i

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
NO TITTLE NO

ABSTRACT ix
LIST OF FIGURES vii
NOMENCLATURE viii
1. INTRODUCATION 1

2. LITERATURE SURVEY 3
2.1 Wind energy conversion system 3
2.2 General study-state analysis 4
2.3 Reducing power imbalance 5
2.4 Hardware and control 6
2.5 Power quality improvement 7
2.6 Future smart grid 8
2.7 Electric spring concept 9
2.8 Enhancing power quality 10
2.9 Dynamic modeling 11
2.10 Steady-state analysis 12

3. LITERATURE STUDY 13
3.1 Existing system 13
3.2 Proposed system 15
3.2.1 Control Block with δ Control 16
3.3 Block diagram 17
3.4 Electric springs 17

iii
 3.5 ES in a smart load 18

4. SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT 21
4.1 MATLAB 2014 21
4.1.1 MATLAB’S power of computational 21
4.2 Features of MATLAB 22
4.2.1 Following are the basic feature 22
4.2.2 Uses of MATLAB 23
4.3 Simulink 23
4.3.1 Simulation and model-based design 23
4.3.2 Key features 23
4.3.3 Tool for model-based design 23
4.3.4 Tool for simulation 24
4.3.5 Tool for analysis 25
4.4 Simulation results 25
4.5 Hardware circuit diagram 28

5. ARDUINO UNO 29
5.1 Arduino board 30
5.1.1 Specification 31
5.1.2 Communication 31
5.1.3 Pins general pin 32
5.1.4 Special pin 33
5.2 Liquid crystal display 35
5.3 Current sensor 35
5.3.1 Alternating current input 35
5.3.2 Direct current input 36
5.4 Technologies 37

iv
 5.5 12V / 1.5Ah Battery 37
5.5.1 Battery charger 38
5.5.2 Power capacity and power capability 39
5.6 Operating instructions 39
5.7 Reverse battery/output protect condition 40
5.8 Transformer 41
5.9 Bridge rectifier 44
5.10 Regulator 45
5.11 MOSFET (IRFZ44N) 46
5.12 Crystal oscillator 47
5.13 Rectifier 50
5.14 Inverter 52
5.15 Resistor 54
5.16 Ferrite core inductor 55
5.17 Optocoupler TLP250H 58
5.18 Step-Down transformer 60
7 Conclusion 63
Reference 64

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITTLE PAGE

NO NO
3.1 The proposed ES with CI 16
3.2 Equivalent circuit 16
3.3 Block diagram 17
3.4 Circuit diagram for electric spring control 18
3.5 Use of ES in electric system 20
4.1 Simulation results 25
4.2 Voltage across the critical load condition 26
4.3 Voltage across the non-critical load condition 27
4.4 Hardware circuit diagram 28
5.1 Arduino ide board 31
5.2 LCD display unit 33
5.3 IC sensor 36
5.4 Transformer 40
5.5 Bridge rectifier 41
5.6 Smoothing 42
5.7 Power supply unit 43
5.8 Negative voltage regulator 45
5.9 Symbol of MOSFET 46
5.10 Crystal oscillator 47
5.11 Voltage regulator 49
5.12 Ferrite core inductor 54
5.13 Optocoupler 55
5.14 Pin diagram 56
5.18 Heat sink 62

vi
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

RES - Renewable energy source

HVDC –High voltage direct

current ESS -Energy storage

system LCD -Liquid

Crystal Display LED

-Light Emitting Diode

IDE -Integrated Development Environment

ADC -Analog to Digital Converter

DAC -Digital to Analog Converter

PWM -Pulse width modulation

vii
 ABSTRACT

A novel control strategy of direct current control and harmonic

suppression function, similar as the control of active power filter (APF), is
proposed using a new type of electric springs(ESs) with current-source inverters
(CSIs) to improve the performances of ESs. Compared to the existing control
methods, total harmonic distortion (THD) can be reduced greatly by changing
voltage-source inverters (VSIs) to CSIs and also by replacing voltage control
with direct current control. System performance can also be improved further by
an additional harmonic suppression function, of which the control is similar as
APF where the input current is separated into fundamental part and other
components with the help of the single-phase dq0transformation. The concept of
ESs can also be interpreted more clearly by the proposed direct current control.
Operating principles of the proposed ES and control are well illustrated. The
effectiveness of the control strategy has been validated by the simulation
results.

viii
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The role of demand side management is going to be critical once the

penetration of renewable energy sources becomes significant. This would bring
about a paradigm shift from the traditional centralized control of hundreds of
power plants to match the demand to decentralized control of millions of loads
to balance the supply (generation). Although the concept is well understood and
demonstrated for small prototypes (e.g., a smart refrigerator), the challenge is to
coordinate the contribution from millions of loads to achieve a desired goal at
the system level e.g., overall frequency regulation. The techniques reported in
the literature mostly rely on remote communication. The use of “Electric
Springs” has recently been proposed as a novel and simple way of distributed
voltage control while simultaneously enabling effective demand-side
management without any need for communication.

This is achieved through modulation of noncritical loads in response to

the fluctuations in intermittent renewable energy sources (e.g., wind). Electric
springs (ES) inject a controllable voltage in series with the so called noncritical
loads (which are less sensitive to voltage fluctuations) in order to regulate the
voltage across the critical (voltage sensitive) loads. Thus, alongside voltage
control, the power consumed by the noncritical load is modulated according to
the input power resulting in frequency regulation. Unlike a dynamic voltage
restorer (DVR) which is installed in series in the distribution line, an ES is
connected in series with the noncritical load with a single point of connection to
the distribution network.

The impending energy crisis and environmental issues require that

substantial renewable energy sources should be included in the future as either

1
centralized power mills or distributed generators. Due to the dynamically
changing nature of renewable energy sources, this foreseeable major change in
power grid demands sophisticated control methodologies and a new discipline
of management strategies. Smart grids based on modern power electronics and
telecommunication technologies have been proposed as a promising solution.
To cope with the variability and uncertainty of renewable energy sources, new
methods for load management are required.

Among various methods for load management, the electric spring (ES),
which is based on power electronics technology, can instantaneously balance
the power consumption and generation. This technique has the advantage over
existing demand side management and energy storage solutions

i) it can control the load to reduce the fluctuation of the generator.

ii) it can flatten the voltage fluctuation caused by unstable power
generation in real time.

The first generation of ES is presented. Based on Hooke’s law, the ES

can handle reactive power to stabilize line voltage for critical loads. of energy
storage by up to 50%. The potential of ES is further discovered. By replacing
capacitors with batteries on the DC side, the ES possesses more diverse
operating modes which can provide both real and reactive power
compensations.

2
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 TITLE : A Review of the State of the Art of Generators and Power
Electronics for Wind Energy Conversion Systems
AUTHOR : Syed Naime Mohammad
YEAR 2013

DESCRIPTION
Energy is the most fundamental sector for the progression of a nation.
The production of energy is going on from many years for the need of energy in
all around the world but the true scenario is that the whole world is currently
facing dreadful energy crisis in spite of numerous energy sources. So the
production, distribution and the use of the energy should be as technological
efficient as possible and incentives to save energy at the end-user should be set
up. Two major technologies will play important roles to solve the future
problems. One is to change the electrical power production sources from the
conventional, fossil (and short term) based energy sources to renewable energy
resources. The other is to use high efficient power electronics in power systems,
power production and end- user application. This paper discusses trends of the
most emerging renewable energy source, wind energy. With rapid development
of wind power technologies and significant growth of worldwide installed
capacity of wind power, wind energy conversion system has become a focal
point in the research of renewable energy sources.

3
2.2 TITLE : General Steady-State Analysis and Control Principle of Electric
Springs with Active and Reactive Power Compensations
AUTHOR : Siew-Chong Tan
YEAR 2013

DESCRIPTION
It provides a general analysis on the steady state behavior and control
principles of a recently proposed concept of “electric springs” that can be
integrated into electrical appliances to become a new generation of smart loads.
The discussion here is focused on how different real and/or reactive load powers
can be canceled or altered using the electric springs. Mathematical derivations
supporting the theoretical framework of the concept are detailed in the paper.
Experimental results validate the theoretical discussions and solutions proposed.
It is demonstrated that the electric spring is capable of providing different types
of power/voltage compensations to the load and the source. A general analysis
on the steady-state behavior of the ES for different active and/or reactive power
compensations of an ac power system is provided. Mathematical derivations
supporting the theoretical framework of the concept and various control
equations of the ES for the various possible types of power compensation are
given. It is illustrated that for a typical load of resistive, inductive, or capacitive
nature, there are eight possible types of power (voltage) compensation which
the ES can support. Experimental results are in good agreement with the
theoretical analysis and derivations. This is the first detailed analysis covering
the fundamental principles and operating modes of the ESs. It lays down the
theoretical platform for future exploration of the application potential of ESs.

4
2.3 TITLE : Electric Springs for Reducing Power Imbalance in Three-Phase
Power Systems
AUTHOR : Shuo Yan
YEAR 2014

DESCRIPTION
Electric springs have been used previously in stabilizing mains voltage
fluctuation in power grid fed by intermittent renewable energy sources. This
paper describes a new three-phase electric spring circuit and its new operation
in reducing power imbalance in the three-phase power system of a building.
Based on government energy use data for tall buildings, the electric loads are
classified as critical and non-critical loads so that building energy model can be
developed. The proposed electric spring is connected in series with the non-
critical loads to form a new generation of smart loads. A control scheme for
such smart loads to reduce power imbalance within the building’s electric power
system has been evaluated initially with an experimental prototype and then in a
system simulation study. The results have confirmed the effectiveness of the
new three-phase electric springs in reducing power imbalance and voltage
fluctuation, making the building loads adaptive to internal load changes and
external mains voltage changes. A new three-phase electric spring circuit is
introduced into the three- phase power system of a building’s electric power
infrastructure for reducing power imbalance. This is the first study of its kind
for smart or adaptive building energy usage. The use of electric springs and
non-critical loads can form a new generation of smart load that is adaptive to
future power supply with intermittent renewable energy sources. The ability of
reducing power imbalance in the three- phase system using the three-phase ES
has been experimentally verified.

5
2.4 TITLE : Hardware and Control Implementation of Electric Springs for
Stabilizing Future Smart Grid with Intermittent Renewable
Energy Sources
AUTHOR : Chi Kwan Lee
YEAR 2013

DESCRIPTION
The details of practical circuit and control implementation of an electric
spring for reactive power compensation and voltage regulation of the ac mains
are presented. With Hooke’s law published three centuries ago, power
electronics-based reactive power controllers are turned into electric springs
(ESs) for regulating the ac mains of a power grid. The proposed ES has inherent
advantages of: 1) ensuring dynamic load demand to follow intermittent power
generation and 2) being able to regulate the voltage in the distribution network
of the power grid where numerous small-scale intermittent renewable power
sources are connected. Therefore, it offers a solution to solve the voltage
fluctuation problems for future power grids with substantial penetration of
intermittent renewable energy sources without relying on information and
communication technology. The proof-of-concept hardware is successfully built
and demonstrated in a 10-kVA power system fed by wind energy for improving
power system stability. The ES is found to be effective in supporting the mains
voltage, despite the fluctuations caused by the intermittent nature of wind
power. This paper describes the hardware and control implementation of an ES
to form a smart load unit. The control method for the ES for reactive power
compensation and mains voltage regulation was proposed and realized by a
digital controller. The performance of the ES was analyzed and practically
evaluated in a 90-kVA electric power grid. The voltage fluctuation of the power
grid was created by a 10-kVA renewable energy source simulator.

6
2.5 TITLE : Electric Spring for Power Quality Improvement
AUTHOR : Yan Shuo
YEAR 2014

DESCRIPTION
The principles of operating the electric spring (ES) as a reactive power
compensator and as a power factor corrector. The theory on electric springs with
capacitors for voltage stabilization is reviewed to present a general idea on the
behavior of ES. Further discussion focuses on the principle of ES with batteries
to cover its eight possible operating modes and their usefulness in providing line
current regulation. An input current control scheme is designed for ES with
batteries to validate its capability in power factor correction. A low-voltage
single-phase power system with different types of loads has been built for
verifying the feasibility of proposed theory of ES with batteries. Experimental
results show that the ES is capable of performing the eight operating modes
when changing the power consumption of the non-critical load, and that with
the proposed input current control, the ES can achieve power factor correction
for both RL and RC loads. The impending energy crisis and environmental
issues require that substantial renewable energy sources should be included in
the future as either centralized power mills or distributed generators. Due to the
dynamically changing nature of renewable energy sources, this foreseeable
major change in power grid demands sophisticated control methodologies and a
new discipline of management strategies. Smart grids based on modern power
electronics and telecommunication technologies have been proposed as
apromising solution. To cope with the variability and uncertainty of renewable
energy sources, new methods for load management are required.

7
2.6 TITLE : Reduction of Energy Storage Requirements in Future Smart Grid
Using Electric Springs
AUTHOR : Chi Kwan Lee
YEAR 2013

DESCRIPTION
The electric spring is an emerging technology proven to be effective in i)
stabilizing smart grid with substantial penetration of intermittent renewable
energy sources and ii) enabling load demand to follow power generation. The
subtle change from output voltage control to input voltage control of a reactive
power controller offers the electric spring new features suitable for future smart
grid applications. In this project, the effects of such subtle control change are
highlighted, and the use of the electric springs in reducing energy storage
requirements in power grid is theoretically proven and practically demonstrated
in an experimental setup of a 90 kVA power grid. Unlike traditional State com
and StaticVar Compensation technologies, the electric spring offers not only
reactive power compensation but also automatic power variation in non-critical
loads. Such an advantageous feature enables noncritical loads with embedded
electric springs to be adaptive to future power grid. Consequently, the load
demand can follow power generation, and the energy buffer and therefore
energy storage requirements can be reduced. The differences between the output
voltage control and the input voltage control of a reactive power controller are
highlighted. While energy storage is an effective but expensive means to
balance power supply and demand, an analysis and practical confirmation are
presented to show that electric springs can reduce energy storage requirements
in a power grid. Electric springs allow the non-critical load power to vary with
the renewable energy profile.

8
2.7 TITLE : Use of Hooke’s Law for Stabilizing Future Smart Grid– The
Electric Spring Concept
AUTHOR : C.K. Lee
YEAR 2013

DESCRIPTION
Hooke’s law for mechanical springs was developed in the 17th century.
Recently, new power electronics devices named “electric springs” have been
developed for providing voltage regulation for distribution networks and
allowing the load demand to follow power generation. This paper summarizes
recent R&D on electric springs and their potential functions for future smart
grid. Electric springs can be associated with electric appliances, forming a new
generation of smart loads which can adapt according to the availability of power
from renewable energy sources. When massively distributed over the power
grid, they could provide highly distributed and robust support for the smart grid,
similar to the arrays of mechanical springs supporting a mattress. Thus, the 3-
century old Hooke’s law in fact provides a powerful solution to solving some
key Smart Grid problems in the 21stCentury.The intermittent nature of
renewable power generation has been identified as a key factor that destabilizes
power grid. Such instability problem is expected to deteriorate as the amount of
intermittent renewable power generation increases. It must be stressed that
power system stability must be considered for the design and control of grid
connected power inverters. In this paper, the recent research and development of
the electric spring technology is summarized. The electric spring concept is
proposed to tame the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources such as
wind and solar power.

9
2.8 TITLE : Enhancing Power Quality and Stability of Future Smart Grid with
Intermittent Renewable Energy Sources Using Electric Springs
AUTHOR : Parag Kanjiya
YEAR 2013

DESCRIPTION
The concept of “electric spring” is recently proposed to enhance the
stability of smart grid with intermittent renewable energy sources. Electric
springs can be integrated into the non-critical electrical loads to form smart
loads. The smart load has the characteristics of (i) following intermittent power
generation by changing its load demand dynamically and (ii)regulating the
voltage at the point in distribution system where itis connected. Therefore, it is
projected as futuristic device to mitigate voltage fluctuation problems in future
smart grid where large number of small scale intermittent renewable energy
sources are connected. However, further research has shown that the full
capability of smart loads has not been explored. Due to the presence of power
electronic converter in smart load, it also has the potential of improving power
quality of the supply voltage by reducing voltage harmonics. In this paper, an
enhanced control algorithm for smart load is proposed to add the feature of
improving power quality of the supply voltage over and above aforementioned
characteristics. The new approach to achieve demand-side management using
smart load composed of electric spring and non-critical load is demonstrated. It
is shown that the smart load has the capability to improve the power quality of
the voltage across the critical loads over and above its traditional voltage
stabilizing function. To achieve this dual functionality, a new control algorithm
for the electric spring using multiple resonant controllers and second order
generalized integrator is proposed in this paper.

10
2.9 TITLE : Dynamic Modeling of Electric Springs
AUTHOR : Nilanjan Ray Chaudhuri
YEAR 2014

DESCRIPTION
The use of “Electric Springs” is a novel way of distributed voltage control
while simultaneously achieving effective demand-side management through
modulation of noncritical loads in response to the fluctuations in intermittent
renewable energy sources (e.g., wind). The proof-of-concept has been
successfully demonstrated on a simple 10-kVA test system hardware. However,
to show the effectiveness of such electric springs when installed in large
numbers across the power system, there is a need to develop simple and yet
accurate simulation models for these electric springs which can be incorporated
in large- scale power system simulation studies. This paper describes the
dynamic simulation approach for electric springs which is appropriate for
voltage and frequency control studies at the power system level. The proposed
model is validated by comparing the simulation results against the experimental
results. Close similarity between the simulation and experimental results gave
us the confidence to use this electric spring model for investigating the
effectiveness of their collective operation when distributed in large number
across a power system. Effectiveness of an electric spring under unity and non-
unity load power factors and different proportions of critical and noncritical
loads is also demonstrated. The electric spring is a new technology that has
attractive features including dynamic voltage regulation, balancing power
supply and demand power quality improvement, distributed power
compensation , and reducing energy storage requirements for future smart grid.
In order to fully explore their full potentials in large-scale power system
simulation, an averaged simulation model for the electric spring is proposed
here for the smart grid research community.

11
2.10 TITLE: Steady-State Analysis of Electric Springs with a Novel δ Control
AUTHOR : Qingsong Wang
YEAR 2015

DESCRIPTION
A novel control strategy is proposed for the recent proposed electric
springs (ESs), which are connected in series with non-critical loads to form
smart loads for enhancing stability of smart grid with renewable energy sources.
δ control is the key concept in this paper, which is realized by controlling the
phase angle of the predefined reference in a PR (Proportional Resonant)
controller. Four critical operating functions of the ESs are analyzed with
different critical loads such as resistive, inductive and capacitive types, where
vector diagrams and geometric relationships are explored for δ calculation with
which the ac mains voltage is regulated to the predefined value and the phase
angle between the ES voltage and current is determined. With the proposed δ
control, the operating modes of the ES can also be determined automatically as
the input voltage varies. Operating limitations and constraints of the ESs and
guidelines on how to distribute the ESs in the distributed systems are provided
with δ control. Both simulation and experiment are carried out to verify the
effectiveness of the proposed control strategy and theoretical analysis for the
ESs. A novel control strategy, called δ control, has been proposed for the ESs
and the steady-state analysis with different types of critical loads such as
resistive, capacitive and inductive has been presented. By controlling a single
parameter δ which contains all the control information for the reference of a PR
controller, the critical load voltage is regulated to the predefined reference and
different power compensation functions of the ESs can be achieved.

12
 CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE STUDY

3.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

With increasing penetration of intermittent and distributed renewable energy

sources such as wind and solar power, there has been rising concern on power
system stability. To address those issues, many demand-side management
techniques have been proposed to ensure the balance between power generation
and consumption. Such techniques include: i) scheduling of delay-tolerant
power demand tasks; ii) use energy storage to compensate peak demand; iii)
real-time pricing; iv) direct load control or on-off control of smart load. Energy
storage is a valid solution to cope with the instantaneous balance between power
supply and demand. However, costs and limited energy storage capacity of
batteries are practical issues. Therefore, new solutions that can reduce energy
storage are preferred. Electric Spring (ES) is a new smart grid technology that
can provide electric active suspension functions for voltage and frequency
stability in a distributed manner for future smart grid. Based on Hooke’s law,
ES has been practically realized with power electronic circuits for improving
both voltage and frequency stability in micro-grid hardware simulator. The
same functions for voltage and frequency stability have also been successfully
evaluated in a simulation study for a So far, three versions of ES have been
conceived.

In the fundamental working principles and practical implementation of

the first generation of ES (i.e. ES-1) with capacitive storage have been reported.
By working under inductive and capacitive mode, ES-1 is capable of regulating
the mains voltage to its nominal value in the presence of intermittent power
injected into the power grid. With input voltage control, ES can work with non-
critical loads that have high tolerance of voltage fluctuation (e.g. with operating
voltage range from 180 V to 265 V for a nominal mains voltage of 220 V).
13
Examples of

14
the non-critical loads are thermal loads such as ice-thermal storage systems,
electric water heater systems, air-conditioning systems and some public lighting
systems. The first version of ES provides only reactive power compensation for
mains voltage regulation and simultaneously varies the non-critical load power
so as to achieve automatic power balancing within the power capability of the
ES and its associated non-critical load. The second version of ES (i.e. ES-2) by
replacing capacitors with batteries on DC link. This arrangement allows ES-2 to
work in eight different operating modes and to provide both active and reactive
power compensation. It also enables ES-2 to perform extra tasks such as power
factor correction and load compensation. The first and second versions of ES
are illustrated in (a) and (b), respectively.

With many countries worldwide determined to decarbonize electric

power generation within the next few decades, new concerns about power
system stability have arisen from the increasing use of intermittent renewable
energy sources. Due to the distributed and intermittent nature of renewable
energy sources, such as wind and solar energy, power companies will find it
impossible to instantaneously predict and control the total power generation in
the entire power grid. Future smart grid requires a new control paradigm that the
load demand should follow power generation, which is just opposite to existing
control method of power generation following load demand. Demand-side
management has therefore become an important topic in smart grid research.

Power electronics, being an enabling technology, can offer new solutions

to the stability control of future smart grid with substantial penetration of
distributed and intermittent renewable energy generation. Based on the three-
century old Hooke’s law formechanical springs, electric springs (ESs) have
recently been proposed and successfully developed as a new smart grid
technology for stability control in power grid and for achieving the new control
paradigm of load demand following power generation.

15
3.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM

The proposed control strategy is to change voltage control to direct current

control, which needs a controlled current source. The ES with CSI in proposed
which can be regarded as a current controlled current source (CCCS). The
current control where the ES is substituted by a CCCS designated and the
branch with line impedance is replaced by a current source designated. ES has
to generate an ac current to compensate the fluctuations in the input current to
achieve a stable CL voltage.

The current control diagram is where the ES is substituted by a CCCS

designated as ic and the branch with line impedance is replaced by a current
source designated as i1.

Since i1 fluctuates as vG varies, the ES has to generate an ac current to

compensate the fluctuations in the input current to achieve a stable CL voltage.
Detailed control diagram is shown which consists of two functional blocks. The
lower block is similar as δ control in to achieve a desired CL voltage and pure
reactive power compensation. It is proved later that THD of CL voltage will be
reduced greatly with this control block. The upper block comes from the idea of
APF, which is one of the contributions and can help suppress harmonic
components introduced by the input current further to improve THD. It is
obviously seen that such current control concept is very clear and easy to
understand.

16
 Fig.3.1: The proposed ES with CSI

Fig.3.2: Equivalent circuit

3.2.1 Control Block with δ Control

In this part, only the control diagrams on the lower side of discussed, where the
hysteresis controller and PR plus P controllers are used, respectively. As
mentioned above, the function of the diagrams are similar as existing δ control
and static var generator (SVG), the signal i2 is the current through CL. The
reference signal i2_ref is obtained from δ control. The error signal I error is fed
to a hysteresis controller where with is the hysteresis width. The limits of H and
L are compared with the output current of the ES designated as ic, as shown in,
to generate four drive signals. With the direct current control in the CL voltage
can be regulated to the desired value (e.g. 220V).

17
3.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig.3.3: HARDWARE BLOCK DIAGRAM

3.4 ELECTRIC SPRINGS

The use of “Electric Springs” is a recently introduced approach to
distributed voltage control through voltage compensators connected in series
with individual noncritical loads that are less sensitive to voltage fluctuations.
These compensators inject a series voltage in quadrature (either lead or lag)
with the current flowing through them in order to regulate the voltage across the
point of common coupling where critical (i.e., voltage sensitive) loads are
connected.
The approach is fundamentally different from the traditional way of shunt
voltage control through SVC, STACOM, etc., which are connected at the point-
of-common-coupling (PCC) to control the voltage across several loads. One
potential advantage of the proposed approach is that it could contribute to
frequency control by modulating the voltage and hence the power consumed by
the noncritical load while regulating the voltage across the critical loadsFor

18
reactive power control, an electric spring (ES) injects a compensation voltage in

19
quadrature with the current through it. The current can either lead the voltage by
90 (capacitive mode for voltage support) or lag by 90 (inductive mode for
voltage suppression). The power converter circuit of the ES could simply be a
two-level inverter as shown.

Fig. 3.4: circuit diagram for electric spring control

Thus, an ES can inject both inductive and capacitive reactive power to the
power line similar to the conventional reactive power controller (RPC). For ease
of understanding, both the critical and noncritical loads are assumed to be
purely resistive although the underlying principle is still applicable as long as
these loads are voltage dependent.

3.5 ES IN A SMART LOAD

An overview of the concept of smart load that comprises an ES and the
actual load Z. The ES is a power electronic interface that generates an ac
voltage profile ves (t) to act as a series compensator to modify the applied
voltage of the actual load vo (t), thus directly affecting the composition of real
and reactive powers flowing to the load.
It can be embedded in electric appliances, forming a new generation of
smart loads adaptive to the power grid. When massively distributed over the

20
power grid, they could provide highly distributed and robust support for the
smart grid, similar to the arrays of mechanical springs supporting the mattress.
The smart load is connected to an ac power source with vs (t), which may
represent a strong or a weak power source on a grid network with or without
transmission impedance. In this study, we adopt the general assumption that
both the power source and the load are capable of bidirectional power flow,
meaning that they can both act as power source (negative resistive) or power
sink (resistive). The instantaneous voltage equation of this system is

These differences from a series RPC offer many beneficial features for the
ES:
i) the line voltage can be supported to nominal value, giving the critical
load a stable voltage
ii) the non-critical load connected in series with ES can consume the
fluctuating power generated by the unstable AC power sources.
Such useful properties of allowing instantaneous balance of power supply
and demand while concurrently achieving local line voltage stability is
particularly useful and important for future smart grids with a large penetration
of renewable energy resources.
Moreover, with the ES connected in series with the noncritical load Zo,
controlled variation in power consumption is easily achievable. Non-critical
loads such as water heaters, air-conditioning systems, public lighting systems,
and refrigerators can be varied or shed off, as and when necessary. The
advantages of this arrangement are twofold. Firstly, the ES can be a small-
capacity compensator embedded in common electrical appliances that are
widely present in a distributive manner. Secondly, by keeping the local line
voltage stable and letting

21
the output of the ES to fluctuate, the non-critical loads can absorb the fluctuating
power while ensuring a constant voltage supply to the critical loads.

Fig. 3.5: Use of ES in electrical system

A half-bridge inverter with DC link capacitors is a possible way of

implementing the ES. This type of ES can stabilize line voltage by handling
only the reactive power. Therefore, there are only two possible operating
modes: i) capacitive mode when ES generates −ve reactive power to boost line
voltage and
ii) inductive mode when ES generates +ve reactive power to suppress the line
voltage. With the ES in series with Zo, the phase angle difference between ES
voltage and the non-critical load current (Ves is 90⁰ leading or lagging Io)
decides the operating mode of ES (inductive or capacitive mode).

22
 CHAPTER 4

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT:

 MATLAB 2017A

4.1 MATLAB 2014

MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a fourth-generation high-level
programming language and interactive environment for numerical computation,
visualization and programming. MATLAB is developed by Math Works. It
allows matrix manipulations; plotting of functions and data; implementation of
algorithms; creation of user interfaces; interfacing with programs written in
other languages, including C, C++, Java, and Fortran; analyze data; develop
algorithms; and create models and applications. It has numerous built-in
commands and math functions that help you in mathematical calculations,
generating plots and performing numerical methods.

4.1.1 MATLAB's Power of Computational Mathematics

MATLAB is used in every facet of computational mathematics.
Following are some commonly used mathematical calculations where it is used
most commonly:
 Dealing with Matrices and Arrays
 2-D and 3-D Plotting and graphics
 Linear Algebra
 Algebraic Equations
 Non-linear Functions
 Statistics
 Data Analysis
 Calculus and Differential Equations

23
4.2 Features of MATLAB
4.2.1 Following are the basic features of MATLAB:
 It is a high-level language for numerical computation, visualization and
application development.
 It also provides an interactive environment for iterative exploration,
design and problem solving.
 It provides vast library of mathematical functions for linear algebra,
statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering, optimization, numerical integration
and solving ordinary differential equations.
 It provides built-in graphics for visualizing data and tools for creating
custom plots.
 MATLAB's programming interface gives development tools for
improving code quality and maintainability and maximizing performance.
 It provides tools for building applications with custom graphical interfaces.
 It provides functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with
external applications and languages such as C, Java, .NET and Microsoft
Excel.

4.2.2 Uses of MATLAB

MATLAB is widely used as a computational tool in science and
engineering encompassing the fields of physics, chemistry, math and all
engineering streams. It is used in a range of applications including:
 Signal Processing and Communications
 Image and Video Processing
 Control Systems
 Test and Measurement

24
4.3 SIMULINK
4.3.1 Simulation and Model-Based Design
Simulink is a block diagram environment for multi domain simulation
and Model-Based Design. It supports system-level design, simulation, automatic
code generation, and continuous test and verification of embedded systems.
Simulink provides a graphical editor, customizable block libraries, and solvers
for modeling and simulating dynamic systems. It is integrated with
MATLAB®, enabling you to incorporate MATLAB algorithms into models and
export simulation results to MATLAB for further analysis.

4.3.2 Key Features

Graphical editor for building and managing hierarchical block diagrams
 Libraries of predefined blocks for modeling continuous-time and discrete-
time systems
 Simulation engine with fixed-step and variable-step ODE solvers
 Scopes and data displays for viewing simulation results
 Project and data management tools for managing model files and data
 Model analysis tools for refining model architecture and increasing
simulation speed
 MATLAB Function block for importing MATLAB algorithms into models
 Legacy Code Tool for importing C and C++ code into models

4.3.3 Tool for Model-Based Design

With Simulink, you can move beyond idealized linear models to explore
more realistic nonlinear models, factoring in friction, air resistance, gear
slippage, hard stops, and the other things that describe real-world phenomena.
Simulink turns your computer into a laboratory for modeling and analyzing
systems that would not be possible or practical otherwise. Whether you are
interested in the behavior of an automotive clutch system, the flutter of an

25
airplane wing, or the

26
effect of the monetary supply on the economy, Simulink provides you with the
tools to model and simulate almost any real-world problem. Simulink also
provides examples that model a wide variety of real-world Simulink provides a
graphical user interface (GUI) for building models as block diagrams, allowing
you to draw models as you would with pencil and paper.
Simulink also includes a comprehensive block library of sinks, sources,
linear and nonlinear components, and connectors. If these blocks do not meet
your needs, however, you can also create your own blocks. The interactive
graphical environment simplifies the modeling process, eliminating the need to
formulate differential and difference equations in a language or program.
Models are hierarchical, so you can build models using both top-down and
bottom-up approaches. You can view the system at a high level, and then
double-click blocks to see increasing levels of model detail. This approach
provides insight into how a model is organized and how its parts interact.

4.3.4 Tool for Simulation

After you define a model, you can simulate its dynamic behavior using a
choice of mathematical integration methods, either from the Semolina menus or
by entering commands in the MATLAB Command Window. The menus are
convenient for interactive work, while the command line is useful for running a
batch of simulations. For example, if you are doing Monte Carlo simulations or
want to apply a parameter across a range of values, you can use MATLAB
scripts. Using scopes and other display blocks, you can see the simulation
results while the simulation runs. You can then change parameters and see what
happens for “what if” exploration. The simulation results can be put in the
MATLAB workspace for post processing and visualization.

27
4.3.5 Tool for Analysis
Model analysis tools include linearization and trimming tools, which you
can access from the MATLAB command line, plus the many tools in MATLAB
and its application tool boxes. Because MATLAB and Simulink are integrated,
you can simulate, analyze, and revise your models in either environment at any
point.

4.4 SIMULATION RESULTS

Fig. 4.1: SIMULATION DIAGRAM

28
VOLTAGE ACROSS THE CRITICAL LOAD CONDITION

Fig. 4.2: VOLTAGE ACROSS THE CRITICAL LOAD CONDITION

29
Voltage across noncritical loading condition

Fig. 4.3: Voltage across noncritical loading condition

30
4.5 HARDWARE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig. 4.4: Hardware circuit diagram

31
 CHAPTER 5
HARDWARE DETAILS

5.1 ARDUINO UNO

The Arduino UNO is an open-source microcontroller board based on

the Microchip ATmega328P microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc. The
board is equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that
may be interfaced to various expansion boards (shields) and other circuits. The
board has 14 Digital pins, 6 Analog pins, and programmable with the
Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment) via a type B USB cable. It
can be powered by a USB cable or by an external 9 volt battery, though it
accepts voltages between 7 and 20 volts. It is also similar to the Arduino Nano
and Leonardo. The hardware reference design is distributed under a Creative
Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and is available on the Arduino
website. Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are also
available. "Uno" means one in Italian and was chosen to mark the release of
Arduino Software (IDE) 1.0. The Uno board and version 1.0 of Arduino
Software (IDE) were the reference versions of Arduino, now evolved to
newer releases. The Uno board is the first in a series of USB Arduino boards,
and the reference model for the Arduino platform. The ATmega328 on the
Arduino Uno comes preprogrammed with a boot loader that allows uploading
new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. It
communicates using the original STK500 protocol. The Uno also differs from
all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip.
Instead, it uses the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as
a USB-to-serial converter

32
 The Arduino project started at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (IDII)
in Ivrea, Italy. At that time, the students used a BASIC Stamp microcontroller at
a cost of $100, a considerable expense for many students. In 2003 Hernando
Barragán created the development platform Wiring as a Master's thesis project
at IDII, under the supervision of Massimo Banzi and Casey Reas, who are
known for work on the Processing language.

5.1.1 SPECIFICATION

 Microcontroller: Microchip ATmega328P

 Operating Voltage: 5 Volt
 Input Voltage: 7 to 20 Volts
 Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
 Analog Input Pins: 6
 DC Current per I/O Pin: 20 mA
 DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
 Flash Memory: 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by boot loader
 SRAM: 2 KB
 EEPROM: 1 KB
 Clock Speed: 16 MHz
 Length: 68.6 mm
 Width: 53.4 mm
 Weight: 25 g

33
5.1.2 COMMUNICATION

The Arduino/Genuino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating

with a computer, another Arduino/Genuino board, or other microcontrollers.
The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial communication, which is
available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the board
channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port
to software on the computer. The 16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM
drivers, and no external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf file is
required. The Arduino Software (IDE) includes a serial monitor which allows
simple textual data to be sent to and from the board. The RX and TX LEDs on
the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip
and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins
0 and 1). A Software Serial library allows serial communication on any of the
Uno's digital pins

Fig. 5.1: Arduino ide board

5.1.3 PINS General Pin functions

 LED: There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13. When the pin is
HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
 VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino/Genuino board when it's using an
external power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or

34
 other regulated power source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or,
if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The
board can be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 20V),
the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-20V). Supplying
voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can damage the
board.
 3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum
current draw is 50 mA.
 GND: Ground pins.
 IOREF: This pin on the Arduino/Genuino board provides the voltage
reference with which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured
shield can read the IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power
source or enable voltage translators on the outputs to work with the 5V or
3.3V.
 Reset: Typically used to add a reset button to shields which block the one on
the board.

5.1.4 Special Pin Functions

Each of the 14 digital pins and 6 Analog pins on the Uno can be used as
an input or output, using pinMode (), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead()
functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive 20 mA as
recommended operating condition and has an internal pull-up resistor
(disconnected by default) of 20-50k ohm. A maximum of 40mA is the value
that must not be exceeded on any I/O pin to avoid permanent damage to the
microcontroller. The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of
which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they
measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of
their range using the AREF pin and the analog Reference function.

35
In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

 Serial / UART: pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit
(TX) TTL serial data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of
the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
 External Interrupts: pins 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger
an interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM (Pulse Width Modulation): 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11 Can provide 8-bit
PWM output with the analog Write () function.
 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13
(SCK). These pins support SPI communication using the SPI library.
 TWI (Two Wire Interface) / I²C: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin.
Support TWI communication using the Wire library.
 AREF (Analog Reference): Reference voltage for the analog inputs

5.2 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display, electronic visual

display, or video display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid
crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly. LCDs are available to display
arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display) or fixed images
which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and 7-
segment displays as in a digital clock. This controller is standard across many
displays (HD 44780) which means many micro-controllers (including the
Arduino) have libraries that make displaying messages as easy as a single line
of code.

Fig. 5.2: LCD display unit

36
 LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer
monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and signage.

Internal working of LCD unit

Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE
Selects command register when low; and data register Register
4
when high Select
Low to write to the register; High to read from the
5 Read/write
register
Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is
6 Enable
given
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4
12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+
16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-

37
5.3 CURRENT SENSOR:

A current sensor is a device that detects electric current (AC or DC) in a

wire, and generates a signal proportional to it. The generated signal could be
analog voltage or current or even digital output. It can be then utilized to display
the measured current in an ammeter or can be stored for further analysis in a
data acquisition system or can be utilized for control purpose.

The sensed current and the output signal can be:

5.3.1 Alternating current input,

 Analog output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current
 Bipolar output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current
 Unipolar output, which is proportional to the average or RMS value of
the sensed current

5.3.2 Direct current input,

 Unipolar, with a unipolar output, which duplicates the wave shape of the
sensed current
 Digital output, which switches when the sensed current exceeds a certain
threshold

5.4 TECHNOLOGIES:

 Hall effect IC sensor

 Transformer or current clamp meter, (suitable for AC current only)
 Fluxgate Transformer Type, (suitable for AC and/or DC current).
 Resistor, whose voltage is directly proportional to the current through it
 Fiber optic current sensor, using an interferometer to measure the phase
change in the light produced by a magnetic field

38
 Rogowski coil, electrical device for measuring alternating current (AC) or
high speed current pulses
 Hall Effect current sensor is a type of current sensor which is based on
phenomenon of Hall Effect discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.

 Hall Effect current sensors can measure all types of current signals i.e.
AC,DC or pulsating current.
 These sensors are currently being used widely in almost all the industries
because of their vast applications and the type of output they provide,
which can be manipulated and can be used for various applications.

Fig. 5.3: IC sensor

39
5.5 12V 1.5Ah Battery

5.4.1 BATTERY CHARGER

The rechargeable backup battery provides power to Finger Tec terminals when
the primary source of power is unavailable. With the right backup battery, your
system won’t have to be interrupted during a power failure. 12V1.5Ah Backup
Battery Access Control System: The external Rechargeable Backup Batteries
are almost always used in an access control system. The backup battery prevents
intruders from disabling the access control by turning off power to the building,
and continues locking the doors secured by the system. Time & Attendance
System: For Time and Attendance System that records clocking-in and out data
for employees, power failure might cause discrepancies in the payroll system.
Thus, external rechargeable backup batteries are often used in Time &
Attendance terminals as a backup power

A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a cell or (rechargeable)

battery by forcing an electric current through it. Lead-acid battery chargers
typically have two tasks to accomplish. The first is to restore capacity, often as
quickly as practical. The second is to maintain capacity by compensating for
self discharge. In both instances optimum operation requires accurate sensing of
battery voltage. When a typical lead-acid cell is charged, lead sulphate is
converted to lead on the battery’s negative plate and lead dioxide on the positive
plate. Over-charge reactions begin when the majority of lead sulphate has been
converted, typically resulting in the generation of hydrogen and oxygen gas. At
moderate charge rates, most of the hydrogen and oxygen will recombine in
sealed batteries. In unsealed batteries however, dehydration will occur.

Size This is pretty straight forward, how big are the batteries? Lead acid
batteries don't get much smaller than C-cell batteries. Coin cells don't get much
larger than a quarter. There are also standard sizes, such as AA and 9V

40
which may be

41
desirable. Weight and power density This is a performance issue: higher quality
(and more expensive) batteries will have a higher power density. If weight is an
important part of your project, you will want to go with a lighter, high-density
battery. Often this is expressed in Watts-hours per Kilogram. Price Price is
pretty much proportional to power-density (you pay more for higher density)
and proportional to power capacity (you pay more for more capacity). The more
power you want in a smaller, lighter package the more you will have to pay.
Voltage The voltage of a battery cell is determined by the chemistry used inside.
For example, all Alkaline cells are 1.5V, all lead-acid's are 2V, and lithiums are
3V. Batteries can be made of multiple cells, so for example, you'll rarely see a
2V lead-acid battery. Usually they are connected together inside to make a 6V,
12V or 24V battery. Likewise, most electronics use multiple alkalines to
generate the voltage they need to run. Don't forget that voltage is a 'nominal'
measurement, a "1.5V" AA battery actually starts out at 1.6V and then quickly
drops down to 1.5 and then slowly drifts down to 1.0V at which point the
battery is considered 'dead'. Re-usability Some batteries are rechargable, usually
they can be recharged 100's of times

5.4.2 Power Capacity and Power Capability

Power capacity is how much energy is stored in the battery. This power is often
expressed in Watt-hours (the symbol Wh). A Watt-hour is the voltage (V) that
the battery provides multiplied by how much current (Amps) the battery can
provide for some amount of time (generally in hours). Voltage * Amps * hours
= Wh. Since voltage is pretty much fixed for a battery type due to its internal
chemistry (alkaline, lithium, lead acid, etc), often only the Amps*hour
measurement is printed on the side, expressed in Ah or mAh (1000mAh = 1Ah).
To get Wh, multiply the Ah by the nominal voltage. For example, lets say we
have a 3V nominal battery with 1Amp-hour capacity, therefore it has 3 Wh of
capacity.

42
5.6 OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS

Once the connection instructions have been followed, plug-in AC power cord,
the “POWER” Red (LED) will be on, the charger will begin charging
automatically and the “CHARGING” Yellow (LED) will be on during charging.
When the battery is fully charged the “CHARGING” Yellow (LED) will be off
and the “FULL/FLOAT” Green (LED) will be on. Float Mode allows the
charger to effectively be left connected to your batteries, over the course of a
season, without overcharging your batteries and maintains your battery's full
charge.

Specifications

9.1 Input voltage: 120Vac 50/60Hz 0.4A Max. 9.2 Charging starting
conditions: Battery not less than 5.5V 9.3 Rating output: 12Vdc 1.5A 9.4
Battery type: Lead- acid battery 9.5 Maximum charging voltage: 14.4V 9.6
Maintenance charging voltage: 13.2V~14.0V 9.7 Operating Environmental: -
10~40℃, 90% RH Maximum 9.8 Weight: 0.62Lbs (0.28kg) approx. 9.9
Dimensions: L4.65” x W1.18” x H2.83” (L118 x W30 x H72mm)

5.7 REVERSE BATTERY / OUTPUT PROTECT CONDITION

The charger has reverse battery and output short circuit protection. If a reverse
battery charger condition exists (“FAULT” Red L.E.D.) solid, while output
leads are connected backwards), simply unplug charger from AC power and
properly remake the connections as described in this manual.

Mounting the charger to vehicle:

The battery charger is mounted directly to the fender well of your vehicle as
shown in figure -1. If using the nuts and bolts provided, drill two 1/8’’ holes in
diameter. If the backside of the mounting surface is hard to reach, you may
consider using two 1/2’’ long sheet-metal screws (not supplied) instead of the

43
nuts and bolts provided.

44
Mounting the charger a long side the battery:

If more convenient to do so, as the following figure-2, using the mounting

bracket (supplied) to mount the battery charger along side of the battery. If
possible, mount the charger to the side of the battery away from the engine and
fan blades. Mount the bracket to the charger as shown, using the nuts and bolts
provided. Loosen the battery retaining hardware enough that you can insert the
bracket between the bottom of the battery and the battery mounting tray as
shown. Position the charger so that it will not rub against the battery or any
other part of the vehicle, and then tighten the battery retaining hardware.

Linear Power supply:

An AC powered linear power supply usually uses a transformer to

convert the voltage from the wall outlet (mains) to a different, usually a lower
voltage. If it is used to produce DC, a rectifier is used. A capacitor is used to
smooth the pulsating current from the rectifier. Some small periodic deviations
from smooth direct current will remain, which is known as ripple.

5.8 Transformer:

Fig.5.4: Transformer

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with

little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the
reasons why mains electricity is AC.Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-
down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down
transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in UK) to a
safer low voltage.

45
 The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the
secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they
are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the
transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the
core.

Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to
the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The
ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the
ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its
primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a
small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output
voltage.

5.7 Bridge rectifier:

A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also
available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a
full-wave rectifier because it uses the entire AC wave (both positive and
negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode
uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as
shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum current
they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must
be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the
peak voltages). Please see the DIODES page for more details, including pictures
of bridge rectifiers.

46
 Fig. 5.5: Bridge Rectifier

Fig. 5.6: wave form

Smoothing:

Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over the connections so the

alternating directions of AC are converted to the one direction of DC
Smoothing: Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor
connected across the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the
output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram
shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid
line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then
discharges as it supplies current to the output.

Fig. 5.7: Smoothing

47
 Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to
almost the peak value (1.4 × RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified
to full wave DC of about 4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with
smoothing this increases to almost the peak value giving 1.4 × 4.6 = 6.4V
smooth DC.

Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it

discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is
10% of the supply voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the
required value for the smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give fewer
ripples. The capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing half-wave DC.

Smoothing Capacitor for 10% ripple, C=5*10/vs.*f

C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)
Io = output current from the supply in amps (A)
Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed
DC
f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK.

Fig. 5.8: power supply circuit

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

48
5.10 Regulator:

Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V)
or variable output voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they
can pass. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual
supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive
current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection').
The LM78XX series of three terminal regulators is available with several
fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. One
of these is local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems
associated with single point regulation. The voltages available allow these
regulators to be used in logic systems, instrumentation, HiFi, and other solid
state electronic equipment. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators these devices can be used with external components to obtain
adjustablevoltages and current.

Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads and look like power
transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. They include
a hole for attaching a heat sink if necessary.

1. Positive regulator
1. input pin
2. ground pin
3. output pin
It regulates the positive voltage

2. Negative regulator
1. ground pin
2. input pin

49
3. output pin

50
 It regulate the negative voltage

Fig. 5.9: Negative voltage

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all
electronic circuits.

5.11 MOSFET

(IRFZ44N)

DESCRIPTION

Designed for low voltage, high speed switching applications in power supplies,
converters and power motor controls, these devices are particularly well suited
for bridge circuits where diode speed and commutating safe operating areas are
critical and offer additional safety margin against unexpected voltage transients.

FEATURES

 Drain Current –ID=49A@ TC=25℃ ·

 Drain Source Voltage : VDSS= 55V(Min)

 Static Drain-Source On-Resistance : RDS(on) = 0.032Ω(Max)

 Fast Switching

51
 Fig. 5.10: SYMBOL OF MOSFET

5.12 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the

mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric materialto create an
electrical signal with a precise frequency.[1][2][3] This frequency is often used to
keep track of time, as in quartz wristwatches, to provide a stable clock
signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio
transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator
used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became
known as crystal oscillators,[1] but other piezoelectric materials including
polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits.

52
A crystal oscillator, particularly one made of quartz crystal, works by being
distorted by an electric field when voltage is applied to an electrode near or on
the crystal. This property is known as electrostriction or inverse piezoelectricity.
When the field is removed, the quartz - which oscillates in a precise frequency -
generates an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can
generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like an RLC
circuit.

Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to
hundreds of megahertz. More than two billion crystals are manufactured
annually. Most are used for consumer devices such
as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones. Quartz crystals are
also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal
generators, and oscilloscopes.

Fig. 5.11. crystal oscillator

5.14 RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one
direction. The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a
number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper
and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers
and other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous

53
electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers,

54
called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of
galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC
power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems.
Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a
source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas
heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame.
Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of
rectification alone produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of
pulses of current. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for
radio, television and computer equipment, require a steady constant DC current
(as would be produced by a battery). In these applications the output of the
rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter (usually a capacitor) to produce a
steady current. More complex circuitry that performs the opposite function,
converting DC to AC, is called an inverter.

FEATURES

• Low forward voltage drop

• Low leakage current

• High forward surge capability

• Solder dip 275 °C max. 10 s, per JESD 22-B106

For use in general purpose rectification of power supplies, inverters, converters

and freewheeling diodes application.

55
 Voltage regulator

The L7805CV is a three-terminal positive Voltage Regulator with several fixed

output voltages, making it useful in a wide range of applications. These
regulators can provide local on-card regulation, eliminating the distribution
problems associated with single point regulation. Each type embeds internal
current limiting, thermal shut-down and safe area protection, making it
essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver
over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain
adjustable voltage and currents.

Fig. 5.12. voltage regulator

FEATURES

 Thermal Overload Protection

 Short-circuit Protection

 Output Transition SOA Protection

 2 % Output Voltage Tolerance (A Version)

 Guaranteed in Extended Temperature Range (A Version)

56
Applications

Power Management

5.15 INVERTER

A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that

changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The input voltage,
output voltage and frequency, and overall power handling depend on the design
of the specific device or circuitry. The inverter does not produce any power; the
power is provided by the DC source. A power inverter can be entirely electronic
or may be a combination of mechanical effects (such as a rotary apparatus) and
electronic circuitry.

Input voltage
A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a relatively stable DC
power source capable of supplying enough current for the intended power
demands of the system. The input voltage depends on the design and purpose of
the inverter. Examples include: 12 VDC, for smaller consumer and commercial
inverters that typically run from a rechargeable 12 V lead acid battery or
automotive electrical outlet.24, 36 and 48 VDC, which are common standards
for home energy systems. 200 to 400 VDC, when power is from photovoltaic
solar panels. 300 to 450 VDC, when power is from electric vehicle battery
packs in vehicle-to-grid systems. Hundreds of thousands of volts, where the
inverter is part of a high-voltage direct current power transmission system.

Output waveform

An inverter can produce a square wave, modified sine wave, pulsed sine
wave, pulse width modulated wave (PWM) or sine wave depending on circuit
design. The two dominant commercialized waveform types of inverters as of

57
2007 are modified sine wave and sine wave. There are two basic designs for
producing household plug-in voltage from a lower-voltage DC source, the first
of which uses a switching boost converter to produce a higher-voltage DC and
then converts to AC. The second method converts DC to AC at battery level and
uses a line-frequency transformer to create the output voltage.

Output frequency

The AC output frequency of a power inverter device is usually the same

as standard power line frequency, 50 or 60 hertz If the output of the device or
circuit is to be further conditioned (for example stepped up) then the frequency
may be much higher for good transformer efficiency.

Output voltage

The AC output voltage of a power inverter is often regulated to be the

same as the grid line voltage, typically 120 or 240 VAC at the distribution level,
even when there are changes in the load that the inverter is driving. This allows
the inverter to power numerous devices designed for standard line power. Some
inverters also allow selectable or continuously variable output voltages.

Output power

A power inverter will often have an overall power rating expressed in

watts or kilowatts. This describes the power that will be available to the device
the inverter is driving and, indirectly, the power that will be needed from the
DC source. Smaller popular consumer and commercial devices designed to
mimic line power typically range from 150 to 3000 watts. Not all inverter
applications are solely or primarily concerned with power delivery; in some
cases the frequency and or waveform properties are used by the follow-on
circuit or device.

58
5.16 RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used
to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active
elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power
resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used
as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for
generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with
temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust
circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing
devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity. Resistors are
common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components
can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits. The electrical function of a resistor is
specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over
a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the
resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.

Features
• Automatically insert able
• High quality performance
• Non-Flame type available
• Cost effective and commonly used
• Too low or too high values can be supplied on case to case basis

Performance Specification

59
Temperature Coefficient
Short Time Overload
Insulation Resistance
Withstanding Voltage
Terminal Strength
Resistance to Soldering Heat
Solderability
Resistance to Solvent
Cycling
Load Life in Humidity
Load Life
Like that we uses the 1Kohm,100ohm, 4.7kohm,10kohm resistors.
: ≤10Ω : ±350PPM/°C
11Ω to 99kΩ : 0 to -450PPM/°C
100kΩ to 1MΩ : 0 to -700PPM/°C
1.1MΩ to 10MΩ : 0 to -1500PPM/°C
: ±(1% +0.05Ω)Max. with no evidence of
mechanical damage
: Min. 1,000MΩ Dielectric
: No evidence of flashover, mechanical damage,
arcing or insulation breakdown.
: No evidence of mechanical damage.
: ±(1% +0.05Ω)Max. with no evidence of
mechanical damage.
: Min. 95% coverage
: No deterioration of protective coating and
markings Temperature
: ±(1% +0.05Ω) Max. with no evidence of
mechanical damage
: Normal Type : <100kΩ : ±(3% +0.05Ω)Max.
≥100kΩ : ±(5% +0.05Ω)Max.
Non-Flame Type : <100kΩ : ±(5 +0.05Ω)Max.
≥100kΩ : ±(10% +0.05Ω)Max.
: Normal Type : <56kΩ : ±(2% +0.05Ω)Max.
≥56kΩ : ±(3% +0.05Ω)Max.
Non-Flame Type : <100kΩ : ±(5% +0.05Ω)Max.
≥100kΩ : ±(10% +0.05Ω)Max
60
5.17 FERRITE CORE INDUCTOR

Fig. 5.13. Ferrite core inductor

In electronics, a ferrite core is a type of magnetic core made of ferrite on

which the windings of electric transformers and other wound components such
as inductors are formed. It is used for its properties of high magnetic
permeability coupled with low electrical conductivity (which helps prevent eddy
currents). Because of their comparatively low losses at high frequencies, they
are extensively used in the cores of RF transformers and inductors in
applications such as switched-mode power supplies, and ferrite loopstick
antennas for AM radio receivers.

APPLICATIONS:

There are two broad applications for ferrite cores which differ in size and
frequency of operation: signal transformers, which are of small size and higher
frequencies, and power transformers, which are of large size and lower
frequencies. Cores can also be classified by shape, such as toroidal cores, shell
cores or cylindrical cores. The ferrite cores used for power transformers work in
the low frequency range (1 to 200 kHz usually[2]) and are fairly large in size,
can be toroidal, shell, or shaped like the letters ‘C’, ‘D’, or ‘E’. They are useful
in all kinds of electronic switching devices – especially power supplies from 1
Watt to 1000 Watts maximum, since more powerful applications are usually out
of range of ferritic single core and require grain oriented lamination cores.

61
5.18 OPTOCOUPLERTLP250H

Fig. 5.13. Optocoupler

An optocoupler or optoelectronic coupler is an electronic component that

basically acts as an interface between the two separate circuits with different
voltage levels. Optocouplers are common component by which electrical
isolation can be supplied between the input and output source. It is a 6 pin
device and can have any number of photodetectors. Here, a beam of light
emitted by a light source exists as an only contact between input and output.
Due to this, we can have an insulation resistance of megaohms between the two
circuits. In high voltage applications where the voltage difference between the
two circuits differs by several thousand volts, such isolation is favourable. The
use of all such electronic isolators lies in all that conditions where the signal is
to pass between two isolated circuits. Till now we have talked about an isolated
circuit but one should know the meaning of it before going into any further
aspect.
isolated circuit

Isolated circuits are the circuits which do not have a common conductor
in between them and proper isolation is maintained.

62
Construction of an Optocoupler

An optocoupler mainly consists of an infrared LED and a

photosensitive device that detects the emitted infrared beam. The
semiconductor photosensitive device can be a photodiode, phototransistor, a
Darlington pair, SCR or TRIAC.

Let’s have a look at the basic diagram of an Optocoupler:

Fig.5.14. basic diagram of optocoupler

The infrared LED and the device that are light sensitive is packed in a
single package. The LED is kept on the input side and the light-sensitive
material is placed on the output side. A resistance is connected at the beginning
of the circuit which is used to limit the current and the other resistance is
connected between the supply voltage and the collector terminal.

Fig. 5.15. pin diagram

63
  Pin 1: Anode

 Pin 2: Cathode

 Pin 3: Ground

 Pin 4: Emitter

 Pin 5: Collector

 Pin 6: Base

The base terminal of the phototransistor is externally available. A single

phototransistor is used at the output stage of a simple isolating optocoupler.

Working of an Optocoupler

An Optocoupler is a combination of LED and a Photo-diode packed in a single

package. As we can see in the below-shown circuit diagram, when a high
voltage appears across the input side of the Optocoupler, a current start to flow
through the LED.

Fig.5.16. working of optocoupler

Due to this current LED will emit light. This emitted light when falls on a
phototransistor cause a current to flow through the same. The current flowing
through the phototransistor is directly proportional to the supplied input voltage.
An input resistance placed at the beginning of the circuit will decrease the

64
amount

65
of current flowing through the LED if its value is increased. As the LED glows
due to this current, hence, when current will be low so as the light intensity of
LED. As we have already discussed earlier the intensity of emitted light by the
LED will be equal to the corresponding current flowing through the
phototransistor. This means that the low-intensity light emitted by the LED will
cause a low-level current to flow through the phototransistor. Thus a changing
voltage is generated across the collector-emitter terminal of the transistor.

5.19 STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a passive device that converts the voltage level either

from high to low or low to high. The transformer that converts the high voltage
power to low voltage power is called a step-down transformer and the one that
converts low to high voltage is called a step-up transformer. A transformer
works on the mutual induction principle, also known as Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction, which states that the magnitude of voltage is
directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux. To get a deeper
view into the performance of a transformer, let’s understand its basics.

Construction

A transformer consists of the following main parts:

Core

The coils that are winded up on a certain material collectively form a

transformer core. These cores are made of very high permeable material that is
able to carry the flux.

66
Winding

The voltage transformers are winded with wires called coils. Here, we use
wires with less resistance and good conductivity, which is required to get good
efficiency from the transformer. Generally, copper is used in transformer
winding as it has good electrical conductivity and very low resistance in
comparison to others. It is also not expensive like gold, silver and platinum.

Working

A transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. So, when there

is a change in the current of one coil, an electric current is also induced in the
other coil in its proximity.

Every transformer consists of two coils or winding: primary and

secondary. The primary winding is connected to the AC power source and the
secondary to the load. When AC current is provided to the primary winding of
the coil, a magnetic flux gets generated. Through the transformer core, the
magnetic field completes its path. As the secondary winding comes in contact
with this magnetic flux, an EMF is induced on it. The strength of the generated
EMF depends on the number of turns in winding of the secondary coil.

N1>N2

where, N1 = Number of turns in the 1st coil

N2 = Number of turns in the 2nd coil

The relation between voltage and number of turns in a coil is:

Vp/ Vs = Np/Ns
67
where, Vp = Voltage in primary coil

Vs = Voltage in secondary coil

Np = Number of turns in primary coil

Ns = Number of turns in secondary coil

Fig. 5.18. transformer

5.20 HEAT SINK

A heat sink (also commonly spelled heatsink[1]) is a passive heat

exchanger that transfers the heat generated by an electronic or a mechanical
device to a fluid medium, often air or a liquid coolant, where it is dissipated
away from the device, thereby allowing regulation of the device's temperature.
In computers, heat sinks are used to cool CPUs, GPUs, and some chipsets and
RAM modules. Heat sinks are used with high-power semiconductor devices
such as power transistors and optoelectronics such as lasers and light-emitting
diodes (LEDs), where the heat dissipation ability of the component itself is
insufficient to moderate its temperature. A heat sink is designed to maximize its
surface area in contact with the cooling medium surrounding it, such as the air.

68
Air velocity, choice of material, protrusion design and surface treatment are
factors that affect

69
the performance of a heat sink. Heat sink attachment methods and thermal
interface materials also affect the die temperature of the integrated circuit.
Thermal adhesive or thermal paste improve the heat sink's performance by
filling air gaps between the heat sink and the heat spreader on the device. A heat
sink is usually made out of aluminium or copper.

Heat transfer principle

A heat sink transfers thermal energy from a higher-temperature device to

a lower-temperature fluid medium. The fluid medium is frequently air, but can
also be water, refrigerants or oil. If the fluid medium is water, the heat sink is
frequently called a cold plate. In thermodynamics a heat sink is a heat reservoir
that can absorb an arbitrary amount of heat without significantly changing
temperature. Practical heat sinks for electronic devices must have a temperature
higher than the surroundings to transfer heat by convection, radiation, and
conduction. The power supplies of electronics are not absolutely efficient, so
extra heat is produced that may be detrimental to the function of the device. As
such, a heat sink is included in the design to disperse heat. Fourier's law of heat
conduction shows that when there is a temperature gradient in a body, heat will
be transferred from the higher-temperature region to the lower-temperature
region. The rate at which heat is transferred by conduction, {\displaystyle
q_{k}}q_{k}, is proportional to the product of the temperature gradient and the
cross-sectional area through which heat is transferred. When it is simplified to a

70
one-dimensional form in the x direction, it can be expressed as:

Fig. 5.18. heat transfer sink

71
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION & REFERENCES

CONCLUSION

A new control strategy is proposed where existing voltage control on the

ES with VSI is replaced by direct current control on the ES with CSI to achieve
harmonics suppression function. The proposed control consists of two blocks, of
which the one keeps a recent pr posed concept of δ control which is similar
tothe control of SVG and another one is the harmonics suppression function
similar as the control of APF. The operating principles of the pro posed
topology of the ES with CSI are described first. The proposed control strategy is
analyzed in delta l and the harmonics suppression function is illustrated with he
help of single-phase q transformation. Comparisons are conducted by
simulations among three inds of control methods, validating that THD values of
CL voltages decrease greatly with the proposed direct current control than
existing voltage control. It i also validated that harmonic components of CL
voltages c an be suppressed further with the direct current control plus
additional harmonics suppression function, especially useful for systems with
high power ratings. The proposed control strategy can not only improve the
system performance, but also help understand the ES concept easily and
clearly. Hardware pro type model is verified here

72
REFERENCE

[1] M. Cheng an d Y. Zhu, “The state of the art of wind energy conversion
systems and technologies: A review,” Energy Convers. Management., vol.
88,pp. 332–347, Dec. 2014.
[2] S. Y. R. Hui, C. K. Lee, and F. Wu, “Electric springs—A new smart grid
technology,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 1552–1561, Sep.2012.
[3] S. C. Tan, C. K. Lee, and S. Y. R. Hui, “General steady-state analysis and
control principle of electric springs with active and reactive power
compensations,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 8, p p . 3958–3969,
Aug. 2 13. [4] S. Yan, S. C. Tan, C. K. Lee, B. Chaudhuri and S. Y. R.
Hui, “Electric springs for reducing power imbalance in three-phase power
systems,” IEEE Trans. Power. Electron., vol. 30, no. 7, p. 3601–3609, Jul.
2015. [5] C. K. Lee, B. Chaudhuri, and S. Y. R. Hui, “Hardware and control
implementation of electric springs for stabilizing future smart grid with
intermittent renewable energy sources,” IEEE J. Emerging Sel. Topics Power
Electron., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 18–27, Mar. 2013.
[6] S. Yan, S. C. Tan, C. K. Lee, and S. Y. R. Hui, “Electric spring for power
quality improvement,” in Proc. IEEE Appl. Power Electron. Conf. Expo.,2014,
pp. 2140–2147.
[7] C. K. Lee, an S. Y. R. Hui, “Reduction of energy storage requirements in
future smart g rid using electric springs,” IEEE T rans. Smart Grid , vol. 4,no. 3,
pp. 1282–1288, Sep. 201 3.
[8] C. K. Lee, S. C. Tan, F. F. Wu , S. Y. R. Hui an d B. Chaudhuri, “Use of
Hooke’s law for stabilizing future smart grid—the electric spring concept,” in
roc. IEEE Energy Convers. Cong .Expo., 2013, pp . 5253–5257.
[9] Parag Kanjiya, and Vinod K hadkikar, “Enhancing power quality and
stability of future smart grid with intermittent renewable energy source using
electric

73
springs,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Con f. on Renewable Energy Res. Appl., 20 13, pp.
918–922.
[10] N. R. Chaudhuri, C. K. Lee, B. Chaudhuri and S. Y. R. Hui, “Dynamic
Modeling of electric Springs,” IEEE Trans. Sm art Grid, vol. 5, no. 5, pp.2450–
2458, Sep. 2014.
[11] Q. Wang, M. Cheng, Z. Chen , and Z. Wang, “Steady-state analysis of
electric spring s with a novel δ control,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol.30,
no. 12, pp. 7159–7169, De c. 2015.
[ 2] Z. Bai, X. Ruan, and Z. Zhang, “A generic six-step direct PWM(SS-
DPWM) scheme for current source converter,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron.,
vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 39 58–3969, Mar. 2010.
[13] Y. Chen an d K. Smedley, “Three-phase boost-type grid-connected
inverter,” IEE E Trans. Power Electron., vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 2301–2309, Sep.
2008.
[14] N. Zhu, D. Xu, B. Wu, N. R. Zargari, M. Kazerani and F. Liu, “Common-
m ode voltage reduction methods for current-source converters in medium-
voltage drives,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 2. pp. 995–1006, Feb.
2013.
[15] B. Bahrani, A. Rufer, S. Kenzelman, and L. A. C. Lopes, “Vector control
of single-phase voltage-source converter based on fictive-axis emulation, ”
IEEE Trans. I and. Appl., vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 831– 840, 2011.

74