Running Head: SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

SUPERVISION STYLE AND

PERCEIVED SELF-EFFICACY OF

TRAINEE COUNSELORS

A Research Project Submitted to Bangalore University, Bengaluru

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the

Masters Degree in Psychological Counselling

By

THAKKAR MAHIMA SANJAY

PC181040

Under the guidance of

Vinod Victor

Assistant Professor

Montfort College

Bengaluru June 2020

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY ii

Certificate

This is to certify that Thakkar Mahima Sanjay is a student of Montfort

College, doing her M.Sc. in Psychological Counselling affiliated to Bangalore

University for the academic year 2019 – 2020.

This Research Project a study on the relationship between supervision style

and perceived self-efficacy of trainee counsellors is submitted by the candidate in

partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of M.Sc. Psychological

Counselling has been carried out under my supervision. It embodies the results of her

own research work and it is a record of the candidate’s personal efforts. This work has

not been submitted anywhere else nor has it formed the basis for the award of any

other degree or diploma to the candidate.

Date: / /

Place: Bengaluru Vinod Victor

Date: / /

Bro. Victor Dass,

Place: Bengaluru
PRINCIPAL
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY iii

Declaration

I, Thakkar Mahima Sanjay hereby declare that this Research Project ' effect of

supervision style on perceived self-efficacy of trainee counsellors' was carried out by

me under the guidance of Vinod Victor, Bangalore.

This Research Project is submitted in candidacy for the award of M.Sc. in

Psychological Counselling, to Bangalore University, in the month of June, 2020. This

research work or parts of it have not been submitted to any other University for any

purpose so far. References borrowed from other sources have been duly

acknowledged.

Date: / /

Place: Bengaluru Thakkar Mahima Sanjay

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY iv

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to my supervisor, Vinod Victor, for his guidance throughout the

course of this study. I would also like to thank Montfort College and Principal Bro.

Victor Dass, for giving me this opportunity to conduct research and gain practical

knowledge. I thank my teachers Dr. Sritha Sandon and Ms. Aishwarya Iyer for their

strong and consistent support. I am also grateful to the participants who voluntarily

participated in the study and gave me such rich data. I would also like to take this

opportunity to thank my classmates who have helped me through this process and my

friends Sooraj Nair, Sakina Mustafa and Simran Jhambia for their constant love,

support, and encouragement.

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY v

Abstract

The current study is an attempt to see if there is a relationship between supervision

style and perceived self – efficacy of trainee counselors. The participants (N=55)

include trainee counselors from the city of Bangalore, India ranging from 20 – 40

years of which includes 70.9% females (N = 39), 27.3% males (N=15), and 1.8%

transgender. (N=1) from different cultures and religions. The research in the area is

nascent and determined to add to the pool of existing knowledge in the field. In

general, effective and respected supervisors are those who provide constructive and

supportive feedback to supervisees, which help them to enhance supervisees’

satisfaction with supervision and high levels of self-efficacy during the process

(Carifio & Hess, 1987). Chi-square analysis of independence was run to check if the

variables were associated with one another. Results suggested that there wasn’t a

significant association between supervision style and three subscales of self-efficacy.

Attractive Style was preferred by the supervisees’ (N= 25) followed by equal

response for interpersonally sensitive (N = 15) and task-oriented style (N=15).

Keywords: Supervision Style, perceived self – efficacy, trainee counsellors

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY vi

Contents

Certificate ii

Declaration iii

Acknowledgements iv

Abstract v

List of Tables vii

Introduction 1

Review of Literature 12

Method 19

Aim 20

Objectives
20

Participants
21

Materials
23

Measures and

covariates
25

Procedure
26

Research Design
27

Hypothesis
28
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY vii

Variables
28

Data analysis
28

Ethics
28

Results and Discussion

30

Results
31

Discussion
33

Summary and

Conclusion
36

Recommendations
37

Limitations
38

References 40

Appendices 42

Appendix A 43

Appendix B 44

Appendix C 46
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY viii

List of tables

Table 1 -
Table showing mean and standard 31
deviation of age of the population.

Table 2 – Table showing gender 31

distribution of the population.

Table 3 – Table showing 31

preference of supervision style

Table 4 – Table showing results

of Chi-square test for
independence of attributes
between supervision style and
helping skills of trainee 32
counselors.

Table 5 - Table showing results

of Chi-square test for
independence of attributes
between supervision style and
session management skills of 32
trainee counselors.

Table 6 - Table showing results of

Chi-square test for independence
of attributes between supervision
style and handling challenging 32
situation by trainee counselors.
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 1

Introduction
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 2

Relationship between supervision style and perceived self-efficacy of trainee

counselors.

Clinical Supervision (hereafter referred to as “supervision”) is a professional

activity, which is separate from counseling, with freestanding standards of practice &

ethical guidelines (Best Practices, 2011). Supervision is when clinical training is

delineated by a qualified counsellor (hereafter referred to as “supervisor”) for a novice

counselor (hereafter referred to as “supervisee”) working towards attaining a degree,

diploma , and/or licensing.

The models of supervision started much like other “apprenticeships” (L.Smith,

2009). A supervisee with minimum skills learns through observation, assistance &

receiving feedback from an accomplished member of the same field (L.Smith, 2009).

However, supervision is an art, and just because one practices well as a counselor,

doesn’t determine their competence as a supervisor. A supervisor requires a different

skillset and specific knowledge in guidance & supervision apart from a clear idea of

his/her school of thought. As a result, the supervisory style highly depends on the

model of supervision and the school of thought which the supervisor is guided by.

Bordin (1983) described the supervisory version of the model, on the

establishment of mutually determined goals (e.g., mastering specific skills, enlarging

one's understanding of clients, and maintaining standards of service) and the means to

achieve them. If the process is guided by empathy, a non-judgmental stance,

imparting validation or affirmation, an attitude of acceptance, provision of

encouragement to explore, integrity, provision of autonomy, warmth, and an

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 3

understanding nature can increase the level of competence and self-efficacy. The

following section focuses on developmental models of supervision which form a

theoretical base for the current study.

Developmental Model of Supervision

Developmental stages of supervision are a progressive model ranging from

novice to expert as the training proceeds. Each stage consists of distinct

characteristics & skills to be employed. For example, in the novice stage of training,

the supervisee will have high anxiety, low efficacy, and limited skills. Therefore,

supervisees depend more on their supervisor in the initial stage. During this period the

trainee relies on eternal validation & feedback of his/her mentor. The middle stage is

characterized by the struggle of independence from the supervisor. Once the training

begins, the supervisees get first-hand experience to deal with clients; they mirror &

learn from their supervisor’s approach which helps them attain higher thinking like

problem solving & critical thinking. Therefore, a supervisee towards the last stage of

the developmental model is more likely to make use of better problem-solving &

reflection skills about the counseling skills and supervision process. (Hayes, Moulton

& Corey, 2003)

Supervisors with an understanding of the development approach to

supervision, accurately identify the current stage of supervisee’s functioning to

facilitate learning by giving feedback and paving the way towards the next stage.

(Littrell, 1979). This interactive process referred to as “scaffolding” (Schunk, 2003).

Through the stages of development, the nature of the professional relationship

developed by the dyad places a functional role in attaining supervisee’s self-efficacy

and development. The communication determines the supervision style and the

approach of the mentor.

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 4

The majority of models include strategies or intervention in developing

supervisees' theoretical orientation, establishing supervisor and supervisee roles,

structure of supervision and counseling environments, assessment and evaluation,

ethical behavior, and termination of the supervisory relationship (Schultz, 1999).

Supervisory Styles

Holloway and Wolleat (1981) were the first among many to examine

supervisory responses and communication behaviors which paved a way for

developing a systematic methodology for research in investigating the supervision

interaction and education. Friedlander and Ward (1984) defined supervisory styles as

a supervisors’ manner of interacting with supervisees and implementing supervision.

They defined style as the interactional process between supervisor and

supervisee. Friedlander and Ward identified different dimensions of supervisory style

that are considered important both those who have attained proficiency in the field

and those who are still novices. The authors noted that the approach of a supervisor

depends on the role they play or on their adopted style. This led to

compartmentalizing the supervision styles into attractive, interpersonally sensitive,

and task-oriented style.

These styles coincide with Bernard’s three basic supervisor roles of interacting

with trainees as a consultant, counselor, and teacher. Accordingly, Bernard posited

that supervisors, who assume an attractive style, collegial, or consultant supervisor

role, tend to be warm, friendly, open, and supportive during supervision (Ladany,

Walker, & Melincoff, 2001). Similarly, supervisors who manifest an interpersonally

sensitive and empathic style are usually more personally invested professionals, who

are therapeutic and perceptive when working with their supervisees (Ladany, Walker,
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 5

& Melincoff, 2001). Lastly, supervisors who are task-oriented, are likely to be more

concrete, focused, and goal-oriented employing a structured supervisory style that is

similar to Bernard’s (1979; 1997) teacher role.

Attractive style consists of characteristics like friendly, flexible, trusting,

warm, open, positive, and supportive. Trainee counsellors who are in the third level of

the developmental model of supervision prefer this style of their supervisors.

Integrated Developmental Model emphasizes the supervisor to avail oneself of skills

and techniques that match the level of the supervisee. So, for example, when

supervising a level-3 supervisee, the supervisor would emphasize autonomy, creative

thinking, and problem-solving. Therefore, to touch base with the supervisees, the

supervisor needs a clear understanding of the developmental stage from his/her

trainee is functioning.

Ellis (2010) states that good supervision depends on the relationship of the

supervision dyad rather than considering the superiority of the supervisor’s theory or

techniques. An interpersonally sensitive supervisor is one who is intuitive, invested,

committed, perceptive, reflective, creative, resourceful, and therapeutic. The author of

the scale determines confrontation as one of the most vital factors in interpersonal

relationships. Findings suggest the importance of the support-challenge aspect of

supervision, which includes support and friendliness as well as confrontational and

catalytic interventions with novice counselor trainees (Stoltenberg et al., 1998). A

competent supervisor is can supervise clinical practice, has the ability to foster

confidence & maintain a supervisory alliance.

The last type of supervisors that have been described in the scale are those

who are task-oriented whose characteristics comprise of being structured, focused,

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 6

goal- oriented, prescriptive, thorough, explicit, evaluative, didactic, practical, and

concrete.

Social Cognitive Theory

Self-efficacy is a central tenet of Albert Bandura’s (1977) social cognitive

theory. It can be defined as “the conviction that one can successfully execute desired

behavior”. A strong sense of efficacy amplifies performance and personal well-being.

Those who fall in the purview of being highly efficacious meet situations as

challenges that can be mastered rather than being alarmed as a threat. Such a

standpoint piques interest in the humdrum activities and ensures a flow in undertaking

them. Social Cognitive Theory posits four attributes.

Self-regulation comprises of self-reflective activities. It is assumed that human

beings are capable of creating an internal model of experience, ability to think

uniquely, and test the course of action through assumptions of predictions and

communicate complicated ideas and experiences with others. It is our ability to

observe and analyze our actions, thoughts, and emotions which help in self-reflection.

Since we are capable of self-regulation, we have a choice to determine our

own goals which can be regulated by our behavior. One’s ability to use past

knowledge and being aware of their shortcomings form the ability to execute a task in

the future with acquired events, abilities, and beliefs.

The third attribute propagates the role of environmental events, inner personal

factors (cognition, emotion, and biological events), and behaviors as interactive

influences. A natural response is a consequence of responding behaviorally,

effectively, and cognitively to the environmental events. Also, through cognition, we

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 7

exercise control over our behavior and actions, which influences not only the

environment but also our cognitive, affective, and biological states. (Bandura, 1977)

“Self” and “personality” are socially constructed. They are perceptions of our

own subjective patterns of social cognition, emotion and action. Thus, self and

personality are not simply what we bring to our interactions with others; they are

created in these interactions, and they change through these interactions.

Self-efficacy beliefs refer to “people’s judgments of their capabilities to

organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of

performances” (Bandura, 1986, p. 391). Counseling self-efficacy, a coined term by

Bandura is used to describe the process of assessing cognitive ability to perform

certain behaviors to certain situations in near future. (Bandura, 1986). Therefore, a

trainee’s counseling self-efficacy is a factor that contributes to performing and

executing counseling services. (Larson et al., 1992; Larson, 1998; Bandura, 1982).

Counseling self-efficacy assess whether an individual knows a task and the likelihood

of performing that task effectively in near future, should a similar situation arise.

Therefore, Bandura believed that efficacy has an influence on (a) whether or not a

given task is attempted. (b) how much effort is spent on the task. and (c) how long a

response is maintained in the event of obstacles and stresses of life.

Through the supervisory process supervisees learn micro-skills and how to

conduct themselves in a therapeutic setting. The following counseling micro-skills are

focused on in supervision: rapport building, opening and closing sessions, active

listening, attending, reflection of feelings, summarization, paraphrasing, open

questions, use of silence, confrontation and identify conflict (Ivey & Ivey, 2003). To

facilitate growth supervisors’ model appropriate counseling behaviors of empathy,

respect, and genuineness while supervisees explore issues involving their values,
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 8

attitudes and beliefs (Torres-Rivera, Wilbur, Maddux, Smaby, Phan, & Roberts-

Wilbur, 2002). Lent, Hill, and Hoffman (2003), who determined that counselor self-

efficacy reflects counselors' beliefs about performing counseling-related behaviors

and to successfully, negotiate clinical challenges and situations as they occur.

The above-mentioned attributes lay the groundwork for two important primary

beliefs. First being that self-efficacy is a result of understanding a cause-effect

relationship and second being that it can be acquired through self-observation and

self-reflection.

Purpose of the Study

Clinical supervision is a prominent aspect of the work that a large number of

mental health professionals assume at different stages in their careers as clinical and

counseling psychologists in the field (Watkins, 1995). Studies indicated, that in the

case of clinical psychologists, supervision was one of the top five activities they

provided to graduate students, (Norcross & Halgin, 1997), whereas, counseling

psychologists were found to provide more than two-thirds of clinical supervision to

graduate-level students (Fitzgerald & Osipow, 1986). In India, supervision is a

practice that is not exclusively rendered by the institutes; predominantly because there

is a lack of awareness of different models and styles of supervision.

In general, effective and respected supervisors are those who provide

constructive and supportive feedback to supervisees, which help them to enhance

supervisees’ satisfaction with supervision and high levels of self-efficacy during the

process (Carifio & Hess, 1987). The development and training of professional

psychologists is a complex and challenging undertaking for a supervisor. Supervision

theorists and researchers have determined that supervisors use a variety of styles,
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 9

approaches, and roles during the supervision process (Bernard, 1979, 1997; Carroll,

1996; Ekstein, 1964; Friedlander & Ward, 1994; Hess, 1980; Holloway, 1995;

Ladany, Walker & Melincoff, 2001; Stoltenberg & McNeill, 1997; Williams, 1994).

However, beyond a supervisee’s developmental level, the research literature also

demonstrates that supervisory style is inherently related to process and outcome

variables (Walker & Melincoff (2001). However, to date, supervisory style and its

effect on self-efficacy on post-graduation students pursuing a master’s degree in

psychology and other mental health-related professions were not found in the current

research literature in the Indian context. The current study is an exception.

Bandura believed that self-efficacy has a strong influence on one’s motivation

and efforts to complete a new task, despite multiple obstacles and external life

stressors, which inevitably affect the actual process of completing a specific task or

undertaking. When considering Bandura’s theoretical perspective on self-efficacy

during the development phase of this study, it appears appropriate to suggest that

supervisees who experience a positive relationship with their supervisor during

supervision will experience satisfaction with their supervisory experience and also

experience a high level of self-efficacy while acquiring strong counseling skills

during the process (Fernando, 2003). However, studies have been divided with few

suggesting that supervision style cannot predict the self – efficacy alone.

While self-efficacy has been studied quite intensively in context of the

leadership, the influence of feedback, and working alliance in the past ten years;

supervision style lacks literature in the area. In the past thirty years, the area explored

by social researchers, (Haynes, Corey, & Moulton, 2003; Hughes-Bise, 2012),

theoreticians (Bernard & Goodyear, 1998; Martinez & Holloway, 1997), and graduate

students (Ting, 2009) interested in knowing more about the human element involved
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 10

in supervisor-supervisee relationships (Kaiser, 1997). This includes supervision style

and supervisees’ level of self-efficacy experienced during clinical training and

supervision (Fernando & Hulse, 2005; Meisner, 2012). Therefore, the current study is

an attempt to study these two variables and see if there is a relationship between

supervision style and perceived self-efficacy of trainee counselors.

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 11

Review of Literature
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 12

This chapter will focus on providing an in-depth review of the literature

regarding clinical supervision, models of supervision, supervision styles, and

perceived self-efficacy of the students pursuing a Master’s degree. The study aims to

study if the supervision style affects the self-efficacy of trainee counsellors. While the

area is nascent, the studies from across the globe give different perspectives that have

been objectively stated.

Alina Martínez (2014) studied preferences for supervisors’ characteristics

where acculturation and professional experience of participants were compared to

their supervisory working alliance and supervisory style preferences. The researcher

hypothesized that a task-oriented subscale will be higher than the other two. The study

was conducted on 89 Master’s level Hispanic counseling classes at a Hispanic Serving

Institution, mainly composed of Mexican Americans located in the Texas-Mexico

border. Voluntary participation ensured series of questionnaires using an online

website: a demographic questionnaire, Supervisory Working Alliance Inventory

(SWAI), Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans II Scale 1 (ARSMA II

Scale 1), and the Supervisory Styles Inventory (SSI). Linear regression was made use

of in the study. Professional experience was then compared with the scores of the SSI

subscales to determine if Hispanics counseling graduate students preferred task-

oriented supervisory styles. However, a more attractive and interpersonally sensitive

style of supervision was preferred.

Two qualitative studies (Borsay, 2012 and Lemoir, 2013) examined the

reasons behind raising challenges with the supervisors. Borsay (2012) identified and

interviewed 14 psychologists who had experienced difficult supervisory relationships

(SR) during training, and the nature of the problem was explored. Interviews were

transcribed and analyzed using grounded theory. The results of the study suggested
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 13

that difficulties arose in the milieu of the expectations in personal and professional

conditions that participants and supervisors brought to their SRs. Supervisees

identified difficulties in the four key areas (supervision structure and boundaries,

interpersonal difficulties, external structure, and resource issues) and were at

crossroads when deciding whether or not to approach their supervisor about these. It

was challenging for supervisees to raise difficulties, and they experienced a variety of

(more or less helpful) responses from their supervisors. The study highlights the

importance of interpersonally sensitive style of supervision.

Wan Marzuki et.al (2011) conducted a study to determine the counseling self-

efficacy among trainee counselors. The study was done to guide counseling educators

about the importance of self-efficacy in trainee counselors. It was hypothesized that

the trainees with higher score on Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory (COSE; Larson

et al., 1992) will show more readiness to perform counselling related tasks. The

population on which the study was conducted include Malaysian trainees who

underwent a minimum of 12 weeks of practicum. Descriptive statistics i.e. mean,

median and, standard deviation was used for data analysis. The findings suggested

that 71% of the total sample (N=100) had moderate self-efficacy while the other 29%

felt most efficacious against the other areas that were focused included respondents’

self-assessment of their use of micro-skills where 66% received a high score and

thought they had a fair idea in the area. 73% were moderately aware of their attending

skills while 78% thought they could handle challenging tasks such as handling clients

with sexual feelings, were at an impasse at therapy, etc to name a few. A high score

was recorded by 53% when the counsellors were asked if they can handle clients who

don’t belong to the same culture as they did.

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 14

Hanson (2006), among other variables of interest, assess the relationship

between counseling self-efficacy and counselor performance. Hypothesis suggested

that counselor self-efficacy will be related to counselor performance. Fifty-eight

counselor trainees undergoing supervision were a part of the study. Counselor

Activity Self-Efficacy Scales (CASES; Lent et al. 2009) and counselor performance

evaluated by supervisors using the Counselor Evaluation Rating Scales were used and

a co-relation was chosen for the research design. Results indicated that counselor self-

efficacy is positively related to counselor performance.

Ruhani Mat Min (2012) conducted a study that hypothesized that self-efficacy

whilst performing counselling practicum promotes counsellor trainee’s development.

The qualitative study was conducted on ten Malaysian counsellor trainees. Their

experiences were gathered through the interview method. Each participant took part in

three interviews – which were spaced out at the beginning, the middle, and the end of

their practicum duration. Each interview was built on the practicum experience of the

previous ones. The findings of the study concluded that self-efficacy among trainees

develops during their practicum. The process of development involves understanding

and accepting roles, openness to new experience and pragmatic perception.

Pamukçu, Burcu’s (2011) study was to investigate predictive value of number

of clients, academic achievement, life satisfaction number of counseling sessions, and

satisfaction level of supervision both in terms of quality and quantity in determining

counselor trainees’ counseling self-efficacy levels. The sample consisted of 470

counselling trainees (335 females, 135 males) enrolled at universities in Turkey. The

Satisfaction with Life Scale, the Counselor Self-Estimate Inventory, and the

Counselor Activity Self-Efficacy Scales were used in the context of the study. Data

analysis was carried out by using Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis. Results
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 15

highlighted that life satisfaction was found as the most important predictor of

counseling self-efficacy. On the other hand, the number of clients and satisfaction

with the quantity of supervision academic achievement and supervision style were not

found to be significant predictors of counseling self-efficacy.

A study conducted by Bruce Michael Meissner (2012) on examining the

relationship between supervisory styles and counselor skill and personal development

perceived by the supervisees. The study was conducted with the following

hypotheses: a) Relationship exists between the supervisory style perceived to be used

by supervisors on the self-perceived counseling skill level of the supervisees. b) A

relationship exists between the supervisory style perceived to be used by supervisors

and the self-perceived personal development level of the supervisees. It suggested that

the attractive style was identified most often as the dominant style of supervision

(N=105). The interpersonally sensitive style was the next highest identified style

(N=13), followed by the least identified dominant style, the task-oriented (N=11). A

positive relationship was observed between the task-oriented style of supervision and

measures of self-perceived counseling skill, personal development, and self-efficacy.

Gisela P. Berger (2012) researched intending to quantify the addictions

treatment professional’s supervision outcome concerning other variables including

supervisory style, supervisory type, and demographic variables. The research

questions that concern the study were if addictions treatment counselors perceive as

the overall supervisory style of their clinical supervisors? The study was conducted on

112 participants under training whose experience was between 0 – 8 years and were

under supervision. The methodology included a pilot study to refine the instruments

ultimately used for this study. The three instruments that used for the study were the

Supervisory Styles Inventory (SSI; Friedlander & Ward, 1984), The Supervision
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 16

Outcome Questionnaire (SOQ; Worthington and Roehlke (1979) and the Counselor

Self-Efficacy Scale (COSES; Melchert, et. al., 1996). Multiple Regression was used

and the findings suggested that there is no dominant supervisory style utilized by

addiction treatment counselors supervisors. Interpersonally Sensitive style was

experienced at a slightly higher rate. The result that indicates that counselor self-

efficacy is not significantly related to supervision outcome and style and level of

experience is difficult to explain.

Dawn C. Lorenz (2009) conducted a study with a purpose to assess how

supervisory styles, supervisory working alliance, and supervisor behaviors impact on

the development of counseling self-efficacy. It was hypothesized that (a) demographic

characteristics affect self-efficacy. (b) supervisory style, supervisory working alliance,

and supervisor behaviors at the beginning of practicum, impact the development of

counseling self-efficacy at the middle of practicum. (c) counselor anxiety, satisfaction

with individual supervision, and satisfaction with group supervision correlated with

changes in counseling self-efficacy when measured at the beginning of practicum and

end of practicum. Participants were taken from 100 CORE accredited programs and

from the 220 CACREP accredited programs. To bring the study to fruition,

participants were asked to complete instruments related to demographic

characteristics, supervisory style (Supervisory Style Inventory-Trainee), Supervisor

Working Alliance (Supervisor Working Alliance Inventory-Trainee), supervisor

behaviors (Modified-Clinical Supervision Questionnaire), and counseling self-

efficacy (Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory). The results suggested a positive

correlation between gender and counseling self-efficacy and indicated that male

participants were more likely than females to have higher scores on the COSE.

Although gender was not necessarily correlated with other variables under
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 17

investigation (i.e., working alliance, behaviors, satisfaction) it was only related to

anxiety. It was also found supervisory styles, supervisor working alliance, and

supervisor behaviors at the beginning and middle of practicum are predictive of

counseling self-efficacy at the middle and end of the practicum.

A study conducted by McCarthy & Amanda K. (2017) explored internship

supervision experiences of interns in the Council on Rehabilitation Education

accredited programs (N = 73). The following research questions were hypothesized

(a) Interns perceive as the overall supervisory style of their supervisor. (b) Self-

efficacy can be predicted through supervision style. (c) There will be a relationship

between demographic variables of supervisees and the effectiveness of supervision.

Supervisory Styles Inventory (SSI) and a survey that measured their beliefs to

perform rehabilitation counseling techniques, the effectiveness of received

supervision, and the effect of demographic variables was used. The following result

was obtained: (a) supervisors were rated high on all the styles; (b) supervisory style

could not alone predict aspects of self-efficacy; (c) the number of hours completed by

the intern was related with the supervision effectiveness.

Summary: Supervisory Style is one of the most crucial components in a

trainee’s advancement to become an efficient counsellor. The research in the field has

shown different perspectives, however, most researches in the past thirty years

suggest that supervisors work with their supervisees using a variety of styles,

perspectives, and roles (Bernard & Goodyear. 2004; Friedlander & Ward, 1984;

Ladany, Walker. & Meltncoff, 2001). Both personal learning needs and the

professional developmental needs of supervisees may be met through flexibility in

supervision styles (Fernando, 2005). Specifically, more confident trainees and those
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 18

with higher expectations for supervision to affect their clients and themselves

indicated expecting more input from their supervisors.

Self – Efficacy has been closely related to the development of trainee

counselors because of its basic concept which emphasizes that humans have agency to

produce desirable actions should they desire it. Findings from the research have been

particularly aimed at the social–cognitive construct of self-efficacy and more

specifically to counselor self-efficacy, referring to assessing cognitive ability to

perform certain behaviors to certain situations in near future or to negotiate particular

clinical situations (Larson & Daniels, 1998). It has been corelated with life

satisfaction, supervision style, the stage of development the trainee is at among other

variables. By enlarge it is believed that with experience the efficacy increases which

in turn makes the trainee feel more competent. However, certain studies point towards

the fact that supervision style alone cannot predict self – efficacy. The following

research is an attempt to contribute to the diverse researches.

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 19

Method
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 20

Chapter 3 presents the methodological procedures undertaken in this study.

The aim of the study can be broken down into three specific objectives of the study.

The first chapter of the study commenced and introduced the study presenting

background information, purpose, and significance of the study. The second chapter

reviewed relevant literature involving the models of supervision, supervisory styles,

and perceived self-efficacy. In the current chapter, the methodology used in the study

will be discussed which includes the sampling, procedures, instruments, data

collection, and analysis. Chapter four the results of the analysis will be presented

followed by chapter five which includes a discussion of the results, recommendations,

conclusions, and the limitations of the study which will be followed by references &

appendix.

Aim: The aim is to study the relationship between supervisory style and

perceived self-efficacy of trainee counsellors.

Specific Objectives:

1. To study the association between supervision style and helping skills of

trainee counselors.

2. To study the association between supervision style and session management

skills of trainee counselors.

3. To study the association between supervision style and handling

challenging situations by trainee counselors.
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 21

Participants:

The participants (N = 55) were taken from the city of Bangalore, Karnataka

from three different colleges offering the course of M.Sc. in Counselling Psychology.

The following population was kept in mind with a reason to analyze the effect of

supervision style on the self – efficacy of trainee counsellors. Therefore, the

participants of the study were from the second year of their Masters seeking

supervision, with an age range of ≤40. The participants pursuing a Diploma,

Bachelors, Distance learning or any other short-term courses have not been taken into

account due to lack of professional development of the students, lack of adequate

practicum hours, number of supervision hours both individual/group and to keep the

sample homogenous. The population spoke English and belonged to various states

however, studied at one of the colleges which offered counseling psychology in

Bangalore.

Sampling Procedure:

Due to the pandemic, in-person permissions could not be obtained by the

institutes. A list of universities and colleges was made which was most suitable for

data collection which falls under the demographic of Bangalore, Karnataka. Since one

of the objectives of the research is to understand if confident trainee counsellors look

for “attractiveness” a predominant factor in his/her supervisor which comprises of

qualities such as friendliness, flexibility, supportive, open, positivity, trusting and

warm in a supervision and less efficacious trainees may look at supervisors being

“experts”; the current study began contacting participants who started their practicum

in their fourth semester after 8 weeks of their experience in the field while also

looking at collecting data from those who had started their practicum in the third
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 22

semester. Participants were personally contacted by email through the help of google

forms.

Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling, a non – probability

method was used for the data collection. Due to the pandemic, it was difficult to track

participants from the university/colleges. Therefore, in person lists could not be

obtained to go for sampling methods such as that of systematic and random sampling.

Snowball Sampling helps identify potential participants which helps with the

referrals. This sampling technique can be implemented with little workforce, making

it cost and time-efficient compared to other methods.

Materials:

Supervisory Styles Inventory (SSI). The SSI (See Appendix A) is a 33-item

self-report questionnaire and is recognized as one of the most commonly used and

best-validated instruments in supervision research (Prieto, 1998). The SSI measures

perceptions of the supervisor's use of the three supervisory styles portrayed on the SSI

during supervision: attractive, representing a collegial approach (7-items),

interpersonally sensitive, representing a therapeutic approach (8-items), and task-

oriented, representing a didactic approach (10-items). Although no rationale has been

found there are also eight filler questions included in the scale. The 33 subscale

questions are scored on a 7-point Likert scale from (1) not very to (7) very. A mean

scale index from 1 to 7 is obtained where a higher score on a subscale represents

greater support for the style's use (most dominant).

Friedlander and Ward (1984) originally developed the SSI for use with a

developmental model of supervision. Following a content analysis of transcribed

interviews with a diverse group of supervisors, the creators developed three subscales
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 23

of supervisory styles (attractive, interpersonally sensitive, and task-oriented). The tool

was designed for use with either supervisors or supervisees. The two forms of the

measure are Form-T to be used with trainees and Form-S to be used with supervisors.

Other than the direction of the question the two forms are identical. The trainee Form-

T asks trainees the style of their current supervisor and Form-S asks supervisors to

gauge their style of supervision. Because the current investigation involves the

students' perception Form-T was utilized for this study (Appendix A).

Counselor Activity Self – Efficacy Scale (CASES – G). The design of the

Counselor Activity Self-Efficacy Scales (CASES) was based on the conceptual

understanding of the Hill and O’Brien (1999) helping skills model and related

research (Hill et al., 1999). In particular, the authors conceptualized counseling self-

efficacy under three broad subdomains perceived capacity to (a) perform basic

helping skills, (b) manage session tasks, and (c) negotiate challenging counseling

situations and presenting issues. The scale consists of 41 items which are to be scored

on a 0 – 9 Likert Scale ranging from 0 i.e. no confidence to 9 i.e. most confidence.

(See Appendix B for CASES instrument).

The first subdomain, Helping Skill Self-Efficacy, included the ability to

perform each of 18 components helping–counseling skills. Such skills are generally

used by trainee counsellors in the initial stage of their training & supervision. In Hill

and O’Brien’s (1999) training model, basic helping skills are divided into three stages,

according to how and when they are typically used in counseling: (a) exploration

stage skills, in which the trainee looks at establishing rapport, getting basic

information, presenting problem & eliciting the occurrence (b) insight stage skills, in

which the trainee helps the client reach to a point where they understand the problem

objectively; and (c) action stage skills, which were aimed at facilitating changes in
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 24

client’s affect, thought, or behavior. Nine items reflected the ability to perform

exploration stage skills, such as attending skills or posing open questions. Five items

were intended to tap insight stage skills (e.g., using immediacy statements,

challenging client contradictions). Four items represented action stage tasks, such as

providing direct guidance or using role-play methods. Construct validity was

established.

Session Management Self-Efficacy captures counsellors’ perceived ability to

integrate the basic helping skills to manage an array of specific-counseling session

related tasks. (Hill, 2003) The difference between the first and the session

management domain is to dive into the process of exploration of the problem and

meet the requirements of a working stage of counseling. This section consists of 10

items, such as keeping sessions on the tract, building case conceptualizations, etc.

Construct validity was established.

The last domain explores the efficacy of trainee counsellors when they meet

with challenging situations in their practice. It consists of 16 statements which

perceives the ability of trainees to work with trauma in particular. The items on this

subscale was designed for the trainees to reflect whether they could cope with the

challenges in relatively different cases where they would have to be prompt to use

problem-solving behaviors. (Hill, 2003) . The scale asked questions like how would

they deal with suicidal clients if the clients developed sexual feelings etc. Internal

reliability has been established by the scale.

Measures and Covariates:

Two questionnaires have been used to study the two variables, i.e. supervision

style and self-efficacy. Construct validity was established through convergent validity
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 25

of the SSI with supervisory roles developed by Stenack and Dye (1982) that were

derived from Bernard's Discrimination Model (1979). The initial study by Friedlander

and Ward obtained moderate to high positive correlations between the three subscales

of the SSI and the three supervisory roles of teacher, counselor, and collaborator

developed by Stenack and Dye (1982). Two-week, test-retest reliability estimates

ranged between .78 and .94. Internal consistency coefficients for the three subscales

were .93 attractive, .88 interpersonally sensitive, and .85 task-oriented. Finally, the

initial study found item-scale correlations of .70 to .88 for the attractive scale; .51 to

.82 for the interpersonally sensitive scale; and .38 to .76 for the task-oriented scale

(Friedlander & Ward, 1984).

Correlations of the CASES scales to Social Desirability were generally small

and nonsignificant (the range was –.02 to .22), suggesting that the CASES scales were

not substantially affected by self-presentation biases. (Hill, 2003) The CASES scales

correlated moderately with interest in therapy activities (range .35 to .47).

Correlations of the CASES scales to the counseling relatedness of participants’

intended career choices were mostly small to moderate (range .11 to .31) The internal

reliability estimates for the individual scales ranged from .79 (Exploration Skills) to

.94 (Session Management and Client Distress), providing support for their internal

consistency. The CASES total scale produced an alpha coefficient of .97.

Intercorrelations among the individual CASES scales were generally medium to large,

ranging from .44 (Exploration Skills and Client Distress) to .72 (Client Distress and

Relationship Conflict, Session Management and Exploration Skills, Session

Management and Insight Skills). (Lent, 2003)

Procedure:
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 26

The data was gathered via web-based survey resource. Participants were

contacted through email and other social media to understand if they showed interest

to become a participant in the study. All the data was collected with keeping ethical

guidelines. Participants were requested to fill the forms were through a web-link

directing them to the demographic information & two instruments on the secure

password protected server. The informed consent form was included in the form

which asked practicum students from second year to move forward. The informed

consent explained the participant's rights as a volunteer informing the participants that

they could refuse to participate or opt out of the study at any time, the intend and

rationale of the study & the fact that it looked at collecting and coding group data. At

the bottom of the informed consent form was link to a secure online survey.

Participants were able to access the tools (See Appendix A – C) and were

asked to mark all the answers. Since the data was collected through an online

platform, no question was left blank since all the fields were compulsory in both the

scales which ensured that they could only choose one option per question. This

eliminated ambiguity that comes when participants mark two answers for one

question. Therefore, none of the items were eliminated from the data analysis. Name

was kept optional, instead those who felt uncomfortable could leave their initials. If

they wanted the group result, the participants were asked give leave their email

address. No identifiable accounts or passwords needed to be created to ensure

anonymity. The link of the study could be accessed any time by the participants;

however, the data collection was stopped after three weeks. The data was then

converted to an excel sheet which was only allowed to access by the primary

researcher, research supervisor and the dissertation committee.

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 27

Research Design:

The current study employs a quasi – experimental design.

Hypotheses

Null Hypothesis:

1) Supervision style is not associated with helping skills of trainee counselors.

2) Supervision style is not associated with session management skills of

trainee counselors.

3) Supervision style is not associated with handling challenging situations by

trainee counselors.

Alternate Hypothesis:

1) Supervision style is associated with helping skills of trainee counselors.

2) Supervisory style is associated with session management skills of trainee

counselors.

3) Supervision style is associated with handling challenging situations by

trainee counselors.

Variables:

Independent Variable. Supervision Style

Dependent Variable. Self-Efficacy

Data Analysis:

IBM SPSS – 16 was used to analyze the data which was obtained after

collection. The test for normality of the data was conducted first. Accordingly, non-
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 28

parametric test i.e. Chi Square Analysis and descriptive statistics were used to obtain

scientific evidence for the data which indicated its reliability and authenticity.

Ethics:

All the data was collected with keeping ethical guidelines. The consent of the

authors of the scale was taken. Participants were requested to fill the forms were

through a web-link directing them to the demographic information & two instruments

on the secure password protected server. In order to ensure that the participant could

access the form once, they had to log in through their email id which prohibited them

further access of the form. Therefore, one participant could record only one response.

The informed consent form was included in the form which asked practicum

students from second year to move forward. The informed consent explained the

participant's rights as a volunteer informing the participants that they could refuse to

participate or opt out of the study at any time, the intend and rationale of the study &

the fact that it looked at collecting and coding group data. At the bottom of the

informed consent form was link to a secure online survey.

Participants were able to access the tools (See Appendix A – C) and were

asked to mark all the answers. Since the data was collected through an online

platform, no question was left blank since all the fields were compulsory in both the

scales which ensured that they could only choose one option per question. This

eliminated ambiguity that comes when participants mark two answers for one

question. Therefore, none of the items were eliminated from the data analysis and

researcher’s discretion was avoided. Name was kept optional, instead those who felt

uncomfortable could leave their initials. If they wanted the group result, the
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 29

participants were asked give leave their email address which was not marked as a

compulsory field otherwise.

No identifiable accounts or passwords needed to be created to ensure

anonymity. The link of the study could be accessed any time by the participants. The

data was then converted to an excel sheet which was only allowed to access by the

primary researcher, research supervisor and the dissertation committee.

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 30

Definitions

1. Supervision: An on-going process in which typically a more tenured

member of the field with knowledge and skills specific to the supervisees' profession

helps the supervisee develop knowledge, skills and abilities to effectively practice in

the field (Bernard & Goodyear, 2009). An experience of joint support and mutuality

(Hensley et al., 2003).

2. Supervisory process: A process consisting of various patterns of behavior

which are contingent on the needs, competencies, expectations, and philosophies of

the supervisor and the supervisee and the specific context (Anderson, 1988)

3. Supervisor: A term used for an individual who engages in clinical teaching

procedures (McCrea & Brasseur, 2003)

4. Supervisee: A term used for an individual who is working under the direct

guidance of a supervisor.

5. Style: The distinct interactional process of approaching, responding and

implementing supervision between a supervisor and supervisee (Fernando &

HulseKillacky, 2005; Friedlander & Ward, 1984; Holloway & Wolleat, 1981).

6. Supervisory Relationship: The unique rhythm, sequences and content

between a dyad including feelings and attitudes that supervisors and supervisees have

toward one another and the manner in which they are expressed (Bernard &

Goodyear, 1998)

7. Self-Efficacy: An individual's belief in their ability to successfully

accomplish a specific task (Bandura (1977b).

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 31

Results and Discussions

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 32

Table 1

Table showing mean and standard deviation of age of the population.

St
d.
N Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation

Age
55 21 38 23.62
2.337

Table 2

Table showing gender distribution of the population.

Frequency Percent

Female 39 70.9

Male 15 27.3

Transgender 1 1.8

Total 55 100.0

Table 3

Table showing supervision style of the supervisees’

Frequency Percent

Attractive 25 45.5

Interpersonal 15 27.3

Task Oriented 15 27.3

Total 55 100.0
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 33

Table 4

Table showing results of Chi-square test for independence of attributes

between supervision style and helping skills of trainee counselors. (N=55)

Asymp. Sig. (2-

Value df sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 5.783a 4 .216
Likelihood Ratio 5.640 4 .228
Linear-by-Linear Association .336 1 .562

Table 5

Table showing results of Chi-square test for independence of attributes

between supervision style session management skills of trainee counselors. (N=55)

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

a
Pearson Chi-Square 7.048 4 .133
Likelihood Ratio 6.789 4 .147
Linear-by-Linear Association 1.149 1 .284

Table 6

Table showing results of Chi-square test for independence of attributes

between supervision style and handling challenging situations of trainee counselors.

(N=55)

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 7.784a 4 .100
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 34

Likelihood Ratio 9.142 4 .058

Linear-by-Linear
Association 2.325 1 .127

Discussion

The present study aimed at studying the effect of supervision style on

perceived self-efficacy of trainee counsellors. As shown in Table 1, Fifty-five

participants were taken from an age group of 20 – 40 years. The minimum and

maximum age shows that the data fell in the predetermined inclusion criteria. The

mean age of the sample was 23.62 years and the standard deviation was 2.337 i.e. low

SD which signifies that data points are close to the mean. Table 2 shows the gender of

participants of which 70.9% is females, 27.3% are males and 1.8% consist of

transgender trainees, this could be due to the nature of sampling and dominance of

females in the field.

As shown in Table 3, the Attractive style is dominant with 45.5% (N=25)

followed by interpersonally sensitive and task-oriented 27.3% (N=15) in each style.

This means that supervisors tend to be more friendly, flexible, trusting, warm, open,

positive, and supportive rather than being intuitive, invested, committed, perceptive,

reflective, creative, resourceful, and therapeutic which are chraracteristics of an

interpersonally sensitive supervisor or structured, focused, goal-oriented, prescriptive,

thorough, explicit, evaluative, didactic, practical, and concrete like that of a task-

oriented supervisor. None of the styles are considered inferior to others and shows

different approach of the supervisors.

Table 4 shows the key results of Chi-square for the independence of attributes

between supervision style and helping skills of trainee counselors test table. The value
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 35

of the test statistic is 5.783. The Likelihood ratio chi-square test is 6.789 (G²). Since

the test statistic is based on 3 * 3 test statistic, the degree of freedom (df) for the test

statistic is df = (R – 1) * (C – 1) = (3 – 1) * (3 – 1) = 2 * 2 = 4. The p-value is greater

than the chosen significance level, the null hypothesis is not rejected. Rather, it is

concluded that there is no enough evidence to suggest that there is an association

between the supervision style and helping skills of trainee counselors. Based on the

results, it can be stated that X² (4, N = 55) = 5.783, p > *0.05.

Table 5 shows the key results of Chi-square test for independence of attributes

between supervision style session management skills of trainee counselors. The value

of the test statistic is 7.048. The Likelihood ratio chi-square test is 9.142 (G²). Since

the test statistic is based on 3 * 3 test statistic, the degree of freedom (df) for the test

statistic is df = (R – 1) * (C – 1) = (3 – 1) * (3 – 1) = 2 * 2 = 4. The p value is greater

than the chosen significance level, therefore, null hypothesis is not rejected. Rather, it

is concluded that there is no enough evidence to suggest that there is an association

between the supervision style and session management skills of trainee counselors.

Based on the results, it can be stated that X² (4, N = 55) = 7.048, p > *0.05.

Table 6 shows key results of Chi-square test for independence of attributes

between the supervision style and handling challenging situations of trainee

counselors. The value of the test statistic is 7.784. The Likelihood ratio chi-square test

is 5.640 (G²). Since the test statistic is based on 3 * 3 test statistic, the degree of

freedom (df) for the test statistic is df = (R – 1) * (C – 1) = (3 – 1) * (3 – 1) = 2 * 2 =

4. The p value is greater than the chosen significance level, therefore the null

hypothesis is not rejected. Rather, it is concluded that there is no enough evidence to

suggest that there is an association between the supervision style and handling
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 36

challenging situations of trainee counsellors. Based on the results, it can be stated that

X² (4, N = 55) = 7.748, p > *0.05.

The current study supports previous research of Pamukçu, Burcu’s

(2011), Alfiee Breland &Douglas M. Neil and McCarthy & Amanda K. (2017) study

that supervision style doesn’t directly affect self – efficacy of trainee counselors and

counselors. It is fair to assume that a supervisor – supervisee relationship affects the

perception of the supervisee’s evaluation (Turban. Jones. & Rozelle. 1990). However,

the quality of supervision varies with every institute and training and experience in

itself are important factors of self – efficacy. For example, supervisees' perceptions of

supervisors as interpersonally sensitive and attractive might create a feedback loop

that results in a more positive evaluation. This was not found to be the case.

Supervisors who are perceived as consistently attractive may be less apt to

challenge trainees beyond their comfort zone and may be supportive to a degree that

has negative implications for trainees' development as counselors, that is trainees'

sense of confidence, self-efficacy and feelings of accomplishment would remain

relatively low. If supervision is to result in trainees' making the most accurate self-

evaluations of their counseling competency then the role of the supervisor must

include some behaviors that might result in supervisees seeing supervisors as less

attractive (friendly. flexible. supportive. open. positive. warm). Robbie et. al’s study

talks about similar concept in his study and concludes that attractive supervision style

has a negative relationship with supervisee’s self-evaluation and positive relationship

with practicum experience.

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 37

Summary and Conclusion

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 38

The research has been conducted to study the relationship between supervision

style and perceived self-efficacy of trainee counsellors. It was conducted by using a

quantitative research method where 55 trainee counselors were marked on two

questionnaires, namely Supervision Style Inventory and Counselor Activity Self-

Efficacy Scale. Once the data was obtained, scoring was done and the final data was

entered into SPSS. It was found through the results of Chi – Square analysis that there

is no significant association between supervision style and the three sub-scales of self

– efficacy.

Recommendations

1. The sample was collected from Bangalore; this study can be extended to

other geographical parts of India.

2. Various factors like religion, practicum hours, gender of supervisor and

supervisee etc can be taken into consideration.

3. SSI was asked to be filled by supervisees alone, by collecting the data of

supervisor’s supervision style, the data could be more extensive and a correlation

study can further add to the research pool.

4. Chi – square analysis is sensitive to sample size; therefore, the results may

not come significant. For future research, it is recommended to opt for a larger sample

size.

5. A qualitative analysis of the supervision experience and its effect on self –

efficacy can be further examined for the awareness of the importance of supervision

style.
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 39

Limitations

The principal researcher is aware that any analytic framework of research

investigating quantitative relationships, among and between the variables included in

a study, may result in some inherently unavoidable limitations.

1. Volunteer (Respondent) Indifference: A limitation may be associated with a

poor response rate. Specifically, some potential participants may be indifferent about

sharing their feelings and perceptions about the supervision they received during their

practicum training experience. Notwithstanding, there may be some differences

between those who participate in the study and those who do not. For example, those

who participate may have a specific interest in the topics being investigated and

therefore, may be more willing to complete the instruments necessary for

participation.

2. Sample Size: Sample (subject selection) bias refers to the size of the sample

recruited for the study. The estimated sample size for this study is N=55. However,

the actual number of graduate students who respond and meet the criteria to

participate in the study may fall short.

3. Withdrawal bias: Withdrawal bias occurs when subjects who leave the

study (dropouts) differ significantly from those who remain (Hartman, Forsen,

Wallace, 28 & Neely, 2002). If a significant number of participants withdraw from the

study after having completed the survey documents, the actual number of participants

remaining in the study could decrease. Hence, if the sample size becomes smaller,

such a condition could result in generalizability to others in the population.

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 40

4. Homogeneity of the Sample: Another limitation may be associated with

gender bias in the sample chosen. About 70% of the population is female and taken

from Bangalore city alone, therefore, the results can’t be generalized.

5. Participant Recall/Memory bias. Recall or memory bias could also create a

limitation relative to this study’s focus on participants’ subjective perceptions,

judgments, and biases concerning their supervisors. The nature of the study requires

that participants accurately recall past events – specifically, experiences associated

with their supervisor-supervisee relationship (Hartman, Forsen, Wallace, & Neely,

2002). It is anticipated that the participants will report and recall positive events and

experiences more vividly than negative ones.

6. On line survey recruitment and participation: The decision to use an online

survey method to recruit volunteers for participating in this study, maybe limiting for

some potential participants who may be uncomfortable with the technology involved

in completing the survey measurement instruments online. This methodology may

cause some confidentiality and privacy concerns for some students recruited for the

study, who would prefer to use the mail-in survey method for completing the required

consent and survey instruments. Henceforth, the volunteer response rate may decrease

because of the decline of invitation to participate in the study, may have done

otherwise if they were able to complete and mail their survey measurement

instruments instead.
 SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 41

References

Baumgarten, E., & Roffers, T. (2003). Implementing and Expanding on Carkhuff’s

Training Technology. Journal of Counseling & Development, 81(3), 285–291.
doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2003.tb00255.x
Berger (2012) Supervisory styles, supervision outcome and counselor self-efficacy of
addiction treatment professionals.
Dye, H. & Borders, L., (1990). Counseling Supervisors: Standards for Preparation and
Practice. Journal of Counseling & Development, 69(1), pp.27-29.
Falender, C., (2014). Clinical supervision in a competency-based era. South African
Journal of Psychology, 44(1), pp.6-17.
Fernando, D. M., & Hulse-Killacky, D. (2005). The Relationship of Supervisory Styles
to Satisfaction with Supervision and the Perceived Self-Efficacy of Master’s-Level
Counseling Students. Counselor Education and Supervision, Journal of Supervision
and Education 44(4), 293–304. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6978. 2005.tb01757.x
Friedlander, M.L. & Ward, L.G. (1984). Development and validation of the supervisory
styles inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31 (4), 541-557
Ladany, N., Mori, Y., & Mehr, K. E. (2012). Effective and Ineffective Supervision. The
Counseling Psychologist, 41(1), 28–47. doi:10.1177/0011000012442648
Lent, R., Hill, C. and Hoffman, M., (2003). Development and validation of the
Counselor Activity Self-Efficacy Scales. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50(1),
pp.97-108.
Lorenz, D. C. (2009). Counseling Self-Efficacy and Practicum Students: Contributions
of Supervision.
McCarthy, Amanda K. An Exploration of Supervision Styles within Master's-Level
Rehabilitation Counseling Internships Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling
Vol 47 Issue 1, DOI: 10.1891/0047-2220.47.1.17
Martínez (2014). Preferences for Supervisors’ Characteristics by Hispanic Supervisees.
Nenty, H., (2009). Writing a Quantitative Research Thesis. International Journal of
Educational Sciences, 1(1), pp.19-32. Nenty, H., 2009. Writing a Quantitative
Research Thesis. International Journal of Educational Sciences, 1(1), pp.19-32.
Reese, R., Usher, E., Bowman, D., Norsworthy, L., Halstead, J., Rowlands, S. and
Chisholm, R., (2009). Using client feedback in psychotherapy training: An analysis of
its influence on supervision and counselor self-efficacy. Training and Education in
Professional Psychology, 3(3), pp.157-168.
Sanders Thompson, V., (2005). Supervision Basics for Supervisors and
Supervisees. PsycCRITIQUES, 50(3).
 SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 42

Schaaf, Stephanie M. (2018). Perception of Supervisory Styles and Satisfaction (2018).

Murray State Theses and Dissertations. 108.
Steward, R. J., Breland, A., & Neil, D. M. (2001). Novice Supervisees’ Self-Evaluations
and Their Perceptions of Supervisor Style. Journal of Counselor Education and
Supervision, 41(2), 131–141. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6978. 2001.tb01277.x
Terranova-Nirenberg J. (2013). A quantitative study investigating supervisory style,
satisfaction with supervision and self-efficacy among female clinical training
supervisees. ProQuest
Tangen, J. and Borders, D., (2016). The Supervisory Relationship: A Conceptual and
Psychometric Review of Measures. Counselor Education and Supervision, 55(3),
pp.159-181.
Wan Marzuki & Wan Jaafar et. al (2011). Counseling self-efficacy among trainee
counselor in Malaysia. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 30 (2011) 676 –
679
Watkins, C., 2014. The Wiley International Handbook of Clinical Supervision.
Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 43

Appendix
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 44

APPENDIX A

CONSENT FORM

I, Mahima Thakkar, a student of fourth semester M.Sc. Counseling

Psychology in Montfort College, Bangalore am doing a psychological study on the
"Effect of Supervisory Style on perceived Self Efficacy of Trainee Counselors" under
the supervision and guidance of Mr. Vinod Victor, assistant professor, Montfort
College. I would like you to participate in this study and I require your consent for the
same. If you volunteer to participate, I would require you to fill the response to the
statements in the scale. Note: If you are pursuing M.Sc. in Counselling Psychology
(4th Semester) and belong to the age range of 20 - 40 years, you are eligible to
participate for the current study.
The result of the study will be presented at Bangalore North University during
my exams as a part of partial fulfilment of my course. Your identity will remain
confidential and only group data will be used. Your scores and name will be coded for
follow up study or re - analysing data if need arises.
If you wish to withdraw from the research you may do so at any point without
hesitation. The result of the study will be given to you after the completion of scoring
if you request it. Your identity will be kept confidential and no personal details such
as name, gender, age, and others will be shared with anyone. Therefore, you can feel
safe that you will by no means be harmed through participation in the research study.
Your participation in this research study is voluntary. Thank you for your patience
and time.

Sincerely Yours,
Mahima T
+91 9033100241
mahima01.thakkar@gmail.com

Research Supervisor:
Vinod Victor (Asst. Professor, Department of counselling psychology)
If you have any queries, you can contact him via mail
(Mail ID: vinod.victor@oracaps.com)

If you consent to volunteer in my study, please go to the next section.

SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 45

APPENDIX B

SUPERVISORY STYLES INVENTORY

For trainees’ form: Indicate your perception of the style of your current or

most recent supervisor of psychotherapy/counseling on each of the following

descriptors. Circle the number on the scale, from 1 to 7, that best reflects your view of

him or her.

Not Very
Very

1. Goal-oriented 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. Perceptive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3 Concrete 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4 Explicit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5 Committed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6 Affirming 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7 Practical 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 Sensitive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9 Collaborative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

10 Intuitive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11 Reflective 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12 Responsive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

13 Structured 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

14 Evaluative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

15 Friendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

16 Flexible 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

17 Prescriptive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 46

18 Didactic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

19 Thorough 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

20 Focused 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

21 Creative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

22 Supportive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

23 Open 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

24 Realistic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

25 Resourceful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

26 Invested 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

27 Facilitative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

28 Therapeutic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

29 Positive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

30 Trusting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

31 Informative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

32 Humorous 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

33 Warm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Developed by M.L. Friedlander and L.G. Ward (1984). Used with permission of authors.
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 47

APPENDIX C

Counsellor Activity Self – Efficacy Scale (CASES – G)

General Instruction:
The following questionnaire consists of three parts. Each part asks about your beliefs
about your ability to perform various counselor behavior or to deal with particular
issues in counselling. We are looking for your honest, candid responses that reflect
your beliefs about your current capabilities, rather than how you would like to be seen
or how you might look in the future. There are no right or wrong answers to the
following questions. Following is the marking scheme:
0 - 3 No Confidence
4 - 6 Some Confidence
7 - 9 Complete Confidence

Part I. Instructions: Please indicate how confident you are in your ability to use
each of the following helping skills effectively, over the next week, in counseling
most clients.

No Some Complete
Confidence Confidence Confidence

How confident are you that you could use these

general skills effectively with most clients over
the next week?

1. Attending (orient yourself physically 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

toward the client).

2. Listening (capture and understand the 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

messages
that clients communicate).

3. Restatements (repeat or rephrase what 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

the client has
said, in a way that is succinct, concrete,
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 48

and clear).

4. Open questions (ask questions that 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

help clients to
clarify or explore their thoughts or
feelings).

5. Reflection of feelings (repeat or 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

rephrase the client’s statements with an
emphasis on his or her feelings).

6. Self-disclosure for exploration (reveal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

personal information about your history,
credentials, or feelings).

7. Intentional silence (use silence to 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

allow clients to get in touch with their
thoughts or feelings).

8. Challenges (point out discrepancies, 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

contradictions, defense, or irrational
beliefs of which the client is unaware or
that he or she is unwilling or unable to
change).

9. Interpretations (make statements that 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

go beyond what the client has overtly
stated and that give the client a new way
of seeing his or her behavior, thoughts,
or feelings).

10. Self-disclosures for insight (disclose 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

past experiences in which you gained
some personal insight).

11. Immediacy (disclose immediate 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

feelings you have about the client, the
therapeutic relationship, or yourself in
relation to the client).

12. Information-giving (teach or provide 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

the client with data, opinions, facts,
resources, or answers to questions).

13. Direct guidance (give the client 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

suggestions, directives, or advice that
imply actions for the client to take).

14. Role play and behavior rehearsal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

(assist the client to role-play or rehearse
behaviors in-session).
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 49

15. Homework (develop and prescribe 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

therapeutic assignments for clients to try
out between sessions).

Part II. Instructions: Please indicate how confident you are in your ability to do
each of the following tasks effectively, over the next week, in counseling most
clients.

No Confidence Some Confidence Complete

Confidence

How confident are you that you

could do these specific tasks
effectively with most clients over the
next week?

1. Keep sessions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
“on track” and
focused.

2. Respond with 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
the best helping
skill, depending on
what your client
needs at a given
moment.

3. Help your client 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

to explore his or
her thoughts,
feelings, and
actions.

4. Help your client 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

to talk about his or
her concerns at a
“deep” level.

5. Know what to 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
do or say next after
your client talks.

6. Help your client 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

to set realistic
counseling goals.
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 50

7. Help your client 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

to understand his
or her thoughts,
feelings, and
actions.

8. Build a clear 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
conceptualization
of your client and
his or
her counseling
issues.

9. Remain aware of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
your intentions
(i.e., the purposes
of your
interventions)
during sessions.

10. Help your 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

client to decide
what actions to
take regarding his
or her problems).

Part III. Instructions: Please indicate how confident you are in your ability to
work effectively, over the next week, with each of the following client types,
issues, or scenarios. (By “work effectively,” we are referring to your ability to
develop successful treatment plans, to come up with polished in-session
responses, to maintain your poise during difficult interactions and, ultimately, to
help the client to resolve his or her issues.)

No Confidence Some Confidence Complete

Confidence

How confident are you that you

could work effectively over the next
week with a client who ...

1. ... is clinically 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
depressed.

2. ... has been 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

sexually abused.
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 51

3. ... is suicidal. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4. ... has 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
experienced a
recent traumatic
life event (e.g.,
physical or
psychological
injury or abuse).

5. ... is extremely 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
anxious.

6. ... shows signs 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

of severely
disturbed thinking.

7. ... you find 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

sexually attractive.

8. ... is dealing 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
with issues that
you personally find
difficult to handle.

9. ... has core 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

values or beliefs
that conflict with
your own (e.g.,
regarding religion,
gender roles).

10. ... differs from 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

you in a major way
or ways (e.g., race,
ethnicity, gender,
age, social class).

11. ... is not 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

“psychologically-
minded” or
introspective.

12. ... is sexually 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

attracted to you.

13. ... you have 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

negative reactions
toward (e.g.,
boredom,
SUPERVISION STYLE AND PERCEIVED SELF – EFFICACY 52

annoyance).

14. ... is at an 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
impasse in therapy

15. ... wants more 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

from you than you
are willing to give
(e.g., in terms of
frequency of
contacts or
problem-solving
prescriptions).

16. ... demonstrates 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

manipulative
behaviors in-
session.
Developed by Lent, Hill, & amp; Hoffman (2003). Used with permission of authors.