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ENGINEERING MECHANICS

1 FORCE ANALYSIS & FREE BODY DIAGRAM

1. INTRODUCTION

Engineering mechanics is the branch of science that considers the motion of bodies and the
effects of forces on that motion. It may be divided into two parts
• Statics: Statics deals with the special case of a body at rest or a body that moves with a
constant velocity.
• Dynamics: Dynamics is further divided into Kinematics and Kinetics. Kinematics is
concerned with rates of change of geometrical quantities in a moving system; it does not
involve the concept of force. Kinetics treats the causes and the nature of motion that results
from specified forces.
1.1. BASIC CONCEPTS
• A particle has a mass, but a size that can be neglected. For example, the size of the
earth is insignificant compared to the size of its orbit and thereafter the earth can be
modeled as a particle when studying its orbital motion.
• A rigid body can be considered as a combination of a large number of particles in which
particles remain at a fixed distance from one another both before and after applying a
load.

2. FORCE

An agent which produces or tends to produce, destroy or tends to destroy motion.

SI Unit: Newton (N)
When two or more than two forces of different magnitude and direction act upon a body, they
constitute a system of forces.
Two or more forces that act at the same point are called concurrent forces. Concurrent forces
need not have the same direction. They simply act at the same point. If they do have the same
direction, they are collinear forces.
Two or more forces whose directed arrows lie in the same plane are called coplanar forces.
Since two concurrent forces always lie in a common plane, they are always coplanar. Three or
more concurrent forces are not necessarily coplanar.

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2.1. RESULTANT OF FORCE
It is possible to find a single force which will have the same effect as that of a number of
forces acting on a body. The single force is called resultant force and the process of finding
out the resultant force is called composition of forces. The reverse of the composition of
forces is called resolution of force.
2.2. PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY
The state of rest or of motion of a rigid body is unaltered if a force acting on the body is
replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but acting anywhere on
the body along the line of action of the applied forces.
Example → Force.

Fig:1

3. COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM

3.1. PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES

If two forces, acting simultaneously on a particle, be represented in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, which passes through their point
of intersection, their resultant force is represented, both in magnitude and in direction,
by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn through their point of intersection. Let two
forces P and Q are represented by OP and OQ respectively, two sides of the parallelogram.
Now the parallelogram OPRQ is completed and the resultant is represented by diagonal
OR.

Fig :2
In  ORS

R 2 = (OP + PS) + (RS)

2 2

In  PRS, PS = Q cos  , RS = Q sin 

R2 = (P + Q cos  ) + Q2 sin2 
2

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R2 = P2 + Q2 cos2  + Q2 sin2  + 2PQ cos 

R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos 

( )
12
R = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos 
In  ORS
RS Q sin 
tan  = =
OP + PS P + Q cos 
Q sin 
tan  =
P + Q cos 
EXAMPLE 1
Two forces of 100 N and 150 N are acting simultaneously at a point. What is the resultant of these
two forces, if the angle between them is 45°?
Solution
First force (F1) = 100 N
Second force (F2) = 150 N
Angle between F1 and F2 (θ) = 45°.
We know that the resultant force,
R = F12 + F22 + 2 F1 F2 cos 

= (100) 2 + (150) 2 + 2  100  150 cos 45o N

= 100 000 + 22 500 + (30 000  0.707) N

= 232 N

3.2. ANALYTICAL METHOD

Resolve all forces horizontally, then determine H = algebraic sum of all horizontal
component. Resolve all forces vertically, then determine V = algebraic sum of all vertical
component.

R2 =  H2 +  V2
V
tan  =
H

Fig:3

F = FH2 + FV2 ,
FV
tan  =
FH
EXAMPLE 2

Determine the resultant of a system of four coplanar concurrent forces as shown in fig. by composition

of forces of resolution.

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Fig:4

Solution.

The x and y components of each force are determined by trigonometry as shown in the

table. The x-components act to the right and y-components act upward and are

represented by positive numbers.

Angle with x-components y-components

Force Magnitude(kN)
(x-axis) (F cos θ) (F sin θ)
F1 20 30 17.32 10

F2 30 120 –15 25.98

F3 40 225 –28.28 –28.28

F4 60 300 30 -51.96

ΣFx = 4.04kN ΣFy =– 44.26kN

Thus, the resultant R of the four forces is

R = 4.04i – 44.26j kN

It is resultant to express resultant in simple form instead of i and j form.

The magnitude of the resultant, R = (4.04)2 + (−44.26)2

R = 44.44 kN.

The direction of the resultant

 = tan−1
F y  44.26 
= tan−1  − 
F x  4.04 

 = −84.78

EXAMPLE 3
A system of forces is acting at the corners of a rectangular block as shown in Figure.

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Fig:5
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
Solution
Given
System of forces
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving forces horizontally,
ΣH = 25 – 20 = 5 kN
and now resolving the forces vertically
ΣV = (–50) + (–35) = – 85 kN
 Magnitude of the resultant force

R= (H) 2 + (V) 2 = (5) 2 + (− 85) 2 = 85.15 kN Ans.

Direction of the resultant force

Let θ = Angle which the resultant force makes with the horizontal.
We know that
V − 85
tan  = = = – 17 or θ = - 86.6°
H 5
Since ΣH is positive and ΣV is negative, therefore resultant lies between 270° and 360°.
Thus, actual angle of the resultant force = 360° – 86.6° = 273.4°

EXAMPLE 4
The following forces act at a point (i) 20 N inclined at 30° towards North of East, (ii) 25 N towards
North, (iii) 30 N towards North West, and (iv) 35 N inclined at 40° towards South of West. Find the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
Solution
The system of given forces is shown in Fig.

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Fig:6
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving all the forces horizontally i.e., along East-West line,
ΣH = 20 cos 30° + 25 cos 90° + 30 cos 135° + 35 cos 220° N
= (20 × 0.866) + (25 × 0) + 30(– 0.707) + 35(– 0.766) N
= – 30.7 N ...(i)
and now resolving all the forces vertically i.e., along North-South line,
ΣV = 20 sin 30° + 25 sin 90° + 30 sin 135° + 35 sin 220° N
= (20 × 0.5) + (25 × 1.0) + (30 × 0.707) + 35 (– 0.6428) N
= 33.7 N ...(ii)
We know that magnitude of the resultant force,

R= (H)2 + (V )2 = (− 30.7)2 + (33.7) 2 = 45.6 N

Direction of the resultant force

Let θ = Angle, which the resultant force makes with the East.
We know that
V 33.7
tan  = = = – 1.098 or θ = 47.7°
H − 30.7
Since ΣH is negative and ΣV is positive, therefore resultant lies between 90° and 180°.
Thus, actual angle of the resultant = 180° – 47.7° = 132.3°

3.3. TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES

If two forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented in magnitude and direction
by two sides of a triangle in order, then the third side will represent the resultant of the
two forces in the direction and magnitude taken in opposite order.

3.4. POLYGON LAW OF FORCES

When the forces acting on a body are more than two, the triangle law can be extended
to polygon law. Polygon Law states that if a number of coplanar concurrent forces acting
simultaneously on a body are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a

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polygon, taken in order, then their resultant can be represented by closing side of the
polygon in magnitude and direction in the opposite order.
Consider the forces F1 , F2 , F3 and F4 are acting at a point O as shown in Fig. Starting from

the point O, the vector OA represents the force F1 in magnitude (using suitable scales)

and direction. From the tip A, draw vector AB representing the force F2 . Similarly, vector

BC represents the force F3 and vector and vector CD represents force F4 . Join the starting

point O to the end point D giving a vector OD in opposite order. Vector OD represents the
resultant force R = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 in magnitude and direction as shown in Fig. From the

triangle law of forces

Fig:7
R1 = F1 + F2 ,

R2 = R1 + F3 = (F1 + F2 ) + F3 ,

R = R2 + R 4 = (F1 + F2 + F3 ) + F4

R = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4

EXAMPLE 5

A particle is acted upon by three forces equal to 50 N, 100 N and 130 N, along the three sides of an

equilateral triangle, taken in order Find graphically the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

Solution

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The system of given forces is shown in Fig. First of all, name the forces according to

Bow’s notations as shown in Fig. The 50 N force is named as ab, 100 N force as bc and

130 N force as cd.

Fig:8

Now draw the vector diagram for the given system of forces as shown in Fig and as

discussed below:

• Select some suitable point a and draw ab equal to 50 N to some suitable scale and

parallel to the 50 N force of the space diagram.

• Through b, draw be equal to 100 N to the scale and parallel to the 100 N force of the

space diagram.

• Similarly, through c, draw cd equal to 130 N to the scale and parallel to the 130 N

force of the space diagram.

• Join ad, which gives the magnitude as well as direction of the resultant force.

• By measurement, we find the magnitude of the resultant force is equal to 70 N and

acting at an angle of 200° with ab.

NOTE: All above methods are different forms of addition of vectors as force is a vector.

4. NON-COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM

4.1. RESOLUTION AND RESULTANT OF FORCE IN SPACE

Consider a force F acting at the origin O of the system of rectangular coordinates x, y, z
as shown in Fig. The direction of force F is defined by three angles x , y , and 2 . Let

Fx ,Fy , and Fz be the components of force F in x, y, and z directions, respectively. From

the triangle OAB

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OB Fx
cos x = = ,
OA F

Fig:9
component of F along .x-direction F4 = F cos x

OC Fy
From the triangle OAC cos y = = ,
OA F
component of F along y-direction Fy = F cos x

OC Fz
From the triangle OAD cos x = = ,
OA F
component of F along z-direction Fz = F cos z

The cosines of x , y and  z are known as the direction cosine of the force F. The angles

x , y and  z are not independent, they are related as cos2 x + cos2 y + cos2 z = 1 . We

may express F in the vector form

F = Fxi + Fy j + Fxk
When the components Fx ,Fy and Fz of the force F are given, the magnitude of force F is

F = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2

and direction of force
F   Fy  −1  Fz 
x = cos−1  x −1
 , y = cos   , and z = cos  
F  F
  F

5. MOMENTS

The turning effect produced by a force, on the body, on which it acts.

Moment M = F X L SI Unit: Nm
Where
F = Force acting on the body, and
L = Perpendicular distance of the point, about which the moment is determined and the line
of action of the force. Force F and position vector r in rectangular components may be written
as
F = Fxi + Fy j + Fzk

r = xi + yj + zk

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Thus,
i j k
Mo = r  F = x y z
Fx Fy Fz

( ) ( )
Mo = i yFz − zFy − ( xFz − zFx ) j + xFy − yFx k

In case of problems involving only two dimensions, the force F may be assumed to lie in the
xy-plane. Carrying z = 0 and Fz = 0 , we obtain

(
Mo = xFy − yFx k )
Just as force has a tendency to translate the body, moment has a tendency to rotate the
body about the point.
5.1. DIRECTIONS OF MOMENTS
Clockwise Moment whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, in the same direction in
which the hands of clock move. Anticlockwise Moment whose effect is to turn or rotate
the body, in the opposite direction in which the hands of clock move.
5.1.1. DETERMINATION OF DIRECTIONS
Assume perpendicular distance as hand of clock. Keep the point (one end of perpendicular
distance), about which the moment is to be determined, hinged like hinged end of hands
of a clock. Move the other end of perpendicular distance in the direction of action of force.

Fig:10
1. Anticlockwise
2. Clockwise
3. Clockwise
5.2. VARIGNON’S THEOREM
Moment of a force about any point is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of the
components of that force about the same point.

Fig:11

Mo = F cos   R 2 − F sin   R1

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5.3. Couples
The moment produced by two equal, opposite and non-collinear forces is called couple.
It does not produce any translation but produces only rotation. The resultant force of a
couple is zero. The moment of a couple is the product of the magnitude of one of the
forces and the perpendicular distance between their lines of action Fig.

Fig:12
M = F ( a + d) − Fa

M = Fd
The magnitude of the moment of a couple is the same for all points in the plane of the
couple. A couple may be moved anywhere in its plane or a parallel plane without changing
its external effect. The magnitude of a couple is independent of the reference point, and
its tendency to create a rotation will remain constant.
Consider the couple consisting of forces +F and −F acting at points A and B as
shown in Fig Denoting by rA and rB , respectively, the position vectors of the points A and

B, we find that the sum of the moments of the two forces about O is

Fig:13
M = rA  F + rB  ( −F ) = (rA − rB )  F

Let r = rA + rB ,

Moment of couple M = r  F

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Direction of couple M is perpendicular to the plane containing the two forces.
Magnitude of couple, M = fF sin  = Fd
M = Fd ,
where d is the distance between the lines of action of +F and F

6. FORCE-COUPLE SYSTEM

6.1. RESOLUTION OF A FORCE INTO A FORCE AND A COUPLE

Consider a force F acting on rigid body at point A defined by the position vector r as shown in
Figure No dynamical affects are produced by adding self-equilibrating forces +F and –F at
another point C as shown in figure The force F at A and the force –F at point O constitute a
couple Mo = r  F . Thus, the force F at point A is transferred to point O, and a couple Mo is

introduced a shown in Figure . This type of combination of the force F and the couple M is
called force couple system.

Fig:14
Similarly, any number of forces F1 ,F2 ,F3 , that act on a body may be transferred to a common

point, provided that the couple r1  F1 ,F2  F2 ,r3  F3 , are introduced Fig. The vector

respectively. The forces F1 ,F2 ,F3 , are now concurrent at point O, and their resultant

R = F1 + F2 + F3 , and the resultant couple Mo = r1  F1  +r2  F2 + r3  F3 +

Fig:15

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6.2. REDUCTION OF FORCE-COUPLE SYSTEM TO SINGLE FORCE

The fore-couple system of O may be replaced by a single force R acting along a new line of

action R and Mo are mutually perpendicular Fig. It is applicable in coplanar force system.

Fig:16

7. CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM

The term equilibrium implies that either the body is at rest or it moves with a constant velocity.

A body is said to be in static equilibrium when the resultant force in it must be zero and the

body must have no tendency to rotate.

The resultant force causing motion should be zero.

i.e. F = 0. It means that H = 0 And V = 0.

The resultant moment causing rotation should be zero.

i.e. M = 0 about any point.

7.1. FREE BODY DIAGRAM

One of the most useful aids for soling a statics problem is the free body diagram (FBD). A free
body diagram is a sketch of the body that shows the body (by itself, free of the other part of
the system) and all the forces applied to it, that is, all forces acting on the body. Fig shows free
body diagrams.

Fig:17
EXAMPLE 6
Two like parallel forces of 50 N and 100 N act at the ends of a rod 360 mm length. Fluid the magnitude
of the resultant force and the point where it acts.
Solution

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Given
The system of given forces is shown in Fig.

Fig:18
Magnitude of the resultant force
Since the given forces are like and parallel, therefore magnitude of the resultant force,
R = 50+ 100 = 150 N Ans.
Point where the resultant force acts
Let x = Distance between the line of action of the resultant force (R) and A (i.e. AC) in
mm.
Now taking clockwise and anticlockwise moments of the forces about C and equating
the same,
50 × x = 100 (360 – x) = 36 000 – 100 x
or 150x = 36 000
36 000
 x = = 240 mm Ans.
150

EXAMPLE 7
A thin ring of weight 100N and radius 300mm is held against a smooth wall by a 200mm long string
AB Fig. Determine (a) the tension in the string and (b) the reaction at C.

Fig:19
Solution
A free body diagram of ring is drawn as shown in Fig. The forces acting on the ring are
its weight mg, reaction Rc, and tension T of string. For the equilibrium, these three forces
should pass through a common point O.
Summing forces vertically, we have,

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Fig:20

F y = 0  T sin  − 100 = 0

T sin θ = 100
100 100
T = =
sin  400 / 500
And tension of string = T = 125 N
Summing forces horizontally, we have

F x = 0  T cos  − Rc = 0

Rc = T cos θ
300
R c = 125 
500
Rc = 75 N

EXAMPLE 8
Determine the force P required to begin rolling a uniform cylinder of mass m over the obstruction of
height h as shown in fig.

Fig:21
Solution
A free body diagram of cylinder, when the cylinder is about to turn over the corner of the
obstruction, is shown in Fig. Cylinder is in equilibrium under the action of the following
three forces:

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Fig:22
1. weight mg acting vertically downward
2. reaction RA of the point A. The direction of R A is unknown
3. horizontal force P.
For the equilibrium, these three forces should pass through a common point, hence
reaction RA must pass through the point O.
Resolving forces horizontally, we get

F x = 0  P − R A cos  = 0

 OD r − h 2rh − h2 
 sin  = = , cos  = 1 − sin2  = 
 OA r r 
 

2rh − h2
P = RA
r
Resolving forces vertically, we have

F y = 0  R A sin  − mg + R = 0

Cylinder is about to turn over obstruction; R = 0

mg = RA sin θ

r − h
mg = R A  
 r 
Eliminating RA from Equations (i) and (ii), we obtain

P 2rh − h2
=
mg r −h

2rh − h2
P = mg
r −h
Method of Moments
This problem can also be solved by taking moments of all the three forces about point A.

M A = 0  P  AB = mg  AD

P  (OC − CD) = mg  OA2 − OD2

P  (r − h) = mg  r 2 − (r − h)2

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2rh − h2
P = mg 
r −h
EXAMPLE 9
A uniform bar with end rollers has a mass of 50 kg and is supported by horizontal and vertical surfaces
and by the wire CD Fig. Determine the tension T in the wire and reaction against the rollers at A and
B.

Fig:23
Solution
A free body diagram of the bar is drawn as shown in Fig. The reaction at each roller is
perpendicular to the surface. T is the tension in wire and 490.5 N is the weight of bar
which acts at the centre G. Note that there are three unknown R A, RB and T which may
be found from the three equations of equilibrium. Summing forces horizontally, we get

Fig:24
Summing forces vertically, we have

F y = 0  R A − 50(9.81) = 0

R A = 50  9.81 = 490.5 N
RA = 490.5 N
Now, taking moment about A

M A
= 0  950.5  AF + T  DE − RB  BE = 0

950.5 × (1.5 cos 60) + T × (1 sin 60) – T × (3 sin 30) = 0

367.8 + 0.866T – 1.5T = 0
From which, we get

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T = 367.80/0.634 = 580.2 N
T = 580.2 N
RA = T = 580.2 N
EXAMPLE 10
Two smooth cylinders, each of weight 1000 N and radius 250 mm are connected at their centres by a
string of length 800 mm and rest upon a horizontal plane, supporting above a third cylinder of weight
2000 N and radius 250 mm as shown in Fig. Find the tension of string and reactions at all contact
points of cylinder B.

Fig:25
Solution
A free body diagram of each cylinder is drawn as shown in Fig. in its relative position to
the others. We begin with cylinder A.

Fig:26
An equilibrium of vertical forces requires,

F y = 0  RD sin  + RE sin  − 2000 = 0

2RD sin θ = 2000

[RE = RD]
2000
RD =
sin 

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 AH 5002 − 4002 3 4
Sin = = =  cos  = 
 AB 500 5 5 

1000 5000
RD = = N
3 3
5
5000
RD = RE = N
3
Equilibrium of Cylinder B

Fig:27
Equilibrium of horizontal forces requires [ Fig.]

F x = 0  T − RD cos  = 0

5000 4
T = RD cos  = 
3 5
4000
T= N
3
Equilateral of vertical forces requires

F y = 0  RG − 1000 − RD sin  = 0

5000 3
RG − 1000 −  =0
3 5
RG = 2000N

RG = RE = 2000N

8. LAMI’S THEOREM

If three coplanar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, then each force is proportional to

sine of the smaller angle Between other two forces.

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Fig:28

Here P, Q & R are the three coplanar forces and , ,  are three angles

According to Lami’s theorem

P Q R
= =
sin  sin  sin 
EXAMPLE 11
A string ABCD, attached to fixed points A and D has two equal weights of 1000 N attached to it at B
and C. The weights rest with the portions AB and CB inclined at angles as shown in Fig

Fig:29
Find the tensions in the portions AB, BC and CD of the string, if the inclination of the portion BC with
the vertical is 120°.
Solution
Given
Load at B = Load at C = 1000 N
For the sake of convenience, let us split up the string ABCD into two parts. The system
of forces at joints B and is shown in Fig.

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Fig:30
Let TAB = Tension in the portion AB of the string,
TBC = Tension in the portion BC of the string, and
TCD = Tension in the portion CD of the string.
Applying Lami’s equation at joint B,
TAB TBC 1000
o
= o
=
sin 60 sin150 sin150o

TAB
sin 60 o
=
TBC
sin 30 o
=
1000
sin 30o
 ( ) 
….  sin 180o −  = sin 

1000 sin 60o 1000  0.866

TAB = o
= = 1732 N
sin 30 0.5
1000 sin 30o
TBC = = 1000 N
sin 30o
Again, applying Lami’s equation at joint C,
TBC TC D 1000
o
= o
=
sin 120 sin 120 sin 120o
1000 sin 120o
 TC D = = 1000N Ans.
sin 120o

****

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