sin t/T| 1 E'{e' + cos (9) ing E q u a t i o n [114], it m a y be p u t in t h e form
.[109]
Pl/2 L (1 + <? cos i/02 J ~ V/fl2' (1 + e'cos0) 2 '
(e'2 4- ef cos 0) — — ee' sin 0 sin \p (1 -\-e' cos 0)
E q u a t i o n s [101]-[104], [106]-[109] are t e n in n u m b e r a n d
are therefore sufficient t o determine t h e t e n u n k n o w n s D, E,
F, E'} <f>, W, 6, s, p', e' a n d hence t o solve t h e problem. W e - • - ^ • • r i i * !
shall now eliminate D, E, F, E' t o yield finally E q u a t i o n s
E q u a t i o n s [117] a n d [118] show t h a t this is equivalent t o
[101]-[104] a n d t w o others, as t h e solution t o our problem.
This stage h a s already been reached in (1), where a m e t h o d (s 4- P ' 4- p /1/2 TF) ( P , 1 / 2 - P 1/2 ) - 0
for t h e solution of these six equations is also given.
Eliminating F between E q u a t i o n s [108] a n d [109], we ob- or
tain s 4- p' 4- p , 1 / 2 W = 0. .[120J

T h i s latter equation is a simplified form of E q u a t i o n [110].

De sin ^ + E cos \p _
E q u a t i o n [111] h a s been shown t o be equivalent t o E q u a t i o n
E' cos 0 ~ [115], a n d this, in t u r n , m a y be shown t o be equivalent t o
p1/* (er + cos 0) (1 + e cos ^) — e sin 0 sin \j/ {1 -\- e' cos 0)
p/1/2 cos 0(1 + e' cos 0)2 f 1 + ~ J (8 ~ p') 4- (8 - p ' 1 / 2 W) tan 2 4> - 0 . . . . . [121}
E q u a t i o n s [106] show t h a t this is equivalent t o
b y use of E q u a t i o n [120].
(ef -\- cos 0) (I + e cos \j/) — e sin 0 sin \p (1 + e' cos 0) = E q u a t i o n s [101]-[104], [120], [121] will be found quoted in
Ref. (1).
^TT cos 0(1 + e' cos 0)2.. [110]
p /2 (Continued on poge 382)

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1953 367

 CURRAN ENGINEERING CO.
A

Manufacturer of
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
from
METALS, CERAMICS, AND PHENOUCS
A.

Consultants and Specialists of

ROCKET IGNITER ASSEMBLIES
Courtesy B. F. Goodrich Company
and
FIG. 1 2 PYROLOCK-TREATED P A N E L R E S I S T S FLAME
LONGITUDINAL SHAPED CHARGE
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A N E W t h e r m a l insulating material "called "Pyrolock,"

CUTTERS developed b y B . F . Goodrich, protects metal for a s long a s
A 10 sec against flame t e m p e r a t u r e s hotter t h a n t h e melting
point of t h e metals. Fig. 12 shows a test. T h e u n t r e a t e d
"CENGO" Process for steel panel a t right burned through in less t h a n a second u n d e r
HIGH TEMPERATURE-HIGH DIELECTRIC an oxy-acetylene flame a t a b o u t 5000 F . As this photograph
was taken, t h e t r e a t e d steel panel a t left was u n h a r m e d after
INSULATING OF METALLIC ASSEMBLIES 4y 2 -sec exposure t o t h e same flame.
_ ^
A N O T H E R new mass flowmeter system for accurately
4423 W. Jefferson Blvd. measuring t h e fuel consumption rate of j e t aircraft h a s been
announced b y t h e General Electric C o m p a n y ' s M e t e r a n d
Los Angeles 16 California. I n s t r u m e n t D e p a r t m e n t . T h e flowmeter measures t h e true
mass rate of fuel consumption per engine in lb per h r a n d
eliminates t h e density errors d u e t o t y p e of fuel a n d i t s t e m -
perature. Total weight of t h e system is about 11 lb.

A N E W technique for t h e stabilization of zirconium dioxide

h a s been announced b y ceramic research scientists a t Wright
INSTRUMENTATION Air Development Center, D a y t o n , Ohio. Special additives
and new fabrication m e t h o d s permit low costs a n d allow t h e
material, which can withstand t e m p e r a t u r e s of over 4000 F ,

SPECIALIST t o b e used in rockets a n d turbojets.

to be in charge of electronic instrumentation

in connection with research and development
of liquid propellants. Permanent salaried po-
sition with expanding group in the research
department of a major chemical company lo-
cated in the Northeast. Requirements include:
2 years of college plus 3 years of experience
or equivalent. Experience with electronic cir-
cuitry, high frequency transient pressure meas-
urement, and some knowledge of liquid pro-
pellants or chemistry desired. Send complete
resume to Box 717A, % Journal of the Amer-
ican Rocket Society.
Minimal Rocket Trajectories
{Continued from page 367)
References
1 "The Determination of Minimal Orbits," by D. F . Lawden,
Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, vol. 11, 1952, p p .
216-224.
2 "Orbital Transfer via Tangential Ellipses," by D . F . Law-
den, Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, vol. 11, 1952, p p .
278-289.
3 "Inter-Orbital Transfer of a Rocket," by D . F . Lawden,
presented a t the Third International Congress on Astronautics,
Annual Report of the British Inter-planetary Society, 1951-1952, pp.
321-333.
4 "Optimum Thrust Programming for a Sounding Rocket,"
by H. S. Tsien and R. C. Evans, JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN
R O C K E T SOCIETY, vol. 21, 1951, p p . 99-107.
5 "Optimum Burning Program for Horizontal Flight," b y
A. R. Hibbs, JOURNAL OF T H E AMERICAN R O C K E T SOCIETY, vol. 22,
1952, p p . 204-212.
6 "Minimal Trajectories," by D . F . Lawden, Journal of the
British Interplanetary Society, vol. 9, 1950, pp. 179-186.
7 "Calculus of Variations," by A. R. Forsyth, Cambridge
University Press, New York, N . Y., 1927, 656 p p .

ARS JOURNAL