SPEC – 110 ASIAN STUDIES

WESTERN ASIA REGION HANDOUTS

MONECCA R. BAGAAN BSED – SOCIAL STUDIES II

GEORGIA REVIEWER  4th Century AD: Adoption of Christianity.

Geography:  11th-12th Centuries: Golden Age.
 South Caucasus region.  Medieval Period: Persian and Ottoman
 Bordered by Russia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Influence.
and Turkey.  19th Century: Russian Empire.
Area and Population:  20th Century: Soviet Era.
 Area: 69,700 sq km.  1991: Independence.
 Population: 4 million.  Post-Independence: Modernization,
 Capital City: Tbilisi. Regional Challenges.
 Currency: Georgian Lari. Government:
Flag:  Semi-presidential republic.
 "Five Cross Flags."  President (Salome Zourabichvili), Prime
 St. George's Cross in the middle. Minister (Irakli Garibashvili), Georgian
 4 small crosses represent evangelists. Parliament.
 Symbolizes Georgia's religiosity. Colonialism:
Landforms:  16th-17th Centuries: Ottoman Empire.
 Mount Shkhara: Highest peak.  Early 19th Century: Russian Empire.
 Mount Kazbek: Distinctive cone shape.  1917-1921: Independence, Soviet invasion.
 Kartli Plateau: Rolling hills, fertile lands.  1991: Regains independence.
 Alazani Valley: Wine-producing region.  Post-Soviet era: Rebuilding national identity.
Waterforms:
 Enguri River: Source of Enguri Dam. ISRAEL REVIEWER
 Rioni River: Scenic landscapes. Geography:
 Kura River: Longest river.  Middle East, Western Asia.
 Caves: Prometheus Cave, Sataplia Cave,  Bordered by Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Egypt,
Krubera Cave. Palestinian territories (West Bank and Gaza
 Lakes: Paravani, Abudelauri. Strip).
Religion, Beliefs, and Rituals: Area and Population:
 Georgian Orthodox Church.  Area: 20,770 sq km.
 Supra (Feasting Tradition).  Population: 9,153,000.
 Chacha: Traditional grape brandy.  Capital: Jerusalem.
 Polyphonic Singing: UNESCO Intangible  Currency: Shekel.
Cultural Heritage. Flag:
Festivities:  "Flag of David" or "Star of David Flag."
 Two New Year celebrations.  Blue hexagram (Magen David).
 Christmas in January.  Resembles a traditional Jewish prayer
 Easter. shawl.
 Independence Day (May 26th). Landforms:
 Rtveli (Grape Harvest).  Mount Hermon: Tallest mountain, skiing,
Landmarks: scenic beauty.
 Svetitskhoveli Cathedral.  Mount Meron: Highest peak in Israel,
 Jvari Monastery. popular hiking.
 Batumi Boulevard.  Negev Desert: Extensive dunes, "Big
 Gelati Monastery. Crater."
People and Languages:  Judean Desert: Rugged terrain, Dead Sea,
 Ethnically Georgian (86%). Masada.
 Official language: Georgian.  Bell Caves of Beit Guvrin: Man-made caves,
 Unique Georgian script (Mkhedruli). bell-shaped chambers.
Dresses: Waterforms:
 Men's: Chokha, Papakha.  Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret): Largest
 Women's: Kokhta Mekhebi, Kekheti, freshwater lake.
Chokha for Women.  Yarkon River: Second largest river.
 Traditional Occasion: Khalati, Nabadi.  Banias Waterfall: Largest waterfall, Golan
Civilization: Heights.
 Ancient Period: Paleolithic, Bronze Age. People and Languages:
  Majority: Jews.
 Official language: Hebrew.
Festivities:
 Sukkot: Feast of Tabernacles.
 Hanukkah: Festival of Lights.
 Purim: Commemorates deliverance from
plot.
 Independence Day (Yom Ha’atzmaut).
 Shavuot: Feast of Weeks.
 Jerusalem Day (Yom Yerushalayim).
Landmarks:
 Western Wall (Wailing Wall).
 Dome of the Rock.
 Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
 Masada.
 Yad Vashem.
Practices and Traditions:
 Shabbat: Day of rest.
 Rosh Hashanah: Jewish New Year.
 Yom Kippur: Day of Atonement.
 Military Service: Mandatory.
Religion, Beliefs, and Rituals:
 Judaism (74%).
 Rituals: Shabbat, Passover, Yom Kippur,
Brit Milah, Bar/Bat Mitzvah.
 Bar/Bat Mitzvah: Coming of age.
Dresses:
 Jewish Traditional Dress.
 Orthodox Jewish Men: Black hats, suits,
long coats.
 Orthodox Jewish Women: Modest clothing,
head coverings.
Civilization:
 Ancient History: Canaanites, Israelites, King
Solomon.
 Classical and Hellenistic Periods: Alexander
the Great, Maccabean Revolt.
 Roman and Byzantine Periods: Destruction
of Second Temple, Byzantine rule.
 Islamic Periods: Arab-Muslim conquest,
Crusaders, Ottoman Empire.
 Modern History: Zionist movement, Balfour
Declaration, UN Partition Plan,
Establishment of Israel, Wars, Peace
Agreements.
Government:
 President: Isaac Herzog.
 Prime Minister: Benjamin Netanyahu.
 Parliamentary democracy.
Colonialism:
 Ottoman Rule.
 End of World War I: League of Nations
Mandate.
 British Mandate for Palestine.
 Balfour Declaration.
 UN Partition Plan.
 Establishment of the State of Israel.
 Arab-Israeli War (1948-1949).
 Continuing Conflict and Peace Negotiations.
JORDAN REVIEWER
Geography:
 Middle East.
 Bordered by Iraq, Syria, Saudi Arabia,
Israel, West Bank.
 Red Sea coastline to the southwest.
Area and Population:
 Area: 89,342 sq km.
 Population: 11.5 million.
 Capital: Amman.
 Currency: Jordanian Dinars (JOD).
Flag:
 Black: Abbasid Caliphate.
 White: Umayyad Caliphate.
 Green: Fatimid Caliphate.
 Red Triangle: Hashemite dynasty.
 Seven-Pointed Star: Unity, freedom, hope,
national spirit, humility, social justice,
aspirations.
Landforms:
 Jebel Um Adami: Highest peak, 1,854
meters.
 Mount Nebo: Moses' viewing point.
 Jabal Haroun: Burial site of Aaron.
 Wadi Rum: "Valley of the Moon," UNESCO
World Heritage Site.
Waterforms:
 Jordan River: Forms western border, flows
into the Dead Sea.
 Dead Sea: World-famous saltwater lake,
high salt concentration.
People and Languages:
 Diverse population, Arab descendants,
indigenous Jordanians, Bedouins.
 Official language: Arabic.
Festivities:
 Independence Day (May 25th).
 Islamic Festivals: Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha.
 Jerash Festival of Culture and Arts.
Landmarks:
 Petra: "Rose City," UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
 Jerash: Well-preserved Roman ruins.
 Kerak Castle: Medieval castle.
 Ma'in Hot Springs: Natural hot springs.
Practices and Traditions:
 Arabic Coffee and Tea.
 Weddings and Celebrations.
 Henna Parties.
 Music and Dance (Dabke).
 Language and Poetry.
 Craftsmanship (rug weaving, pottery,
jewelry making).
Religion, Beliefs, and Rituals:
 Majority: Muslims (Sunni Islam).
 Prayer: Five daily prayers, Friday prayers.
 Ramadan: Month of fasting, prayer,
reflection.
 Eid Festivals.
  Hajj pilgrimage. People and Languages:
 Zakat: Giving of alms.  Qatari Nationals: Indigenous people, Arab
Dresses: Traditional Men Clothing: descent.
 Dishdasha or Kandura.  Official language: Arabic (Qatari Arabic,
 Keffiyeh or Ghutrah. Gulf Arabic).
 Agal. Festivities:
Traditional Women Dress:  Qatar National Day (December 18).
 Thoub or Jilbab.  Eid Al-Fitr and Eid Al-Adha.
Civilization: Ancient Jordanian Civilization:  Garangao: Traditional Ramadan celebration
 Ammonites: Settled in the region, for children.
established cities.  Qatar International Food Festival.
Greco-Roman Period: Landmarks:
 Hellenistic Influence.  The Pearl-Qatar: Man-made island, upscale
Byzantine Empire: shopping, dining, residential areas.
 Early Christianity.  Aspire Zone: Home to the Aspire Tower,
Islamic Civilization: sports complex.
 Islamic Conquests.  Museum of Islamic Art (MIA): Designed by I.
Crusader Period: M. Pei.
 Crusader castles (Kerak, Ajloun).  State Grand Mosque: One of the largest
Ottoman Empire: mosques.
 Ottoman Rule.  Al Zubarah Fort: UNESCO World Heritage
Modern Jordan: site.
 Independence from British mandate in  Qatar National Library.
1946.  National Museum of Qatar.
Government: Practices and Traditions:
 King Abdullah II.  Falconry: Traditional sport and pastime.
 Constitutional monarchy with a  Al-Sadu Festival: Celebrates Sadu weaving,
parliamentary system. traditional craft.
Colonialism:  Camel Racing: Popular sport, part of
 Ottoman Rule. cultural heritage.
 World War I and the End of Ottoman Rule. Religion, Beliefs, and Rituals:
 British Mandate.  Islam as the official religion.
 Formation of Transjordan.  Tawhid: Belief in one God.
 Independence and Modern Jordan.  Prophethood: Belief in Prophet Muhammad
and the Quran.
QATAR REVIEWER  Islamic Practices: Prayer, fasting, charity,
Geography: pilgrimage.
 Peninsular Arab country.  Islamic Holidays: Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha.
 Arid desert terrain. Dresses:
 Persian Gulf shoreline.  Men: Thobe, gutra, agal.
Capital and Population:  Women: Abaya, hijab, niqab.
 Capital: Doha.  Thoub al-Nashl, Darra’ah, Serwal: Urban
 Population: 2.8 million. dresses with gold embroidery.
 Currency: Qatari Riyal (QAR). Civilization:
Flag:  Ancient Roots: Evidence of human
 White: Peace. habitation for 7,000 years.
 Maroon: Bloodshed.  Bronze Age Prosperity: Trading hub,
 Serrated edge: Nine white triangles, historic Zubarah city.
battles.  Pearl Diving Legacy: Economy thrived on
Landforms: pearl diving.
 Khor Al Adaid (Inland Sea): Inlet of the  Bedouin Traditions: Influence on Qatari
Persian Gulf, rolling sand dunes, popular society.
tourist destination.  Islamic Impact: Spread in the 7th century.
 Jassassiyeh Rock Carvings: Ancient  Colonial Eras: Ottoman and British
petroglyphs, prehistoric times. influences.
 Ras Abrouq Rock Formations: Limestone  Independence and Modernization: Gained
formations, picturesque rock outcrops. independence in 1971, rapid modernization.
 Purple Island: Mangrove forests, nature Government:
enthusiasts, bird watchers.  Absolute monarchy.
  Hereditary ruling family.
 Legal system based on Islamic law.
 Constitutional monarchy.
 Emir: Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani.
Colonialism:
 Late 19th Century: Ottoman Empire's
influence, tribute to Ottomans.
 Early 20th Century: Treaties with the British
Empire, seeking British protection.
 Emergence of the Al Thani Family.
 Tensions between Ottomans and British.
 British Protection.
 Mid-20th Century: Discovery of oil and gas
reserves.
 1971: Full independence from British
protection.
 Modern Qatar: Rapid modernization,
economic development.
 Global Influence: Prominent in international
diplomacy and politics.
CYPRUS REVIEWER
Geography:
 3rd largest Mediterranean island.
 Geographically in Western Asia, politically in
Europe.
 Southeast of Greece, south of Turkey, west
of Lebanon and Syria, north of Egypt, Israel,
and the Palestinian Gaza Strip.
 Area: 9,251 sq. km.
 Currency: Euros (EUR).
 Capital: Nicosia.
Flag:
 White Field: Peace and purity.
 Copper-Orange Silhouette: Symbolizes
copper-rich soil and historical economic
importance.
 Olive Branches: Peace and reconciliation
between Greek and Turkish Cypriots.
Landmarks:
 Mount Olympus: Highest peak (1,952
meters) in Troodos Mountains.
 Kyrenia Mountains: Also known as Five
Finger Mountains.
 Mesaoria Plain: Largest lowland region,
essential for agriculture.
Waterforms:
 Mediterranean Sea Coast: 648 km
coastline.
 Larnaca Salt Lake: Distinctive pink hue,
brine shrimp, and pink-colored algae.
 Kaledonia Waterfall: Famous waterfall in
Troodos Mountains.
 Aphrodite's Rock: Coastal rock formation,
birthplace of Aphrodite.
 Asprokremmos Dam: Large reservoir in
Paphos District.
 Blue Lagoon Cave: Natural cave with
crystal-clear water.
 Paphos Sea Caves: Unique formations
along the coastline.
People and Languages:
 Greek Cypriots: Majority population in the
southern part.
 Greek: Official language.
Practices and Traditions:
 Cuisine: Mediterranean flavors, halloumi,
souvlaki, kebabs, meze, pastries, olive oil,
and wine.
 Music and Dance: Rich tradition, bouzouki,
syrtos, zeimbekiko, tsifteteli.
 Art and Crafts: Pottery, weaving,
embroidery.
 Festivals: Kataklysmos, Wine Festivals,
Olive Festivals.
Festivities:
 Easter: Significant religious celebration.
 Kataklysmos (Flood Festival): Water-related
activities, 50 days after Easter.
 Limassol Carnival: Vibrant celebration with
parades.
 Ohi Day: October 28th, commemorates
Greece's refusal to surrender in World War
II.
 Independence Day: October 1st, gained
independence from British colonial rule.
 Saint Lazarus Feast: Honoring the patron
saint of Larnaca.
 Wine Festivals: Celebrate local wine culture.
Landmarks:
 Kyrenia Castle: Well-preserved medieval
fortress.
 Tombs of the Kings: Underground tombs in
Paphos.
 Paphos Archaeological Park: UNESCO
World Heritage Site with Roman and
Hellenistic ruins.
 Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque (Saint
Nicholas Cathedral): Gothic and Islamic
architecture.
Religion, Beliefs, and Rituals:
 Greek Orthodox Christianity: Majority
practice.
 Islam: Turkish Cypriot community practices
Sunni Islam.
Dresses:
 Vraka Pants: Baggy cotton trousers for
men.
 Sayia Dress: Traditional dress for women.
Civilization:
 Ancient Cyprus: Rich archaeological
heritage from Neolithic period.
 Bronze Age: Known for copper resources.
 Classical Period: Influenced by
Mycenaeans, Assyrians, Egyptians.
 Hellenistic and Roman Periods: Part of
Hellenistic Seleucid Empire, Ptolemaic
Kingdom, Roman Republic.
  Byzantine Rule: Spread of Christianity,
construction of churches and monasteries.
 Medieval Period: Conquered by Crusaders,
ruled by Lusignan dynasty and Knights
Templar.
 Venetian and Ottoman Rule: Sold to Venice,
captured by Ottoman Empire in 1570.
 British Colonial Period: Under British control
from 1878 to 1960.
 Independence and Conflict: Gained
independence in 1960, ethnic tensions,
Turkish invasion in 1974.
 Modern Cyprus: Division between Republic
of Cyprus (south) and Turkish Republic of
Northern Cyprus (north), ongoing
reunification efforts.
Government:
 Presidential republic with a democratic
system.
 President: Nikos Christodoulides.
Colonialism:
 Ottoman Rule (1571-1878): Part of Ottoman
Empire.
 British Colonial Period (1878-1960): Leased
to British Empire, modern infrastructure,
education, economic development.
 Independence and Conflict: Gained
independence in 1960, ethnic tensions,
ongoing division.
 Dresses:
KUWAIT REVIEWER
Geography:
 Located in the Middle East.
 Borders Iraq to the north and Saudi Arabia
to the south.
 Coastline along the Persian Gulf to the east.
 Area: 17,818 sq. km.
 Population: 4 million.
 Currency: Kuwaiti Dinars (KD).
 Capital: Kuwait City.
Flag:
 Green: Fertility and agricultural wealth.
 White: Purity and deeds of Kuwaiti people.
 Red: Blood of defenders and historical
struggle.
 Black Trapezoid: Victory over the nation's
rival.
Landmarks:
 Arabian Desert: One of the largest
continuous deserts in the world.
People and Languages:
 Kuwaiti Citizens: Native population.
 Arabic: Official language.
Festivities:
 Liberation Day: February 26th, marks
liberation from Iraqi invasion (1991).
 Islamic New Year: Marks the beginning of
the Islamic lunar calendar.
 Lailat al-Miraj: Night Journey of Prophet
Muhammad.
 Kuwaiti Independence Day: June 19th,
gained sovereignty from the UK in 1961.
Landmarks:
 Kuwait Towers: Iconic water towers
symbolizing modern achievements.
 Grand Mosque: One of the largest
mosques, open to non-Muslims.
 Seif Palace: Official residence of the Amir.
 Al Hamra Tower: Tallest skyscraper with a
unique twisted design.
Practices and Traditions:
 Traditional Dress: Dishdasha for men,
abaya for women.
 Traditional Food: Reflects cultural diversity,
includes biryani and machboos.
 Al Sadu weaving: UNESCO-listed Bedouin
weaving style with geometric patterns.
 Dances and Music: Ardha (sword dance)
and fijiri (sea-related song and dance).
Religion, Beliefs, and Rituals:
 Islam: Majority Sunni, minority Shia.
 Prayer: Five times a day facing Mecca.
 Fasting During Ramadan.
 Hajj Pilgrimage.
 Zakat: Giving to those in need.
 Eid Celebrations: Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-
Adha.
 Men: Kefiyyeh, Agal, Bisht, Dishdasha.
 Women: Abaya, Hijab, Traditional Wedding
Dress, Kuwaiti Darra’ah and Thoub.
Civilization:
 Bronze Age: Dilmun civilization, trade, and
commerce (circa 2000 BC).
 Hellenistic Period: Greek Seleucid Empire's
influence (4th-1st century BC).
 7th Century: Islamic Caliphate spreads
Islam.
 16th to Late 19th Century: Part of the
Ottoman Empire, focus on pearl diving and
trade.
 Early 20th Century: British protectorate after
World War I.
 1961: Kuwait gains full independence.
Government:
 Constitutional monarchy with a
parliamentary system.
 Head of State: Amir (Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-
Jaber Al-Sabah).
 Prime Minister: Sheikh Sabah Khaled Al-
Sabah.
Colonialism:
 Late 19th Century: Kuwait becomes a
British protectorate in 1899.
 Post-World War I: Establishment of the
British protectorate.
  1961: Kuwait gains full independence from
British protection.
SAUDI ARABIA REVIEWER
Geography:
 Middle East on the Arabian Peninsula.
 One of the largest countries globally
(2,150,000 sq. km).
 Population: 35.95 million.
 Currency: Saudi Riyals (SAR).
 Capital City: Riyadh.
Flag:
 Green: Symbolizes Islam, growth, and
hope.
 Shahada: Islamic declaration of faith.
 Sword: Represents strength, justice, and
military power.
Landforms:
 Al-Sarawat Mountains: Parallel to the Red
Sea, rugged terrain.
 Jabal Sawda: Highest peak (3,133 meters)
in Asir region.
 Rub' al Khali: One of the largest sand
deserts.
 Najd Plateau: Vast plateau, Riyadh situated
here.
People and Languages:
 Majority of Arab descent, often called Saudi
Arabs.
 Arabic: Official language.
 Presence of expatriate population, diverse
languages spoken.
Festivities:
 Saudi National Day: September 23rd,
commemorating the unification in 1932.
 Janadriyah Cultural Festival: Celebrates
diverse traditions, arts, crafts, and culinary
delights.
 Hajj Pilgrimages: Annual pilgrimage to
Mecca, significant religious event.
 Islamic New Year: Marks the beginning of
the Islamic lunar calendar.
Landmarks:
 Mada'in Saleh: UNESCO World Heritage
Site, ancient rock-cut tombs.
 Diriyah: Historical city, birthplace of the first
Saudi state.
 Qasr Al-Hukm: "Palace of Justice" in
Riyadh.
 Kingdom Centre Tower: Iconic skyscraper in
Riyadh.
 Al Faisaliyah Center: Prominent skyscraper
in Riyadh.
 Abraj Al Bait Towers: Located in Mecca,
adjacent to Masjid al-Haram.
Practices and Traditions:
 Daily Prayers: Five daily prayers, call to
prayer (Adhan).
 Ramadan: Month of fasting and reflection,
culminating in Eid al-Fitr.
 Hajj and Umrah: Significant pilgrimages to
Mecca and Medina.
 Arranged Marriages: Common with families
playing a central role.
 Traditional Crafts: Pottery, basket weaving.
 Traditional Music and Dance: Folk music,
ardah dance.
 Henna: Tradition among Saudi women,
especially during special occasions.
 Date Farming: Saudi Arabia among the
world's largest producers of dates.
 Hospitality and Food: Food is central to
Saudi culture, traditional dishes like "kabsa."
Religion, Beliefs, and Rituals:
 Birthplace of Islam, home to Mecca and
Medina.
 Sunni Islam: Predominant, follows the
Hanbali school.
 Five Pillars of Islam: Shahada, Salat, Zakat,
Sawm, Hajj.
 Mecca: Holiest city, Grand Mosque and the
Kaaba.
 Medina: Second holiest city, Prophet's
Mosque.
Dresses:
 Men: Kefiyyeh, Agal, Dishdasha.
 Women: Abaya, Hijab.
Civilization:
 Pre-Islamic Arabian Civilization.
 Rise of Islam in the 7th century.
 Islamic Empire's expansion.
 Islamic Civilization: Hub of Islamic
scholarship.
 Ottomans and Colonialism.
 Unification of Saudi Arabia in 1932.
 Modern Saudi Arabia: Founded by
Abdulaziz Ibn Saud.
 Modernization and Reforms: Vision 2030
initiative.
 Cultural Heritage: Celebrated through
music, dance, crafts, and festivals.
Government:
 Absolute monarchy blending Islamic law,
tribal customs, and modern structures.
 Monarchy: King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al
Saud is the current king.
Colonialism:
 Ottoman Rule (16th-20th Century).
 British Influence (19th-20th Century).
 World War I (1914-1918).
 Emergence of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
(1932).
 Recognition of Independence (Early 20th
Century).
 Discovery of Oil (1930s).
 Western Influence (20th Century).
 SYRIA REVIEWER
Geography:
 Borders: Turkey (north), Iraq (east), Jordan
(south), Israel (southwest), Lebanon (west).
 Coastline along the Mediterranean Sea.
 Area: 185,180 sq. km.
 Population: 17 million.
 Currency: Syrian Pound (SYP).
 Capital City: Damascus, one of the oldest
continuously inhabited cities.
Flag:
 Red: Symbolizes bloodshed in Syria's fight
for independence.
 White: Represents purity and the aspiration
for peace.
 Black: Represents Syria’s dark past and the
Abbasid Caliphate.
 Green Stars: Symbolize the ruling Ba’ath
Party’s principles of unity, freedom, and
socialism.
Landforms:
 Syrian Desert (Eastern Desert): Vast, spans
eastern and southeastern Syria, extends
into Jordan and Iraq. Harsh climate, arid
landscapes.
Waterforms:
 Orontes River (Nahr al-Asi): Flows through
western Syria, empties into the
Mediterranean. Vital for cities and
agriculture.
 Lake Assad: Man-made reservoir on the
Euphrates River, created by the Tabqa
Dam. Supports irrigation, hydroelectric
power, and flood control.
People and Languages:
 Majority: Arabs.
 Arabic: Official language, Syrian Arabic
widely spoken.
Religion, Beliefs, and Rituals:
 Islam: Majority Sunni, with Shia groups
present. Central role in daily life, including
regular prayer, Ramadan fasting, and
adherence to Islamic customs.
Festivities:
 Eid al-Fitr: Marks the end of Ramadan,
celebrated with family, special meals, and
gifts.
 Eid al-Adha: "Festival of Sacrifice,"
commemorates Ibrahim's willingness to
sacrifice his son.
 Christmas: Celebrated by the significant
Christian minority.
 New Year's Day: Celebrated with parties,
fireworks, and festivities.
 Independence Day (April 17th): Marks the
end of the French mandate in 1946.
Landmarks:
 Palmyra: Ancient city in the Syrian Desert,
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Krak des Chevaliers: Crusader castle near
Homs.
 Umayyad Mosque: In Damascus, one of the
oldest and largest mosques.
 Aleppo Citadel: Historic fortress in Aleppo.
 Azm Palace: Historic palace turned
museum in Damascus.
Practices and Traditions:
 Cuisine: Diverse, reflects history. Falafel,
shawarma, hummus, kibbeh, and kebabs.
 Music and Dance: Rich musical tradition,
Dabke is a traditional line dance.
 Arts and Crafts: Strong tradition of intricate
tile work, calligraphy, and carpet weaving.
 Coffee and Tea Traditions: Significance in
Syrian culture with specific rituals and
customs.
Dresses:
 Men: Thawb, Shirwal, Hizam, Kumbaz.
Leather cross belts and swords are part of
ceremonial dress.
 Women: Thob or Jalabiya, long, flowing,
colorful garments, often embroidered.
Headscarf or shawl.
Civilization:
 Akkadian Empire: Around 2300 BC.
 Arameans: Ancient Semitic people, Aramaic
language widespread.
 Hittite Empire: Anatolian people's influence
in northern Syria.
 Achaemenid Empire: Persian Empire's
incorporation of Syria in the 6th century BC.
 Seleucid Empire: Established after
Alexander the Great's death.
 Roman and Byzantine Period: Significant
province in both empires.
 Islamic Caliphates: Central region in the
early Islamic Caliphates, Umayyad
Caliphate's capital in Damascus.
 Crusader States: Significant during the
medieval period.
 Ottoman Empire: Part of the Ottoman
Empire from the 16th century to the early
20th century.
 French Mandate: Under French control after
World War I, gained independence in 1946.
Government:
 Ba'ath Party-led authoritarian government.
 President Bashar al-Assad as the head of
state.
 Limited political freedoms, significant role of
military and security apparatus.
Colonialism:
 Ottoman Rule: Part of the Ottoman Empire.
 French Mandate: Under French control from
1920 to 1946.
 Mandate Administration: Policies favored
certain religious and ethnic groups, leading
to tensions.
  Nationalist Movements: Rise of nationalist
movements and demands for
independence.
 Great Syrian Revolt: Major uprising against
French rule in 1925.
 Independence: Gained independence in
1946, marking the end of the colonial era in
Syria.
TURKEY REVIEWER
Geography:
 Transcontinental country on the Anatolian
Peninsula (Western Asia) and Balkan
Peninsula (Southeastern Europe).
 Area: 783,356 sq. km, 97% in Asia, the rest
in Europe.
 Population: 83,429,615.
 Currency: Turkish Lira (TRY).
 Capital City: Ankara, largest city and
economic center is Istanbul.
Flag:
 Red: Represents bloodshed by those who
fought for independence, symbolizing
courage.
 White Star and Crescent: Historical
connections to the Ottoman Empire,
representing Islam, the state, and progress.
Landmarks:
 Mount Ararat: Highest mountain, associated
with the biblical story of Noah's Ark.
 Taurus Mountains: Run parallel to the
southern coast, known for rugged terrain.
 Mount Nemrut: UNESCO World Heritage
Site, renowned for archaeological and
historical significance.
 Anatolian Plateau: Vast central plateau,
heartland of the country.
Waterforms:
 Kızılırmak River: One of the longest rivers,
flows northward into the Black Sea.
 Lake Van: Largest lake, endorheic, known
for clear waters and historical sites.
 Lake Tuz: Second-largest lake, famous for
high salinity levels.
 Lake Salda: "Turkey's Maldives" with
turquoise waters and white sandy shores.
 Düden Waterfalls: Upper and lower falls in
Antalya, lower falls cascade into the
Mediterranean Sea.
People and Languages:
 Majority: Turkish people, of Turkic origin.
 Official Language: Turkish. Several other
languages and dialects spoken.
Festivities:
 Ramadan (Şeker Bayramı): Eid al-Fitr,
celebrated with family, visits, and traditional
sweets.
 Sacrifice Feast (Kurban Bayramı): Eid al-
Adha, families sacrifice an animal, distribute
meat to the less fortunate.
 Republic Day (29 Ekim Cumhuriyet
Bayramı): Celebrates the founding of the
Turkish Republic in 1923.
 Newroz: Traditional spring festival
celebrated by Kurds and other communities.
 Hıdırellez: Celebration of the arrival of
spring with rituals, music, dancing, and
colorful celebrations.
 Tulip Festival (Lâle Festivali): April festival
in Istanbul featuring millions of tulips.
Landmarks:
 Hagia Sophia: Historic architectural
masterpiece in Istanbul, served as a church,
mosque, and museum.
 Blue Mosque: Famous for blue-tiled interior
and six minarets.
 Topkapi Palace: Historic palace in Istanbul,
once the residence of Ottoman sultans, now
a museum.
 Cappadocia: Natural and cultural wonder
known for unique rock formations,
underground cities, and hot air balloon
rides.
 Pamukkale: Natural wonder in southwestern
Turkey featuring terraces of white mineral-
rich thermal waters.
Practices and Traditions:
 Cuisine: Renowned for rich flavors and
diverse dishes, including kebabs, baklava,
mezes, and Turkish coffee.
 Tea Culture: Integral part of Turkish culture,
with tea houses (çay evi) as common
gathering places.
 Traditional Arts: Rich tradition of arts and
crafts, including carpet weaving, calligraphy,
and ceramics.
 Whirling Dervishes: Mevlevi Order's Sufi
sect known for their mesmerizing dance.
 Hamams: Turkish baths, important for
relaxation and cleansing rituals.
Religion, Beliefs, and Rituals:
 Islam: Majority Sunni, mosques abundant,
Friday is a holy day with the call to prayer
(Adhan).
 Religious Holidays: Celebrates Ramadan
(Şeker Bayramı) and Eid al-Adha (Kurban
Bayramı) with religious observances and
family gatherings.
Dresses:
 Şalvar: Loose, baggy pants.
 Yelek: Vest adorned with intricate
embroidery.
 Takke and Sarık: Small, round cap and a
long piece of cloth wrapped around the
head.
  Fes: Distinctive red hat associated with the
Ottoman period.
 Kaftan: Long, flowing robe worn on special
occasions.
 Tulbent: Traditional headscarf or veil.
Civilization:
 Hittite Empire: Great ancient Anatolian
civilization, capital at Hattusa.
 Phrygian Civilization: Known for distinctive
rock-cut monuments.
 Lydian Kingdom: Credited with creating the
world's first coinage system.
 Urartu: Located in eastern Anatolia, known
for impressive fortresses.
 Achaemenid Empire: Persian influence in
parts of Anatolia.
 Greek Colonies and Cities: Numerous
established on the western coast of
Anatolia.
 Seleucid Empire: Ruled over parts of
Anatolia after the division of Alexander the
Great's empire.
 Kingdom of Pergamon: Hellenistic kingdom
known for its library and the Altar of Zeus.
 Roman Empire: Major cities like Ephesus
and Byzantium in Anatolia.
 Byzantine Empire: Eastern part of the
Roman Empire with the capital in
Constantinople.
 Ottoman Empire: Grew to be a powerful
empire spanning three continents.
 Modern Turkey: Republic of Turkey
established in 1923 after World War I and
the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
Government:
 Democratic republic with a presidential
system.
 President is the head of state (Recep
Tayyip Erdoğan).
 Executive branch led by the Council of
Ministers.
 Legislative branch: Grand National
Assembly of Turkey (TBMM).
 Judiciary is meant to be independent.
 Multi-party system, local government at
various levels.
Colonialism:
 Turkey did not experience traditional
colonialism.
 Faced foreign influence within the Ottoman
Empire.
 Transition to the Republic of Turkey in 1923
marked a significant shift towards
sovereignty and independence.