01.

Units and Measurements

01.Base Quantities: 02.Derived Quantities: 03.Angle Measurements:
Length, Mass, Time, Temperature, Current, Velocity, 𝜋
𝜋 = 180° , = 1°
Luminuous intensity and amount of substance. Acceleration, Pressure 180°
1° = 60′ (𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑚𝑖𝑛), 1′ = 60′′ (𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐), 1° = 3600′′
04.Sector formula: 05.Parallax: 06.Astronomical distances:
1 Light year = 3 × 10 8 𝑚/𝑠 × 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 × 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 × 3600 𝑠
= 9.46 × 1015 𝑚 (distance travelled by light in 1 year)

1 Astronomical Unit = 1 𝐴𝑈 = 1.496 × 1011 𝑚 (average

radius between sun and earth)
angle in radians
1 Parsec = 3.08 × 1016 𝑚 (parallax sec)
Determining Astronomical Distances:
Triangulation method: Parallax method: RADAR method:Radio Detection and Ranging.
Electromagnetic waves
travel at the speed of
light.
2𝑑
𝑣=
𝑡

ℎ
tan 𝜃 = 𝑥. (𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) = 𝑏
𝑥
10−15 femto 103 kilo 101 deca Approx. sizes:
10−12 pico 106 Mega 102 hecto 10−6 𝑚 Molecule
−10
10−9 nano 109 Giga 10−1 deci 10 𝑚 Atom
−14
10−6 𝜇 micro 1012 Tera 10−2 centi 10 𝑚 Nucleus
10−3 milli 1015 Peta 10−15 𝑚 Proton

Error: Uncertainty of measurement, Example: 2.1, 2.3, 2.5, 2.2, 2.4 , five repeat measurements
Mean or Avg. value Absolute error Mean Absolute error Relative error Percentage error
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ |∆𝑎𝑖 | = |𝑎𝑖 − 𝑎𝑚 | |𝑎1 | + |𝑎2 | + ⋯ ∆𝑎𝑚 ∆𝑎𝑚
𝑎𝑚 = ∆𝑎𝑚 = 𝑅𝑒𝑙. 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ∗ 100
𝑛 𝑛 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑚
11.5 Average is taken as true 0.6 0.12 0.12
𝑎𝑚 = value in most practical ∆𝑎𝑚 = = 0.12 𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑒𝑙. 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ∗ 100
5 5 2.3 2.3
= 2.3 𝑚𝑚 situations. Importance of Relative error: Scale L.C = 1 mm,
|∆𝑎1 | = |2.1 − 2.3| = 0.2 Pen cap diameter measurement 10 mm will have
|∆𝑎2 | = |2.3 − 2.3| = 0 1/10 = 10% relative error.
|∆𝑎3 | = |2.5 − 2.3| = 0.2 Table length measurement 1000 mm will have
|∆𝑎4 | = |2.2 − 2.3| = 0.1 1/1000 = 0.1% relative error.
|∆𝑎5 | = |2.4 − 2.3| = 0.1 So scale is suitable for measuring a table length
but not for pen cap diameter.
Accuracy Precision
How close is the value from the true value? Difference between How consistent the values are? How repeatable the values are.
the average value and the true value is the measure of accuracy. Difference between the highest and lowest of repeated values.
Lower the difference more accurate the value is. Lower this difference the readings are more precise.
e.g. 70, 71, 70 kg (measurement repeated three times) e.g. 72.2, 72.3, 72.1 kg
Let us say the true value is 70 kg Let us say the true value is 70 kg
Average value = 70.5 kg Average value = 72.2 kg
Error = 0.5 kg Error = 2.2 kg
Range = 71 – 70 = 1 kg Range = 72.3 – 72.1 = 0.2 kg
Accurate but not precise. Precise but not accurate.
Not Accurate not Precise: Accurate but not Precise: Precise but not Accurate: Accurate and Precise:
Propagation / Combination of errors:
Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division
𝑍 = 𝐴+𝐵 𝑍 =𝐴−𝐵 𝑍 = 𝐴. 𝐵 𝐴
𝑍=
𝐵
∆𝑍 = ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵 ∆𝑍 = ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵 ∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
= + = +
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵 𝑍 𝐴 𝐵
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 + 𝐵) ± ∆𝐴 ± ∆𝐵 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ± ∆𝐴 ∓ ∆𝐵 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴). (𝐵 ± ∆𝐵) ∆𝐴
(𝐴 ± ∆𝐴) 𝐴 (1± )
= (𝐴 + 𝐵) ± (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵) = (𝐴 + 𝐵) ± (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵) 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝐴𝐵 ± 𝐴. ∆𝐵 ± ∆𝐴. 𝐵 ± ∆𝐴. ∆𝐵 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = = 𝐴
𝑍 ∆𝑍 𝐴𝐵 𝐴∆𝐵 ∆𝐴𝐵 (𝐵 ± ∆𝐵) ∆𝐵
± = ± ± 𝐵 (1± )
𝐵
𝑍 𝑍 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 −1
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝑍 ( 1 ± ) ( 1 ± )
= + 𝐴 𝐵
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
(1 ± )= 1±( + )
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵
This is valid only when ∆𝐴. ∆𝐵 is negligible. Otherwise that term should also be taken into
calculation.

𝐴3 𝐵2 ∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ∆𝐶
Powers: 𝑍 = , =3 +2 4
𝐶4 𝑍 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶

What are Significant Figures?

Significant figures = no. of certain digits + one uncertain digit.
If we measure 67 mm with scale, it means we are certain about the digit 6. But we are not certain about the digit 7. It could be 6 or
it could be 8 as the least count L.C of scale is 1 mm. So the significant figures for 67 mm is 2.
If we measure the same object as 66.5 mm with vernier, it means 2 digits 66 we are certain, but we are not certain about 0.5 because
it could be 0.4 or it could be 0.6 as the L.C of vernier is 0.1 mm.
Rules for determining Significant Figures Example sf
1) All non-zero digits are significant. 5314 4 sf
2) All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. 5004 4 sf
1.000 060 32 9 sf
3) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit and left of a decimal point are 50400. 5 sf
significant.
4) a)The number without a decimal point, the trailing zeros are not significant. 50400 3 sf
b) All zeros are significant if they come from a measurement. 50400 5 sf
5) If the number is less than 1, the zeros right of the decimal point but left of 0.000 540 4 4 sf
the first non-zero digit are not significant.
6) All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the right of non-zero digit are 50.00 4 sf
significant. 0.000 540 400 6 sf
7) The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of units 14.5 mm, 1.45 cm, 3 sf
used. 0.0145 m, 0.000 0145 km
8) The power of 10 is irrelevant to the determination of significant figures. 2.65 x 1024, 26.5 x 1023, 265 x 1022 3 sf
9) Values which are neither measured nor rounded but multiplication or Circumference = 2𝜋𝑟 Infinite
division factors have infinite significant figures. Here 2 is an exact number. It can be
taken as 2 or 2.0 or 2.00 as required.
Rules for Rounding off: Examples
If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left as such. 5.32 is rounded off to 5.3
If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by 1. 5.37 is rounded off to 5.4
If the digit to be dropped is 5, followed by non-zero numbers, it means it is definitely greater 5.352 is rounded off to 5.4
than 5. So the preceding digit is increased by 1.
If the digit to be dropped is 5, followed by zero, it means it is in the border line, should the 5.350 is rounded off to 5.4
preceding digit be added with one or not depends on whether it is odd or even respectively. 5.250 is rounded off to 5.2
7.35 is rounded off to 7.4
7.25 is rounded off to 7.2
Rules for rounding off during mathematical operations:
Add and Subtract Multiply and Divide
While adding and subtracting, the final result should retain the While multiplying and dividing, the final result should retain the
same no. of decimal places as there are in the number with the same no. of significant figures as there are in the number with
smallest number of decimal places. the smallest number of significant figures.
3.1+1.780 = 4.880 rounded off to 4.9 (1 dp) 1.21 x 36.72 = 44.4312 rounded off to 44.4 (3 sf)
3.1-1.780 = 1.320 rounded off to 1.3 (1 dp) 36.72 / 1.2 = 30.6 rounded off to 31 (2 sf)
Example to determine uncertainties in arithmetic operation (using propagation of errors formula and rounding off rules):
𝑙 = 16.2 ± 0.1 𝑐𝑚 ∆𝑍 ∆𝑙 ∆𝑏 ∆𝑍 0.1 0.1 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 164 ± 3
= + ⇒ = +
𝑏 = 10.1 ± 0.1 𝑐𝑚 𝑍 𝑙 𝑏 163.62 16.2 10.1 (3 sf) (1 sf)
𝑍 = 𝑙. 𝑏
= 16.2 ∗ 10.1 ∆𝑍 = 1.0 + 1.62
= 163.62 ∆𝑍 = 1 + 2 (each rounded off to 1 sf)
Rounded off to 164 (3 sf) ∆𝑍 = 3 (0 dp)
Order of Magnitude: First step is to write the number in standard notation.
4.7 x 1010 5 x 1010 5.1 x 1010
4.7 ≤ 5 so approximated to 1 5 ≤ 5 so approximated to 1 5.1 > 5 so approximated to 10
1 x 1010 1 x 1010 10 x 1010 = 1 x 1011
Order of Magnitude is 10 Order of Magnitude is 10 Order of Magnitude is 11

Dimensions for unit conversion Checking Dimentional homogeneity Deriving Relationships using Dimensions
𝑛𝑆𝐼 𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇1 −2 = 𝑛𝑐𝑔𝑠 𝑀2 𝐿2 𝑇2 −2 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 Time period of a pendulum,
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑇 ∝ 𝑚𝑎 𝑙 𝑏 𝑔𝑐
1 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑚 (1 𝑠)−2 ⇒ = + 2∗𝑠
𝑛𝑆𝐼 = 𝑛𝑐𝑔𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝑘. 𝑀𝑎 𝐿𝑏 (𝐿𝑇 −2 )𝑐
0 0 1
1 𝑔 1 𝑐𝑚 (1 𝑠)−2
1000 𝑔 100 𝑐𝑚 (1 𝑠)−2 𝑎=0
(1) = 𝑛𝑐𝑔𝑠 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 𝑏+𝑐 =0
1𝑔 1 𝑐𝑚 (1 𝑠)−2 𝑚 2 𝑚 2 𝑚 −1 1
5
10 = 𝑛𝑐𝑔𝑠 ⇒ ( ) =( ) + 2 ∗𝑚 𝑐= 𝑏=
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 2 2
1 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑐𝑔𝑠 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠
1 𝑁 = 105 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 1 1
𝑇 = 𝑘. 𝑚0 𝑙 2 𝑔−2
𝑙
𝑇 = 𝑘. √
𝑔
k constant can be found only from
experiments not by dimensional analysis.
𝑚 𝑐𝑚 Similarly for Centripetal force,
1 𝑁 = 1 𝑘𝑔 2
= 1000 𝑔. 100 2
𝑠 𝑠 𝐹 ∝ 𝑘. 𝑚𝑎 𝑟 𝑏 𝑣 𝑐
= 105 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 …………….
1 𝐽 = 1 𝑁𝑚 = 105 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠. 100𝑐𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2
= 107 𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑠 𝐹=
𝑟
Error: Difference between measured value and true value.
Systematic Error: Random Error:
Have a proper reason, why this error happens. Tends to be in Occurs irregularly and does not happen in one single direction.
one direction +ve or –ve. May be +ve or –ve.
e.g. e.g.
Instrumental error when same person repeats the measurement, values are
Imperfect experimental technique different.
Personal errors Unpredictable fluctuations in conditions like temperature,
voltage, vibrations etc.
Instrumental error: Imperfect experimental technique: Personal error: L.C error:
e.g. e.g. e.g. Least Count of an equipment is
calibration error, body temperature measured in armpit is lower viewing in the least value the equipment
zero mark do not coincide in than the actual body temperature. wrong angle can measure.
vernier, External conditions such as temperature, causing e.g. 1 mm for scale, 0.1 mm for
zero mark worn out in scale, wind, humidity affecting measurements such parallax error. vernier, 0.01 mm for screw
as NOx in engine emissions. gauge.
Zero Error + ve  Zero Correction will be –ve, Zero Error - ve  Zero Correction will be + ve
Concepts in Main Scale Division Concepts in Main Scale Reading MSR, Spherometer and Screw gauge:
MSD, Vernier Scale Division VSD, Vernier Scale Reading VSR, Total Reading: 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
Least Count LC: 𝐿𝐶 =
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝑀𝑆𝑅 = 11 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑛 𝑉𝑆𝐷 = (𝑛 − 1) 𝑀𝑆𝐷
For example, usually in a vernier, 𝑉𝑆𝑅 = 𝐿𝐶 × 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
10 𝑉𝑆𝐷 = 9 𝑀𝑆𝐷 = 0.1 𝑚𝑚 × 6𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 = 0.6 𝑚𝑚 𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤)
(𝑛 − 1) 𝐿𝐶 =
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟
1 𝑉𝑆𝐷 = 𝑀𝑆𝐷
𝑛 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑀𝑆𝑅 + 𝑉𝑆𝑅 = 11 + 0.6 = 11.6 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐿𝐶 = 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷 − 1 𝑉𝑆𝐷
(𝑛 − 1) Same method applicable for Screw Gauge. For Screw Gauge,
𝐿𝐶 = 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷 − 𝑀𝑆𝐷 1 1 𝑚𝑚
𝑛 Pitch Scale is similar to Main Scale and 𝐿𝐶 = 𝑀𝑆𝐷 = = 0.01 𝑚𝑚
Drum Scale is similar to Vernier Scale. 𝑛 100 𝑑𝑖𝑣
1 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
𝐿𝐶 = 𝑀𝑆𝐷 =
𝑛 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
For Vernier,
1 1 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝐶 = 𝑀𝑆𝐷 = = 0.1 𝑚𝑚
𝑛 10 𝑑𝑖𝑣
02.Motion in One Dimension
Distance vs. Displacement:
Scalar (Only Vector (Magnitude and
Magnitude) Direction)
Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity Distance = 8 m,
Only + ve +ve and –ve values
values possible Displacement = Final position – Initial position
= -2 – 0 = -2.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
Average
velocity, like
displacement
depends only
upon initial
and final
positions and
100+100 not on the
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = 66.6 𝑘𝑚/ℎ path taken.
1+2

As ∆𝑡 → 0, the secant line becomes tangent line.

Slope of the tangent at a given time instant gives the

instantaneous velocity.

Instantaneous speed and instantaneous velocity will be

equal.
Slope gives instantaneous acceleration.
Position, Distance vs. Time Speed or Velocity vs. Time
 v vs. t graphs and distance travelled:
Typed Problem:
This is a typical velocity vs. time
graph for a ball thrown vertically
upwards.
The straight line shows the slope
acceleration is constant and negative.

Introduction to Differentiation: 𝑑 𝑛
∆𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑑𝑥
∆𝑥
𝐴𝑠 ∆𝑥 → 0 Since slope is a
𝑑𝑦 function of x, it
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = means the slope
𝑑𝑥
is the slope of may not be a
the tangent. const. and it can
change at every
point as shown in
the graph.

Introduction to Integration:

5
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 5
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = 𝑦. 𝑑𝑥 0 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
5
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = ∫ 𝑦. 𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 25 0 5
0
=[ ] = − = 12.5 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑥3 125 0
𝑥 𝑛+1 2 0 2 2 =[ ] = − = 41.6 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐 3 0 3 2
𝑛+1

Equations of Motion: only when acceleration is const.

𝑣−𝑢 Displacement done in time t: Replace t,
𝑎= 𝑣−𝑢
𝑡 1
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + (𝑣 − 𝑢)𝑡 𝑡=
2 𝑎
1 1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + (𝑣 − 𝑢)𝑡
2 2
𝑣+𝑢 At time 𝑡 = 0, if 𝑣−𝑢 1 𝑣−𝑢 2
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑠 = 𝑢( )+ 𝑎( )
2 displacement is not zero and has a initial 𝑎 2 𝑎
This is only for const. acceleration. displacement then, 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
1
𝑠 = 𝑠𝑜 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠
𝑎= 𝑣= 𝑎= = .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡
𝑠 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑜 0 ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑡 0 𝑢
𝑢 0
[𝑠]𝑠𝑠𝑜 = ∫ (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑣
[𝑣]𝑣𝑢 = 𝑎[𝑡]𝑡0 1 𝑣2
𝑠 − 𝑠𝑜 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑎[𝑠]0𝑠 = [ ]
2 2 𝑢
𝑣 − 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑡 1
𝑠 = 𝑠𝑜 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
2
Displacement in the nth sec: Galileo’s law of odd numbers: When a ball is dropped, the
𝑠𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐. = 𝑠𝑛 − 𝑠𝑛−1 distance covered in equal intervals of time is a ratio of odd
𝑎 numbers.
𝑠𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐. = 𝑢 + (2𝑛 − 1) 1
2 𝑠 = 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑔/2 × __ Dist. covered in equal
intervals of 1 sec.
Dist. covered in equal
intervals of 2 sec.
𝑔/2 × __ 𝑔/2 × __
𝑠0 0
𝑠1 1 1
𝑠2 4 3 4....1x4
𝑠3 9 5
𝑠4 16 7 12….3x4
𝑠5 25 9
𝑠6 36 11 20….5x4
Negative Displacement Stopping/Braking Distance: Reaction time:
When a ball is thrown vertically upwards When brakes are applied to stop a car, it When a ruler is dropped vertically, the
from a building of 25 m height, what is the is negative acceleration. distance after which a person is able catch
time taken for it to reach the ground? 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 the ruler will give the reaction time t.
1 𝑢2 1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑠= 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 2𝑎 2
1 1 2
−25 = 20𝑡 − 10 𝑡 2 𝑠 = 𝑔𝑡
2 2
𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 − 5 = 0
𝑡 = −1 𝑠𝑒𝑐, 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Relative velocity: Uniform velocity . Relative Velocity: Accelerating

𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑢𝐴𝐵 + 𝑎𝐴𝐵 𝑡
𝑣𝐴𝐵 = (𝑢𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 ) + (𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 )𝑡

Relative velocity of A w.r.t. B is
𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 = 60 − 40 = 20 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
A is ahead of B by 20 km every hour.
Relative velocity of B w.r.t. A is
𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 = 40 − 60 = −20 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
B is behind A by 20 km every hour.
Typed Problems: Relative Velocity:
Relative Displacement:
Relative velocity of A w.r.t. B is 1
𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 = 60 − (−40) = 100 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 𝑠𝐴𝐵 = 𝑠𝑜 𝐴𝐵 + 𝑢𝐴𝐵 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐴𝐵 𝑡 2
2
A is ahead of B by 100 km every hour. 𝑠𝐴𝐵 = (𝑠𝑜𝐴 − 𝑠𝑜𝐵 ) + (𝑢𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 )𝑡
1
Relative velocity of B w.r.t. A is + (𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 )𝑡 2
2
𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 = −40 − 60 = −100 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
B is behind A by 100 km every hour.

Slope is same, so velocity is same.

𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 = 20 − 20 = 0 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 = 20 − 20 = 0 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑠𝐴𝐵 = (𝑠𝑜𝐴 − 𝑠𝑜𝐵 ) + (𝑢𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 )𝑡
1 𝑡 = 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
+ (𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 )𝑡 2
2
𝑠𝐴𝐵 = (10 − 20) = −10 𝑚
When do they meet? When do they meet?
𝑠𝐴𝐵 = (𝑠𝑜𝐴 − 𝑠𝑜𝐵 ) + (𝑢𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 )𝑡 𝑠𝐴𝐵 = (𝑠𝑜𝐴 − 𝑠𝑜𝐵 ) + (𝑢𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 )𝑡
1 1
+ (𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 )𝑡 2 + (𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 )𝑡 2
2 2
0 = (10 − 40) + (20 − 10)𝑡 + 0 0 = (10 − 40) + (20 − (−10))𝑡 + 0
𝑡 = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Where do they meet? Where do they meet?
1 1
𝑠𝐴 = 𝑠𝑜𝐴 + 𝑢𝐴 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐴 𝑡 2 𝑠𝐴 = 𝑠𝑜𝐴 + 𝑢𝐴 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐴 𝑡 2
2 2
= 10 + 20 × 3 + 0 = 70 𝑚 = 10 + 20 × 1 + 0 = 30 𝑚
1 1
𝑠𝐵 = 𝑠𝑜𝐵 + 𝑢𝐵 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐵 𝑡 2 𝑠𝐵 = 𝑠𝑜𝐵 + 𝑢𝐵 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐵 𝑡 2
2 2
= 40 + 10 × 3 + 0 = 70 𝑚 = 40 − 10 × 1 + 0 = 30 𝑚
03.Motion in 2D- Centripetal Force, Projectile Motion
Centripetal Force Demanded: Ball tied to a string: Moon going around earth:
𝑚𝑣 2 CF provided = CF demanded CF provided = CF demanded
𝐶𝐹 = 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑟 𝑇= =
Some other force such as Friction, 𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟
Gravitation, Normal reaction, Tension 𝑇max is the
𝐺𝑀
must provide this required or demanded maximum capacity of the spring 𝑣0 = √
centripetal force, otherwise the circular 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑟
motion is not possible. 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≥ is the orbital
𝑟
Condition for string not to break velocity.
Plane taking a turn: Conical Pendulum: Cyclist taking a turn:
𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑟
𝑟
CF provided = CF CF provided = CF
demanded demanded
𝑣2 𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑟𝑔 𝑟𝑔 𝑟𝑔

Car taking a turn in circular road: Car taking a turn in Banked road:
While taking a turn in car, we Principle is the normal reaction force from the road surface when tilted towards the center of circular road,
take a wider turn and reduce contributes for centripetal force in addition to friction so higher speeds during turning possible.
the speed so that the CF
demanded is reduced and it is
safe to turn.
𝑚𝑔 + 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑁 sin 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 cos 𝜃 =
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑟
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = CF provided = CF demanded
𝑟 Solve for N and 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 we get
𝑚𝑣 2
𝜇𝑁 = 𝑔𝑟(sin 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) 2
𝑟 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑚𝑣 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑠 sin 𝜃)
𝜇𝑚𝑔 = 2
µ𝑠 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝑟 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔𝑟 [ ]
2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑟𝑔, 𝑣 2 ≤ 𝜇𝑟𝑔 for safe turning 1 − 𝜇𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
2
Special case when 𝜃 = 0 it is flat road, no banking, 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑟𝑔
Round About Ride:
We feel we are being pushed against the wall and slightly raised up. But actually we are feeling the wall pushing on us which is
normal reaction contact force N. In other cases the CF provided causes the circular motion. Here the circular motion provides the N on
the human body to make it rotate.
𝑚𝑣 2
In equilibrium, 𝐹 = 𝑊, 𝑁 =
𝑟
As speed increases, N increases so the friction of the human body against the wall increases, opposite to the weight of the human
body. So the person feels as though he is lifted up because there is no reaction force from the ground.

Vertical Circular motion: At highest point H: At lowest point L:

In non-uniform vertical circular motion the 𝑚𝑣 2 Total Energy at L = Total Energy at H
velocity changes at each point, due to gravity 𝑇 + 𝑚𝑔 = 1
coming into picture as compared to horizontal 𝑟 0 + 𝑚𝑣𝐿2 = 𝑚𝑔(2𝑟)
motion, when 𝑇𝐻 = 0, so that the ball 2
does not loop the loop. 1
∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 in + 𝑚𝑣𝐻2
𝑚𝑣𝐻2 2
circular world, 0 + 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑣𝐿2 = 4𝑔𝑟 + 𝑔𝑟
towards the center 𝑟
it is taken as 𝑣𝐻 = √𝑔𝑟 𝑣𝐿 = √5𝑔𝑟
positive, so for a
𝑣𝐻 ≥ √𝑔𝑟 for the ball to loop the loop. 𝑣𝐿 ≥ √5𝑔𝑟
general point,
𝑚𝑣 2 At lowest point the minimum
𝑇𝐻 + 𝑚𝑔 = ⇒ 𝑇𝐻 ≥ 0 speed must be this value for the ball to
𝑟
reach the top.
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 = 𝑇𝐿 − 𝑚𝑔 = ⇒ 𝑇𝐿 ≥ 6𝑚𝑔
𝑟 𝑟
Understanding Centrifugal force:
Pseudo force or virtual force – Not really existing.
In a car sudden brake makes the upper body to go forward, but there is no force acted on the upper part of the body, but still the body moved
due to inertia. This is called Pseudo force. This is in linear world.
From the rotating disk, the loose object will fly out straight in AB direction. This is the reality for a person observing from outside reference.
For a person sitting at the center of the disk, the object will appear to be flying out radially outwards as illustrated. This is why Centrifugal
force seems to be acting radially outwards. Centrifugal force is a pseudo force of centripetal force.
Type 1 Projectile Motion: can be considered as two Y- axis: X - axis:
simultaneous perpendicular motions in X and Y axes. 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔 𝑎𝑥 = 0
1 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 Range,
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2 At highest point 𝑣𝑦 = 0 , 1
Sub. t in terms of x, we get 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 . 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
𝑢𝑦 𝑢 sin 𝜃 2
1 𝑔 𝑡1/2 = − = 𝑢𝑦 𝑢2 sin 2𝜃
𝑦 = tan 𝜃 𝑥 − 𝑥2 𝑎𝑦 𝑔 𝑅 = 𝑢𝑥 2 =
2 𝑢 cos 2 𝜃
2
𝑎𝑦 𝑔
So the trajectory is an inverted parabola. 𝑡𝑓 = 2 𝑡1/2
Max. Range,
𝑢2
1 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = when 𝜃 = 45𝑜
𝑆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2 𝑔
2 2
𝑢𝑦 1 𝑢𝑦 Galileo’s Law: Two projectiles of
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 (− ) + 𝑎𝑦 (− )
𝑎𝑦 2 𝑎𝑦 angles more and less from 45o will
1 𝑢𝑦2 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 have same range. E.g. 30o and 60o
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − = have same range.
2 𝑎𝑦 2𝑔
Type 2 Projectile Motion: Y- axis: X - axis:
Velocity with which it will 𝑢𝑦 = 0 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢
hit the ground, 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔 𝑎𝑥 = 0
𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 Time of Flight, 𝑡𝑓 Range,
1 1
𝑆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 . 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
𝑣= √𝑢𝑥2+ 2𝑔ℎ 2
1 2 2
𝑣𝑦 −ℎ = − 𝑔𝑡
tan 𝜃 = 2 2ℎ
𝑢𝑥 𝑅 = 𝑢𝑥 √
2ℎ 𝑔
𝑡𝑓 = √
𝑔
𝑣𝑦 just before hitting the ground,
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
2ℎ
𝑣𝑦 = −𝑔√ = −√2𝑔ℎ
𝑔

Velocity vector and Displacement vector: 𝑣⃗ = 𝑢 ⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗ 𝑡

𝑣𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗⃗ = (𝑢𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑢𝑦 𝑗⃗) + (𝑎𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗⃗)𝑡
1
𝑆⃗ = 𝑢⃗⃗𝑡 + 𝑎⃗𝑡 2
2
1
𝑆𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑆𝑦 𝑗⃗ = (𝑢𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑢𝑦 𝑗⃗)𝑡 + (𝑎𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗⃗)𝑡 2
2

Along Inclined Plane Up: Y- axis: X - axis:

𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃
𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔 cos 𝛼 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑔 sin 𝛼
𝑢𝑦 𝑢 sin 𝜃 Range,
𝑡1/2 = − = 1
𝑎𝑦 𝑔 cos 𝛼 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 . 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
1 𝑢𝑦2 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 2
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − = 2𝑢2 sin 𝜃 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼)
2 𝑎𝑦 2𝑔 cos 𝛼 𝑅=
𝑔 cos 2 𝛼
Along Inclined Plane Down: 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) 𝑢𝑥 = −𝑢 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼)
𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔 cos 𝛼 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑔 sin 𝛼
𝑢𝑦 𝑢 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) Range,
𝑡1/2 = − = 1
𝑎𝑦 𝑔 cos 𝛼 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 . 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
1 𝑢𝑦2 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃 + 𝛼) 2
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − = 2𝑢2 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) cos 𝜃
2 𝑎𝑦 2𝑔 cos 𝛼 𝑅=
𝑔 cos 2 𝛼
04.Laws of Motion
Newton’s first law: Newton’s third law:
Unless acted upon by an external force, a body remains in Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Both forces do not
the state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line. act on the same object instead on two different objects, so they do
not cancel each other.
e.g. In deep space where there is no gravitational force, if a
body moves with a particular velocity, it will continue to go e.g. recoiling of gun: gun pushes the bullet forward, bullet pushes
in the same velocity in the same straight line until it the gun backwards,
encounters any other force. walking we push the ground backwards, ground pushes us forward,
in swimming we push water backwards, water pushes us forward.
Inertia: rocket pushes exhaust gas backwards and exhaust gas pushes rocket
Inertia is the inability of a body to change its position or forward.
uniform motion. Mass is the measure of inertia. However note that the forces are equal and opposite but the
acceleration is not equal as the masses vary.
Newton’s second law: Impulse: Conservation of Momentum:
Force = rate of change 𝐹. ∆𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
of momentum 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 Using Newton’s third law:
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 Area under 𝐹21 = −𝐹12
𝐹∝
𝑡 the curve is 𝑚2 𝑣2 − 𝑚2 𝑢2 (𝑚1 𝑣1 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 )
𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢) impulse. =−
𝐹=𝑘 𝑡 𝑡
𝑡 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑚𝑎 Total momentum before collision =
In SI units k=1. Total momentum after collision
Calculus method: Calculus method: Calculus method:
𝑑𝑝⃗ 𝑡
For variable force, 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = ∫𝑡 𝑓 𝐹. 𝑑𝑡 𝐹21 = −𝐹12
𝐹⃗ = 𝑖 𝑑𝑝2 𝑑𝑝1
𝑑𝑡 If F is const., 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = 𝐹. ∆𝑡 =−
𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐹⃗ = (𝑚𝑣⃗) 𝑑𝑝1 𝑑𝑝2
𝑑𝑡 + =0
𝑑𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐹⃗ = 𝑚 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 (𝑝 + 𝑝2 ) = 0
𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗ 𝑑𝑡 1
This means no change in total momentum.
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
Cushioning Effect: As t increases, F decreases. 𝐹 =
𝑡
e.g. catching the ball with longer time so the pain in the hand is reduced.
Swinging the cricket bat or tennis racket along with the ball, so that the final velocity is higher.
Jumping on to the cushioned floor as compared to the concrete floor,
Bending the knees as you land on the ground
Hitting the air bag of a car during an accident
Static Equilibrium: Body at rest, vel=0 Dynamic Equilibrium: Body at uniform motion, Const. velocity
𝑎 = 0, 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0 𝑎 = 0, 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0

𝑁−𝑊 =0 𝐹𝑓𝑤𝑑 − 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 − 𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡. = 0

Common misconception: Motion (velocity) and force are in the same direction. This is not true always.
When force is opposite to the When force is in same When force is
velocity direction, the speed direction as the velocity perpendicular to the
decreases.e.g. applying brakes in a direction, the speed velocity direction, the speed
car. increases. remains constant.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, so force and acceleration are in
same direction, but velocity need not be.

Sky jumping:
Weight remains same throughout. Initially air resistance is low, so speed increases.
But as the speed increases the air resistance increases eventually equalizing with the
weight reaching the terminal velocity 1. The parachutist then opens the parachute
which increases the air resistance heavily slowing down the speed of fall. As speed
decreases the air resistance decreases eventually equalizing with the weight reaching
the terminal velocity 2, which is safe for landing.
Subtraction of Vectors: Change in Momentum:
∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖
is not correct as it a vector quantity
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑝 = 𝑝⃗𝑓 − 𝑝⃗𝑖
so vector subtraction has to be done not
scalar subtraction. Applicable to all vectors.
|𝑝⃗𝑓 − 𝑝⃗𝑖 | = √𝑝𝑓2 + 𝑝𝑖2 − 2𝑝𝑓 𝑝𝑖 cos 𝜃
|𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ | = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 − 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 similar to cosine law 𝑝𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐵 sin(180 − 𝜃) 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = = 𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴 − 𝐵 cos(180 − 𝜃) 𝐴 − 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Static friction vs. Kinetic friction: Angle of friction: Angle of Repose:
Angle of Repose
is when the block
starts sliding,
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃𝑠
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃𝑠
tan 𝜃𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠

Angle of friction: 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =

Limiting static friction 𝑓𝑠
=𝜇
𝑓𝑠 ∝ 𝑁 𝑁 tan 𝜃𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘
𝑓𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 𝜃 is the angle of friction Once it starts moving, 𝜃𝑘 < 𝜃𝑠 .
Coefficient of static or limiting friction,
𝜇𝑠
Coefficient of kinetic friction, 𝜇𝑘

Pulling or Pushing which is easier? Pushing:

Pulling:
𝑁2 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑁1 + 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑁1 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑓𝑠2 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁2
𝑓𝑠1 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁1

𝑁1 < 𝑁2 → 𝑓𝑠1 < 𝑓𝑠2 so pulling is easier.

Inclined plane: Two masses in contact: Three masses in contact:

𝐹 = 𝑀𝑎
𝐹 = 𝑀𝑎
𝐹 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑎
𝐹 𝐹 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )𝑎
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐. = 𝑚𝑎 𝑎= 𝐹
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) 𝑎=
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑁 = 𝑚𝑎 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
For body 1, 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 For body 1, 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐹 − 𝐹21 = 𝑚1 𝐹
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) 𝐹 − 𝐹21 = 𝑚1
𝐹 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
𝐹21 = 𝑚2 𝐹
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) 𝐹21 = (𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
𝐹 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
𝐹12 = 𝑚2 (opp. in direction to 𝐹21 ) For body 2, 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
(𝑚1 +𝑚2 )
𝐹
𝐹12 − 𝐹32 = 𝑚2
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
𝐹
𝐹32 = 𝑚3
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )

Applying the Brakes:

Flat road: No forward force from engine, only the braking or
retarding force from brakes. 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎
Inclined Road: No forward force from engine, but the weight
component along the downward slope and retarding force in the
opposite direction. 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎
Connected bodies over a frictionless Connected bodies over a horizontal table and Person climbing up or climbing
pulley: frictionless pulley: down a rope:
At rest, 𝛴𝐹 = 0
𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 = 0 𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 = −𝑚1 𝑎
𝑇 − 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐. = 𝑚2 𝑎
When moving,𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 = 𝑚1 𝑎 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑁 = 𝑚2 𝑎
𝑇 − 𝑚2 𝑔 = −𝑚2 𝑎 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑚2 𝑔 = 𝑚2 𝑎
Solve for two unknowns
T and a, using two
equations. 𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎 , 𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑚𝑎

Apparent weight in a lift R: Lift accelerating upwards: Lift accelerating downwards: Weightlessness:Special case:
Lift at rest or moving at 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 Free fall when rope
cuts or orbitting of
const. velocity: 𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑚𝑎 satellite around planet,
𝛴𝐹 = 0 𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑔 + 𝑎) 𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎) 𝑎 = 𝑔, so 𝑅 =
𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 0.Apparent Weight =0.
𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 Weightlessness is not
gravityless.

Lami’s Theorem:
It is applicable
only when we have
three forces are in
equilibrium.

𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3
= =
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾
Action and Reaction pairs:
Action and Reaction forces should act on two different bodies. If two forces are acting on the same body then they are not action-
reaction pair. (Misnomer: Action is not the cause and reaction is not the effect. Both happen simultaneously.)
Book on the table example:
𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 and 𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
are action reaction pairs. (Gravitational forces)
𝑁𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 and
𝑁𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 are action reaction pairs. (Contact
forces)

𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 and

𝑁𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 are not
action reaction pairs, even though they are equal in magnitude. Because they are acting on the same body.
But in FBD Free Body Diagram, we show only the forces acting on a given body.

Horse-Cart problem Force analysis:

⃗⃗ form:
Resolution of force vectors in 𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗, 𝑘 Equilibrant: is that one force that will cancel
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑥 + 𝐹𝑦⃗⃗⃗⃗ out the resultant of all the other forces keeping
them in equilibrium.
𝐹⃗ = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝑖⃗ + 𝐹 sin 𝜃 𝑗⃗ 𝐹𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 = −𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐹𝑦
tan 𝜃 =
𝐹𝑥
 𝑚 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚2
1 𝑁 = 1 𝑘𝑔. = 105 𝑔. = 105 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠, 1 𝐽 = 1 𝑁𝑚 = 107 𝑔. = 107 𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑠
𝑠2 𝑠2 𝑠2

Normal Reaction Force:

Change in momentum in X-direction: −𝑚𝑣 cos 𝜃 − (𝑚𝑣 cos 𝜃) = −2𝑚𝑣 cos 𝜃

Change in momentum in Y-direction: −𝑚𝑣 sin 𝜃 − (−𝑚𝑣 sin 𝜃) = 0

change in momentum is only in X-direction but not in Y-direction, so we can say the
normal reaction force is only in the –ve X-direction.

Pseudo Force:
Inertial Frame of Reference: No acceleration, a = 0, Newton’s laws applicable.
Non-Inertial Frame of Reference: accelerating frame, Newton’s laws not applicable.
Note: 𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 , 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 ≠ 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
Pseudo force is determined by the mass of the body and pseudo accel.

Case 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 > 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 < 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 0
Accel. of trolley forward 𝑎 = 5 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎 = 2 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎 = 1 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −2 const. velocity
Pseudo accel. of body 𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = −5 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = −2 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = −1 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −2
Pseudo force on body 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 𝑚𝑎 = −500 𝑁 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 𝑚𝑎 = −200 𝑁 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 𝑚𝑎 = −100 𝑁 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 0 𝑁
Max. friction force (fwd dir) 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑁 = 200 𝑁 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑁 = 200 𝑁 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑁 = 200 𝑁 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑁 = 200 𝑁
𝐹𝑓 = 100 𝑁 𝐹𝑓 = 0 𝑁 const. velocity so no relative
motion between body and trolley, so friction =0
Resultant force on body 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = −300 𝑁 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0 𝑁 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0 𝑁 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0 𝑁
Effective accel. of body 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 → 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 → 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 → 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 →
𝑎 = −3 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −2
w.r.t to the trolley Body moves backwards at an Body is stationary. (moves Body is stationary. (moves Body is stationary. (moves
(Non-Inertial Frame of Ref.) accel. of 3 𝑚𝑠 −2 There is no force acting along with the trolley) along with the trolley) along with the trolley)
in the backwards but the body is moving backwards,
this is why Newton’s laws not applicable.
w.r.t to outside the trolley Body moves forward at an accel. Body moves forward at an Body moves forward at an Body moves forward at a
(Inertial Frame of Ref.) of 2 𝑚𝑠 −2 accel. of 2 𝑚𝑠 −2 accel. of 1 𝑚𝑠 −2 const. velocity.
Only the friction force is causing the body to move forward.

Insect crawling up hemispherical bowl:

When the weight component pulling down equals the frictional force, the
insect will not be able to climb further.
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝛼 = 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝛼 = 𝜇𝑁
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝛼 = 𝜇 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛼
tan 𝛼 = 𝜇
Law of conservation of momentum in 2D: Vector Method:
Momentum in X-dir and Y- ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑖 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑓 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃2 𝑓
dir are conserved separately.
K.E is Scalar. So, no 𝑚1 𝑢⃗⃗1 = 𝑚1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2
direction. K.E is conserved

This principle very often

When 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 , 𝑢 ⃗⃗1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣1 + 𝑣⃗2 squaring on both sides
used in nuclear reactions 𝑢 ⃗⃗2 = (𝑣⃗1 + 𝑣⃗2 )(𝑣⃗1 + 𝑣⃗2 )
⃗⃗1 ⋅ 𝑢
and sub-atomic particle 𝑢12 = 𝑣12 + 𝑣22 + 2𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
collisions, which also 𝑢12 = 𝑣12 + 𝑣22 because K.E is conserved
helped in predicting some earlier unknown sub-atomic particles such as
neutrinos.
𝜃 = 900 is the angle between two velocities
X-dir: 𝑚1 𝑢1 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 cos 𝛼 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 cos 𝛽 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 900
Y-dir: 0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 sin 𝛼 − 𝑚2 𝑣2 sin 𝛽
05.Work Power Energy
WE Theorem: Work – Energy WE Theorem for variable force: Work done by Variable force:
Equivalence 1 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠 2
1 1 1 1 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥
𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑢2 = 𝑚. 2𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝐾 = 𝑚. 2𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑚. 2 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎. 𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑓
2 2 2 2 2 𝑑𝑡
𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = 𝐹. 𝑠 Integrating on both sides gives, 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑖
𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = 𝑊 Area under the
𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = ∫ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥
Change in KE = Work done 𝑥𝑖 curve is work done or energy.
Concept of Potential Energy: Conservation of Mechanical Energy: PE, KE
Work done by External force = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝑠 = 𝑚𝑔. ℎ As a ball falls,
This work is stored as PE 𝑈(ℎ) = 𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝑊 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = ∆𝐾
Work done by gravitational force = − 𝑚𝑔. ℎ ……as gravity is 𝑊 = −(𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 ) = −∆𝑈
acting downwards, F and s are in opposite directions, 𝜃 = 180, ∆𝐾 = −∆𝑈
so cos 180 = −1 ∆(𝐾 + 𝑈) = 0
𝑑𝑈 Total Energy is conserved in
= 𝑚𝑔
𝑑ℎ conservative force or field.
𝑑𝑈
− = −𝑚𝑔 = 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑑ℎ
−𝑑𝑈 = 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 . 𝑑ℎ
−𝑑𝑈 = 𝐹(𝑥) . 𝑑𝑥
𝑢𝑓 𝑥𝑓
− ∫ 𝑑𝑈 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥). 𝑑𝑥
𝑢𝑖 𝑥𝑖
−(𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 ) = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
For all conservative forces, change in PE = -ve of work done.
PE is by virtue of its position, KE is by virtue of its motion.
Conservative force: Non-conservative force:
e.g. Gravitational force, Electric force, Spring force e.g. Friction force, Viscous force
Work done does not depend upon the path taken, but only upon the initial Work done depends upon the path taken.
and final position.
∆𝐾 = (𝐹𝐶 + 𝐹𝑛𝑐 ). ∆𝑥
1) Change in PE = -ve of work done: −∆𝑈 = 𝐹𝐶 . ∆𝑥
𝑥𝑓
∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈 = 𝐹𝑛𝑐 . ∆𝑥
∆𝑈 = − ∫ 𝐹(𝑥). 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑖
∆𝐸 = 𝐹𝑛𝑐 . ∆𝑥
2) 𝑊 = −∆𝑈 = −(𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 ) = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 𝐹𝐶 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒,
∆𝑃𝐸 = ∆𝐾𝐸 Energy conserved. So the 𝐹𝑛𝐶 − 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

name conservative force.

3) In a closed path 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 , then 𝑈𝑓 =
𝑈𝑖 , so 𝑊 = 0.
Hooke’s law: Energy stored in a spring: Velocity of a block connected to a Velocity of a ball dropped from
spring: Conservation of a height H: Conservation of
Mechanical Energy Mechanical Energy

𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑇𝐸
1
𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔𝐻
2
𝐹 ∝𝑥 Elastic PE or Strain Energy 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑇𝐸 𝑣 = √2𝑔(𝐻 − ℎ)
External force 𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑥 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 𝑑𝑥 1 2 1 1 2 Special case: Max. velocity
𝑥𝑚 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑘𝑥𝑚
Spring force 𝐹𝑠 = − 𝑘 𝑥 ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = −𝑘 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2 2 before hitting the ground h=0,
𝑘
0 2
𝑣 = (𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
2 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √2𝑔𝐻
1 2 𝑚 𝑚
𝑊 = − 𝑘𝑥𝑚 Special case: Max. velocity at the
2
𝑥𝑚 is the amplitude or equilibrium position x=0,
maximum displacement 2
𝑘 2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑚 𝑚
Hydro power: Wind power:
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑃=
𝑃= 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 1⁄ 𝑀𝑣 2 1 𝜌𝑉𝑣 2 𝜌 𝐴 𝑣𝛥𝑡 𝑣 2 1
𝑀𝑔ℎ 𝜌𝑉𝑔ℎ = 2 = = = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3
= = = 𝜌𝑄𝑔ℎ 𝑡 2 𝑡 2 𝛥𝑡 2
𝑡 −3 𝑡
𝜌 − 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (1000𝑘𝑔𝑚 ), 𝑄 is volume flowrate 𝜌 − 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡
Forward force and Friction force: TE, PE, KE in an oscillating spring / pendulum:

Elastic Collision Inelastic Collision

Momentum, Kinetic Energy, Total Energy are conserved. Momentum and Total Energy are conserved. Kinetic Energy
e.g. microscopic collisions such as molecules colliding is not conserved as some energy is dissipated as heat.
e.g. macroscopic collisions such as cars colliding in an accident
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 Perfectly inelastic collision: (two
1 1 1 1 bodies become one mass)
𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22 𝑚1 𝑢1 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣
2 2 2 2
𝑚1 𝑢1
By solving the two equations, two unknowns 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 𝑣=
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
can be determined.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐾. 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐾. 𝐸𝑓
Elastic Collision:Usual case, is second body is at rest, 𝑢2 = 0. Special cases:when 𝑢2 = 0
(𝑚, −𝑚2 )𝑢1 1) 𝑚, = 𝑚2 ⇒ 𝑣1 = 0, 𝑣2 = 𝑢1
𝑣1 = 2) 𝑚, ≪ 𝑚2 ⇒ 𝑣1 = −𝑢1 , 𝑣2 ≈ 0
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
2𝑚1 𝑢1 3) 𝑚, ≫ 𝑚2 ⇒ 𝑣1 = 𝑢1 , 𝑣2 ≈ 2𝑢1
𝑣2 =
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
Special Formula:
When balls are moving in the When balls are moving in the
same direction. opposite direction.
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2
Relative speed of approach = Relative speed of approach =
Relative speed of separation Relative speed of separation

Coefficient of restitution or resilience: For perfectly elastic collision, 𝑒 = 1, as 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1

𝑟𝑒𝑙. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 For perfectly Inelastic collision, 𝑒 = 0, as 𝑣2 = 𝑣1
𝑒= =
𝑟𝑒𝑙. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 In between elastic and Inelastic, 0 < 𝑒 < 1,
this means 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 > 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 , meaning some energy is lost.

Free falling rebouncing ball on ground:

𝑢1 = √2𝑔ℎ𝑜 1 1
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑚 𝑣12 = 𝑚 𝑒 2 2𝑔ℎ𝑜
2 2
𝑒= ℎ1 = 𝑒 2 ℎ𝑜
𝑢1 − 𝑢2
𝑣1 = −𝑒 𝑢1 = −𝑒. √2𝑔ℎ𝑜 Generalizing after nth rebounce, ℎ𝑛 = 𝑒 2𝑛 . ℎ𝑜
Generalizing after nth rebounce, 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑛 . √2𝑔ℎ𝑜
Total distance travelled by the ball after many rebounces Total time taken by the ball after many rebounces
= 𝑡𝑜 + 2𝑡1 + 2𝑡2 + 2𝑡3 + ⋯
= ℎ𝑜 + 2ℎ1 + 2ℎ2 + 2ℎ3 + ⋯
2ℎ𝑜 2ℎ1 2ℎ2
= ℎ𝑜 + 2𝑒 2 ℎ𝑜 + 2(𝑒 2 )2 ℎ𝑜 + 2(𝑒 2 )3 ℎ𝑜 + ⋯ =√
𝑔
+ 2√
𝑔
+ 2√
𝑔
+⋯

= ℎ𝑜 + 2ℎ𝑜 (𝑒 2 + 𝑒 4 + 𝑒 6 + ⋯ ) 2ℎ𝑜 2ℎ𝑜 2ℎ𝑜

𝑒2 =√
𝑔
+ 2𝑒√
𝑔
+ 2𝑒 2 √
𝑔
+⋯
= ℎ𝑜 + 2ℎ𝑜 ( 2 ) ,
1−𝑒
2ℎ𝑜
1 + 𝑒2 =√
𝑔
[1 + 2(𝑒 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑒 3 + ⋯ )]
= ℎ𝑜 ( )
1 − 𝑒2 2ℎ𝑜 𝑒
=√ [1 + 2 ( )]
𝑔 1−𝑒
𝑎
(Geometric Progression formula 𝑆∞ = )
1−𝑟 2ℎ𝑜 1 + 𝑒
=√ ( )
𝑔 1−𝑒
 Vector Multiplication
Scalar or Dot Product Vector or Cross Product
𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗| = 𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Result is a scalar so no direction. Direction of 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ is given by Right Hand Thumb (RHT) rule.
⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴(𝐵 cos 𝜃) |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗| = 𝐴(𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)
= 𝐴(𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗. 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 ⃗⃗ 𝑜𝑛 𝐴⃗) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
This is the geometrical meaning of Dot This is the geometrical meaning
product. of Cross product.

𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐵⃗⃗. 𝐴⃗ (Commutative) 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗(Not Commutative)
⃗⃗ ≠ 𝐵
𝐴⃗. (𝐵⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗) = 𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗. 𝐶⃗ (Distributive) 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = −(𝐵 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗)(Magnitude is same but
direction is opposite)
Unit vectors: Unit vectors:
𝑖̂. 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂. 𝑘̂ = 1 𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0
𝑖̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ . 𝑖̂ = 0 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂, 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂ 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂
𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = −𝑗̂, 𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂ = −𝑘̂
Example: Example:
𝐹⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂ , 𝑆⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ 𝐴⃗ = 5𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂, 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂
𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑆⃗ = 6 + 2 + 5 = 13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 Determinant Method:
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |5 2 3 |
3 3 −2
= (−4 − 9)𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂(−10 − 9) + (15 − 6)𝑘̂
= −13𝑖̂ + 19𝑗̂ + 9𝑘̂
06.System of Particles and Rotational motion
Moment of Force: Moment of Couple: Principle of Moments:
𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ 𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ 𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑤 = 𝑀𝑐𝑤
𝑀 =𝐹 ×𝑑 𝑀 =𝐹 ×𝑑 𝐹1 𝑑1 = 𝐹2 𝑑2
d is perpendicular 𝐹1 𝑑2
d is perpendicular distance between force and
distance between 𝑀𝐴 = =
center.
the line of action of two forces. 𝐹2 𝑑1
Mechanical Advantage

Linear or Translational Rotational

Displacement 𝑥, 𝑠 Angular displacement 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃
Velocity 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 Angular velocity 𝜔 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝜔 𝑑2 𝜃
Acceleration 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡 = Angular acceleration 𝛼 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 2
Mass or Inertia 𝑚 Moment of Inertia, Rotational inertia, 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
Momentum 𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗ Angular Momentum 𝐿 ⃗⃗ = 𝐼𝜔
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑝⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿
Force 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗ = Torque 𝜏⃗ = 𝐼𝛼⃗ = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Law of conservation of momentum: Law of conservation of Angular momentum:
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝐿
If 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, 𝑑𝑡 = 0, 𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡., If 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, 𝑑𝑡 = 0, 𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.,
𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑣𝑓 , 𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓 ,
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝐼1 𝜔1 + 𝐼2 𝜔2 = 𝐼1 𝜔1′ + 𝐼2 𝜔2′

Translational Equilibrium: Rotational Equilibrium:

𝛴𝐹 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0, 𝑎 = 0, 𝛴𝜏 = 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0, 𝛼 = 0,
𝑣 = 0 ⇒ Static Equil., 𝜔 = 0 ⇒ Static Rot.Equil.,
𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. ⇒ Dynamic Equil. 𝜔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. ⇒ Dynamic Rot.Equil.
Impulse: ∫ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹. ∆𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 Rotational Impulse: ∫ 𝜏. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜏. ∆𝑡 = 𝐼𝜔 − 𝐼𝜔𝑜
Work, 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑠⃗ Rot.Work, 𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑡. = ∫ 𝜏. 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜏⃗. 𝜃⃗
𝑊 𝐹⃗ .𝑠⃗ 𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑡. ⃗⃗
⃗⃗.𝜃
𝜏
Power, 𝑃 = = = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑣⃗ Rot.Power, 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡. = = = 𝜏⃗. 𝜔
⃗⃗
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
1 1
Kinetic Energy, 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 Rot.Kinetic Energy, 𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 2 𝐼𝜔2
Inelastic Collision: KE drop due to heat loss Inelastic Collision: KE drop due to heat loss
𝐾𝐸𝑓 < 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸2 𝐾𝐸𝑓 < 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸2
Hooke’s law for linear wire or spring: Hooke’s law for twisting wire or coil spring:
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥, 𝑘 is spring constant or force constant. 𝜏 = 𝑘𝜃, 𝑘 is coil spring constant or torque const.
Equations of Motion: when 𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. Equations of Rotational Motion: when 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 + 𝛼𝑡
1 1
𝑠 = 𝑠𝑜 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑜 + 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡 2
2 2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 𝜔2 = 𝜔𝑜2 + 2𝛼𝜃
𝑢+𝑣 𝜔𝑜 + 𝜔
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜔𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2 2
Linear to Rotational Rolling Motion
⃗
𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹 ; 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin ∅ Translation + Rotational,
⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗ ; 𝐿 = 𝑟𝑝 sin ∅ 𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡. = 𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡.
𝐿
1 1
𝑠⃗ = 𝜃⃗ × 𝑟⃗ 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐼𝜔2
2 2
𝑣⃗ = 𝜔⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗ 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 1 𝐾2
2
𝑎⃗ = 𝛼⃗ × 𝑟⃗ 𝑎 = 𝑟𝛼 = 𝑚𝑣 (1 + )
2 𝑅2
 Moment Radius of Gyration, K: The radius at which the Parallel axes Perpendicular axes theorem:
total point mass can be acted upon about the same axis to
of give the same moment of inertia.
theorem: 𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦
Inertia: 𝑚1 𝑟12 +
𝐼 𝑚2 𝑟22 +
(only for 2D-
Lamina)
= 𝑚𝑟 2 ⋯ = 𝑀𝐾 2
2
𝑟 +𝑟 +⋯ 2 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐𝑚 + 𝑀𝑑 2
𝐾 = √ 1 𝑛2

Uniform rod or Rectangular Lamina: Thin uniform straight rod:

Hoop or Ring or Hollow Cylinder: Circular Disk or Solid Cylinder:

𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2 1
𝐾2 𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2
=1 2
𝑅2 𝐾2 1
𝐾 2 ⁄𝑅 2 is a value required for rolling calculations. =
𝑅2 2
Hollow Sphere: Solid Sphere:
2 2
𝑀𝐾 2 = 3 𝑀𝑅 2 𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2
𝐾2 2 5
= 𝐾2 2
𝑅2 3 =
𝑅2 5

+ Integration methods to derive I:

Ring: Disk:
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑥 2
𝑀
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑅 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2 = ∫ 2 2𝜋𝑥. 𝑑𝑥. 𝑥 2
𝜋𝑅
𝑅
2𝑀 𝑥 4 𝑀𝑅 2
= 2[ ] =
𝑅 4 0 2

Rectangular or Circular rod: Hollow Cylinder with Radius 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 :

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑥 2 Change the limits
𝑀 𝑀 𝑥3
𝑙⁄2 from 𝑅1 to 𝑅2 in the
2
= ∫ . 𝑑𝑥. 𝑥 = [ ] above.
𝐿 𝐿 3 −𝑙⁄2 𝑀
𝑀𝐿2 𝐼 = (𝑅12 + 𝑅22 )
= 2
12
 Center of Mass CM: Motion of CM:
Sum of moments of all masses
about origin = Moment of total
𝑀𝑟𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2
massacting from CM about 𝑀𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
origin
𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑎1 + 𝑚2 𝑎2
𝑀𝑟𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 If 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡. = 0, 𝑎𝑐𝑚 = 0,
∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑟⃗ ⇒ 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 =
∫ 𝑑𝑚 When no external force acting, CM remains
in same path as though if it had not exploded
∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑥 ∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑦 ∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑧 or decayed, proof from law of conservation of
𝑥𝑐𝑚 = 𝑦𝑐𝑚 = 𝑧𝑐𝑚 = momentum.
∫ 𝑑𝑚 ∫ 𝑑𝑚 ∫ 𝑑𝑚

Location of Center of mass:

Semi circular Quarter circular Semi circular Quarter circular Hemispherical Solid
ring: ring: disk: disk: shell: hemisphere:

Boat and Trolley type CM problem:

As the man walks on the boat or trolley, 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡. = 0, 𝑎𝑐𝑚 = 0, ⇒ 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑐𝑚 =
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡., this 𝑣𝑐𝑚 is w.r.t external observer.CM of man and trolley is the combined
system. By law of conservation of momentum, 𝑀𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑚 + 𝑚𝑡 𝑣𝑡 , Velocity of
trolley w.r.t. man is 𝑣𝑡𝑚 = 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑣𝑚

Rotational + Translational combination: Example: ball attaches to the rod after collision to turn
Total Angular momentum about a point P: about the fixed point of the rod.
⃗⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡. = 𝐿
𝐿 ⃗⃗𝑅 + 𝐿 ⃗⃗ 𝑇
= 𝐼𝜔 ⃗⃗ + (𝑟⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑝⃗) 𝐿𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝐿𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 𝐼𝜔 ⃗⃗ + (𝑟⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑚𝑣⃗) 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝜔𝑜 + 𝑚𝑢 . 𝑙 = (𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑑 + 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 )𝜔𝑓
= 𝐼𝜔 ⃗⃗ + 𝑚(𝑟⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣⃗)

Particle placed on a spinning disk:

Apply law of conservation of angular momentum.
𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓
07.Rolling Motion

𝑓𝑘 acts opp. to resultant velocity
possibly the 𝑓𝑘 will turn the wheel, increasing
𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. , so eventually 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠., so 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 =
0, 𝑓𝑘 = 0, causing pure rolling.
When we apply sudden brakes, the wheels are
locked and cannot rotate, but due to inertia the car
still skids forward. This is dangerous and we lose
control of the car.
To avoid this ABS (Anti-lock Braking Systems)
brakes are used.
𝑓𝑘 acts opp. to resultant velocity
possibly the 𝑓𝑘 will increase the 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. , so
eventually 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠., so 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0, 𝑓𝑘 =
0, causing pure rolling.
When we start the car, we keep it in low gear to
have 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. less, so that a proper rolling motion is
ensured by getting proper torque from the friction.
Instead if it is started in a high gear the wheel will
slip as shown above, wheel will be spinning but
vehicle will not move forward.
𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. , so 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0, 𝑓𝑘 = 0
this is why Rolling friction is very low compared
to sliding friction, almost close to zero.
At lowest point 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. So 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0.
At top most point, 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠.
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 2 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠.
At the center point, 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 0,
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. = 𝑉𝑐𝑚

Another situation is wheel getting caught in mud

or snow, so no friction so no torque to move the
wheel forward.

Rolling motion in a Rough Inclined plane: If it was not for the friction it From 𝑎𝑐𝑚 , time descent and velocity at the lowest point
can be found using kinematic equations of motion.
will not be rolling, instead it will be sliding.
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 ⇒ 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑚 𝐾2
2ℎ(1+ 2 ) 2𝑔ℎ
𝑎𝑐𝑚 𝑡= √ 𝑅
𝑣𝑐𝑚 = √ 𝐾2
𝛴𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 ⇒ 𝜇𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 . 𝑅 = 𝑚𝐾 2 . 𝑔 sin2 𝜃 (1+ )
𝑅 𝑅2
𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝑎𝑐𝑚 = = Same result of 𝑣𝑐𝑚 can be obtained by applying energy
𝐾2 𝐼 conservation. 𝑃𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝐸𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
(1 + 2 ) (1 + 𝑚𝑅2 )
𝑅 1 𝐾2
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑣 2 (1 + 2 )
2 𝑅

Rolling stops, Sliding begins as Inclined plane is raised: The friction is what is causing the object to roll. However
as the plane is raised 𝜃 ↑, 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 ↓, 𝑁 ↓, 𝑓 ↓ when 𝑓 = 0, the object slides instead of rolling. At what angle does this
sliding starts? Mathematically we know that cos 90o = 0, practically we know when the object is left at perpendicular plane the
object does not roll but it slides or falls down, free fall. However in reality we see the object slides even before we reach 90 o.
This is because 𝑎 = 𝑅𝛼, causes rolling. But if 𝑎 > 𝑅𝛼, then sliding starts without rolling.
From above, 𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑔 cos 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑐𝑚
𝜇𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 . 𝑅 = 𝐼𝛼
𝜇𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 . 𝑅
𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑔 cos 𝜃 = 𝑅.
𝐼
For Solid Cylinder, 𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 3𝜇𝑔 cos 𝜃 ⇒ tan 𝜃 = 3𝜇
For Hollow thin walled Cylinder, 𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 2𝜇𝑔 cos 𝜃 ⇒ tan 𝜃 = 2𝜇

Rolling motion in a Horizontal plane: ℎ ℎ 𝐾2

𝐹.(1+ ) 𝐹.( − 2 )
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑎𝑐𝑚 = 𝐾2
𝑓= 𝐾2
≤ 𝜇𝑚𝑔
𝐹 + 𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑚 𝑚(1+ 2 ) (1+ 2 )
𝑅 𝑅
𝛴𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 Rolling friction will be less than the kinetic friction. 𝑓 can be +ve, -ve or zero
𝑎𝑐𝑚
𝐹. ℎ − 𝑓. 𝑅 = 𝑚𝐾 2 . depending upon h/R and k2/R2.
𝑅
ℎ 𝑎𝑐𝑚
𝐹. − 𝑓 = 𝑚𝐾 2 . 2
𝑅 𝑅
Driver wheels vs. Driven wheels:

Back wheel not driven, just pulled
F acts at the center, so h=0, so friction 𝑓 is –ve and acting
opposite to F, in the reverse direction. So rotation is caused by
the friction, if it was not for the friction, the wheel will be
sliding not rolling.
Front wheel driven by engine.
Friction acts forward initially, causing 𝑉𝑐𝑚 , when 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. =
𝑉𝑐𝑚 , 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0, so 𝑓 = 0, this is why rolling friction is
very low compared to sliding friction.

Initially rotating object kept on the floor to roll:

Rotating ring when placed on a horizontal plane, as it touches the plane, the frictional force causes the wheel to move forward
with an acceleration 𝑎,
𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑚 ⇒ 𝜇𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑚
Also 𝑓 causes a torque about the centre point, opposite to the initial spin 𝜔𝑜 ,
𝑓. 𝑅 = −𝜏 ⇒ 𝑓. 𝑅 = −𝐼𝛼 ⇒ 𝜇𝑚𝑔. 𝑅 = −𝐼𝛼
Since 𝑓 is acting opposite to 𝜔𝑜 , the 𝜔𝑜 will decrease in its value. So 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. will decrease as 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑅𝜔, when 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. =
𝑉𝑐𝑚 , 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0, so no friction at the contact point and rolling motion starts only at this instant. This time taken determines
when it starts rolling.
𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑐𝑚
𝑅𝜔 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑐𝑚 𝑡
𝑅(𝜔𝑜 + 𝛼𝑡) = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑐𝑚 𝑡
𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑅
𝑅𝜔𝑜 − 𝑅. 𝑡 = 𝜇𝑔𝑡
𝐼
𝑚𝑅2
𝑅𝜔𝑜 = 𝜇𝑔𝑡 [1 + ]
𝐼
t can be calculated from this expression.
08.Gravitation
Kepler’s 1st law: Law of Orbits Kepler’s 2nd law: Law of Areas Kepler’s 3rd law: Law of Periods
Square of time period
of a planet is
proportional to cube
of the average orbital
radius of the planet.
Planets move in elliptical path with sun In equal time intervals Area swept by the 𝑇 2 ∝ 𝑟3
as one of its focal point. planet is equal.
2nd law Proof Method 1: 2nd law Proof Method 2: 3rd law Proof:
Time period of a satellite:
𝐿⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗ 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
𝑇= =
= 𝑟⃗ × 𝑚 𝑣⃗ 𝑣𝑜
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ √𝐺𝑀
∆𝑠 𝑟
= 𝑟⃗ × 𝑚 4𝜋 2 3
𝑟
∆𝑡 𝑇2 =
𝑚 𝐺𝑀
1 1 = (𝑟⃗ × ∆𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ = 𝑟𝑑𝜃. 𝑟 ∆𝑡 𝑇 2 ∝ 𝑟 3 Kepler’s third law
2 2 𝑚 proved.
𝑑𝐴 1 2 𝑑𝜃 1 2 1𝐿 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
= 𝑟 = 𝑟 𝜔= = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. ∆𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 2𝑚 𝑚
No external torque so angular momentum = 2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡
∆𝑡
is conserved or constant. 𝑑𝐴
= 2𝑚
𝐿⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗ = 𝑟𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔 𝑑𝑡
Since angular momentum is conserved, Areal velocity
𝑑𝐴
is a constant.
𝑑𝑡

Newton’s Universal law of gravitation: Vector form: Super position principle of Forces:

𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹∝
𝑟2 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐹⃗12 = 𝐺 2 𝑟̂21
𝐹=𝐺 𝑟21
𝑟2 𝐹⃗1 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗13 + 𝐹⃗14
Force acts along the line joining the two 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑟⃗21 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑚2
=𝐺 2 = 𝐺 2 𝑟̂21 + 𝐺 2 𝑟̂31 + 𝐺 2 𝑟̂41
masses. 𝑟21 𝑟21 𝑟21 𝑟31 𝑟41
𝑚1 𝑚2
= 𝐺 3 𝑟⃗21
𝑟21
Cavendish Experiment to determine G:
Force of attraction in two small lead spheres causes a rotational torque. When the wire is twisted by an
angle 𝜃, the torque on the wire is 𝜏 = 𝑘 𝜃 similar to force constant, 𝑘 is torque constant.
𝐹 ×𝐿 =𝑘𝜃
𝑀𝑚
𝐺 2 .𝐿 = 𝑘 𝜃
𝑟
Knowing all other values, G value was found to be 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2
Force of attraction due to hollow spherical shell: Case ii) When an object is placed inside the spherical shell.
Case i) When an object is outside the spherical shell. All forces cancel each other
Y-components will cancel and no net force acting on the
each other. X-components mass m.
will add. Resultant effect
is, the spherical shell acts This same principle is
as though the entire mass applicable in charged spherical shell.
is concentrated at the
centre of the spherical shell.
Binomial Theorem: McLaurin Infinite series: (1 + 𝑥)−1 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ ≈ 1 − 𝑥
If n is -ve or fraction and |𝑥| < 1 then it is converging series. (1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ ≈ 1 + 𝑥
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 𝑛𝐶0 + 𝑛𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝑛𝐶2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ (1 + 𝑥)−2 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 + ⋯ ≈ 1 − 2𝑥
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3 (1 − 𝑥)−2 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 + ⋯ ≈ 1 + 2𝑥
= 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
2! 3!
Gravitational Field Strength or Above the surface of the earth: Below the surface of the earth:
Acceleration due to gravity:
𝑀𝑚 Outer shaded region has no effect on the mass
𝐹=𝐺 as the forces will cancel each other. Only the
Near the surface (𝑅 + ℎ)2 inner core exerts force on the mass.
of earth: 𝑀 4 3
𝐹=𝐺 2
𝑀𝑚
𝐹 𝐺𝑀 4 3 𝜌 3 𝜋(𝑅 − 𝑑)
𝑅 𝜌 𝜋𝑅
𝐹 𝐺𝑀
𝑔ℎ = =
𝑚 (𝑅 + ℎ)2 𝑔𝑑 = 𝐺 3
𝑔= = 2 (𝑅 − 𝑑)2
𝑚 𝑅 𝐺𝑀 ℎ −2 𝐺𝑀 𝑅 − 𝑑
≈ 9.81 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑘𝑔−1 this is = 2 (1 + ) = 2 [ ]
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
true only for near the surface of 2ℎ 𝑑
earth. = 𝑔 (1 − ) = 𝑔 [1 − ]
𝑅 𝑅

GPE: Gravitational Potential Energy does not have any absolute meaning. But it is calculated with a fixed reference taken as per
our choice and convenience.
Arbitrarily GPE is taken as zero at infinity.
Work done to move a mass from infinity to a particular point is the GPE at
that point. In the case of gravitational force we do not do any external
work but the system is attracting the mass, so it is taken as negative.
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑟 = − 2 . 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 1 2 1 1
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = −𝐺𝑀𝑚 ∫ 2 = −𝐺𝑀𝑚 [ ] = −𝐺𝑀𝑚 [ − ]
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1
1 1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
GPE is work done to move the object from infinity to the point, 𝑈 = −𝐺𝑀𝑚 [ − ] = −
𝑟 ∞ 𝑟
𝑈 𝐺𝑀
Gravitational Potential is GPE per unit mass, 𝑉 = = −
𝑚 𝑟
-ve generally refers to attractive forces. +ve for repulsive forces.
𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 0 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ, Deriving mgh from GPE formula:
𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Work done to move from ℎ1 to ℎ2 is the 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀
𝑈=− − (− )= 𝑚ℎ = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
change in PE. (𝑅 + ℎ) 𝑅 𝑅 (𝑅 + ℎ)
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) Since ℎ ≪ 𝑅
The above is true only for near the surface of earth for
small distances where we assume g is a constant. This
is not true for large distances from the surface of
earth.
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐹 𝐺𝑀 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑀
𝐹=𝐺 𝑔= = 2 𝑈 = −𝐺 𝑉=−
𝑟2 𝑚 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
Escape Velocity: Orbital Velocity:
Rocket takes the satellite to the required
height and pushes the satellite with a
particular velocity called orbital velocity
after which the satelite goes around the
earth.
𝑇𝐸1 = 𝑇𝐸2 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐺𝑀𝑚 1 𝑚𝑣𝑜2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
− + 𝑚𝑣𝑒2 = 0 = 2
𝑅 2 𝑟 𝑟
2
2𝐺𝑀 2𝐺𝑀 𝑅
𝑣𝑒 = = . = 2𝑔𝑅 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑣𝑜 = √ =√
For other altitudes other than the surface of earth, 𝑟 𝑅+ℎ
2𝐺𝑀 𝑣𝑒 = √2 𝑣𝑜
𝑣𝑒 = √ Mercury orbits around sun at 50 km/s, whereas Neptune it is 5
𝑟
km/s. So as r increases 𝑣𝑜 decreases because GF and so CF
as 𝑟 ↑, 𝑣𝑒 ↓ so its easy to escape from higher altitudes. decreases.
𝑣𝑒 = √2𝑔𝑅 = 11.2 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1 this is the speed an object should Near the surface of earth, 𝑣𝑜 = √𝑔𝑅
have at the surface of earth to escape the gravitational pull of
earth.
 RMS velocity of gases: when they are higher than the escape Injection velocity and different paths taken by a satellite:
velocity of the planet, those gases will escape the planet and 𝑣𝑖 ≥ 𝑣𝑒 escapes gravitational
atmosphere of the planet will not contain those gases. pull
𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
Earth 11.2 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1 O2 0.5 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1 𝑣𝑒 > 𝑣𝑖 > 𝑣𝑜 takes elliptical
Moon 2.5 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1 N2 0.5 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1 path
He 1.3 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1
H2 1.8 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑜 takes circular path

𝑣𝑖 < 𝑣𝑜 spirals and falls into

the planet

Geostationary Satellite: Polar Satellites:

w.r.t. earth ℎ ≈ 100 𝑘𝑚 very close to the earth, scans the

the earth region by region as it spins across and
satellite is above the poles.
stationary, e.g. weather and spying satellites
meaning it
is spinning along with the earth at the same speed. So the time
period T=24 hrs. h=36,000 km, from the center of earth
r = 36,000 + 6,400=42,400 km
e.g. communication satellites.
Typed Problem: Will an object stick to the planet surface or stick to an orbit or will it fly off?
If the centripetal force demanded > gravitational force then the object will flyoff the planet.
𝑚𝑣 2 2𝜋 2
Centripetal force = centrifugal force= = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2 = 2.5 × 6.37 × 106 × ( ) = 0.084 𝑁
𝑟 24×3600
Gravitational Force = 𝑚𝑔 = 2.5 × 9.8 = 24.5 𝑁
As CF < GF the object will stick to earth without flying off.

Also the Apparent Weight seen in balance , 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑅 = 𝐶𝐹

𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐶𝐹
= 24.5 − 0.084 = 24.416 𝑁 is the apparent weight seen in the balance.
Weightlessness in orbit: (Rotational) Weightlessness in free fall: (Linear)
During free fall
When the space station is orbiting the 𝑎=𝑔
planet near the surface, 𝑣𝑜 = √𝑔𝑅, in 𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎)
this case GF=CF 𝑅=0
𝑅 = 𝐺𝐹 − 𝐶𝐹 It means falling continuously in the gravity due
𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐶𝐹 to free fall.
𝑅=0
This means no reaction force, so apparent weight is zero. This
is called weightlessness. However weightlessness is not the
same as gravityless.
It means continuously falling into the planet and at the same
time going around the planet.
Mass (kg) Radius (km) Time Period (Days) Orbital Radius (m)
Sun 2 × 1030 696,000
Earth 6.02 × 1024 6400 365 1.5 × 1011
Mars 6.4 × 1023 3395 684 2.28 × 1011
Moon 7.3 × 1022 1700 27.3 3.84 × 108
𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2
09.Mechanical Properties of Solids
Interatomic Forces and Elasticity: Spring ball model: Hooke’s law for spring:
When you apply load, balls get displaced, spring is compressed or elongated. 𝐹 ∝ 𝑥
When the load is removed spring pushes back the balls to its original 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
position.
Elasticity and Plasticity:

Stress: Strain, Hooke’s law:

Stress for solids is similar to 𝛥𝑙 Stress ∝ strain, Stress = E strain, E is modulus of elasticity
𝜀= (no unit)
𝐿 𝜎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑁
pressure for fluids. Stress,
𝐹 𝑁 𝐸= =
𝜎= 𝜀 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑚2
𝐴 𝑚2
Youngs modulus Bulk modulus Shear modulus or Modulus of Rigidity
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌= 𝐵= 𝜂=
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹 ⁄𝐴 𝐹𝑙 𝑃 𝑃𝑣 𝐹 ⁄𝐴 𝐹
= = =− =− = =
𝛥𝑙 ⁄𝑙 𝐴𝛥𝑙 𝛥𝑣 ⁄𝑣 𝛥𝑣 𝜃 𝐴𝜃

𝑥
Poisson’s ratio Compressibility: Shear strain = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜃
𝑋
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 1
𝜎= = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 When 𝜃 is small, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜃
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐵
𝛥𝑑 ⁄𝐷 (Opposite of Bulkiness)
=−
𝛥𝑙 ⁄𝐿

Stress-Strain diagram for increasing load on wire: Steel or Rubber, which is more elastic?
A – limit of proportionality Slope A is high so material
OA – Hooke’s law region A is more elastic than B
AB – Elastic but not and C.
obeying Hooke’s law
B- Elastic limit Yield point Steel is more elastic than
OB – Elastic region rubber because for steel
BE – Plastic region less 𝛥𝑙 compared to
C – if load removed here rubber. so 𝑌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 > 𝑌𝑟𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑟
permanent strain 𝑂𝑂′
D – Maximum Tensile Stress, Ultimate Tensile Strength UTS, So we say steel is more elastic than rubber. In fact, rubber is
Breaking stress classified as Elastomers the one which undergoes strain of
CD – strain increases very quickly compared to stress many times its original length.
D – beyond D even if load removed wire continues to elongate.
E – Breaking point
Material Classification:
Ductile Brittle Elastomer
No well defined
plastic region, though
the elastic region is
large, it does not obey
Hooke’s law, Can be
pulled many times its
original length L, e.g.
Large plastic region, so can be drawn Small plastic region, so it will break Rubber, tissue ot aorta
into wires. e.g. Copper into pieces very soon as we cross the in heart.
elastic region. e.g. Glass
Energy stored in an elongated wire:
𝐹 1 𝐹 𝛥𝑙 1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹. 𝑆 = 𝑎𝑣𝑔. 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝛥𝑙 = × 𝛥𝑙 = 𝐴𝐿 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙
2 2𝐴 𝐿 2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 1 1
Energy Density, = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑌. 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 2
𝑉𝑜𝑙. 2 2
 Young’s modulus measurement experimental setup:
Ref wire is to compensate for 𝛥𝑙 due to any temperature effects. If there is any change in the
length in experimental wire due to room temperature change, it will be equally accompanied by
same amount of change in reference wire. Both wires are of same length, same area, same
material.
𝜎 𝑀𝑔 𝑙
𝑌= = 2⋅
𝜀 𝜋𝑟 𝛥𝑙

Applications of elasticity of materials:

Cables in Cranes:
10 tonnes to be lifted, 10,000 kg FOS 10 times usually, so 105 𝑘𝑔, 106 𝑁 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
The cable of cranes is to be done with steel. Yield strength of steel (𝜎𝑦 ) = 300 × 106 𝑁𝑚−2
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 106 1 1
𝜎𝑦 = ⇒ 300 × 106 = 2 ⇒ 𝑟 2 ≈ ⇒𝑟≈ 𝑚 ≈ 3.3𝑐𝑚
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝜋𝑟 𝛱×300 3 𝑥 10
It will become steel rod without any flexibility, so braided wires of steel of this radius will be used.
Bridges:
By calculus method
𝑤𝑙 3
𝛿=
4𝑏 𝑑 3 𝑌
To reduce the 𝛿 increasing d is more effective than increasing b as we can see 𝑑 3 is present.

Bending of bar is called buckling.Common in Bridges.To overcome this

different cross section are used.

Pillars and columns: To support Bridges buildings distributed shape at the

ends can take more load.
Why maximum height of a mountain in earth is 10 km?
Vertical force cause shear stress on rocks.
Shear stress limit on rock is 30 × 107 𝑁𝑚−2
Pressure due to a mountain = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 3 × 103 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3 × 10 𝑚𝑠 −2 × ℎ = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
ℎ = 10 𝑘𝑚
height of Mount Everest ≈ 9000 𝑚
10.Properties of Fluids
Density, Pascal’s Law: Pressure due to Liquid column:
Pressure exerted by a fluid is 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ρ V g ρhAg
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 equal in all directions at a 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = = = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝜌 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴
𝑣𝑜𝑙. given height.

1 atmospheric pressure = 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 Liquid always finds its own level:

Atmospheric pressure is a result of air column above the earth.

Barometer: U-tube manometer: U-tube Differential Hydraulic Machine:
manometer:

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐴2
= 13600 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3 × 9.8 𝑚 𝑠 −2 = ⇒ 𝐹2 = 𝐹
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑙 + 𝑃𝐵 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴1 1
× 0.76 𝑚 𝐴2
= 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ is the multiplication factor
𝐴1

Pascal’s law proving:

𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑏 sin 𝜃
𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹𝑏 cos 𝜃
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑏 sin 𝜃
𝐴𝑎 = 𝐴𝑏 cos 𝜃
𝐹𝑐 𝐹 𝐹
= 𝑏= 𝑎
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑏 𝐴𝑎
𝑝𝑐 = 𝑝𝑏 = 𝑝𝑎 , Pascals law proved: When fluid is at rest, at a given height, pressure is same at all points.
Archimedes Principle: Partially Submerged:
When a body is floating, no matter how much it is submerged, since the body is in
equilibrium,
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦
Weight of body = weight of liquid displaced
this depends upon the fraction of the body submerged in the liquid
𝑚𝑜 𝑔 = 𝑚𝑙 𝑔
ρ𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑔 = ρ𝑙 𝑉𝑙 𝑔
ρ𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑔 = ρ𝑙 × 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 × 𝑉𝑜 𝑔
ρ𝑜
= 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 If the liquid is water then fraction submerged gives the relative density of the object.
ρ𝑙
Archimedes Principle: Fully Submerged: RD of an object heavier than water:

Weight of Object in air = 𝐹𝑔 = 𝜌𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑔

Weight of Object in water (Apparent Weight) = 𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝐵
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑉𝑙 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑉𝑜 𝑔
𝜌 𝐹𝑔
Relative Density RD = 𝑜 =
𝜌𝑙 𝐹𝐵

Archimedes Principle: RD of an object lighter than water:

Apparent weight of sinker = 𝑊1
Apparent weight of sinker + Weight of cork = 𝑊2
Apparent weight of sinker + Apparent weight of cork = 𝑊3
Weight of cork = 𝑊2 − 𝑊1
Apparent weight of cork = 𝑊3 − 𝑊1
Bouyancy force of cork = 𝑊2 − 𝑊3 =Weight of water displaced by cork
𝜌𝑜 𝑚𝑜 ⁄𝑉𝑜 𝑚𝑜 𝑊𝑜 𝑊2 − 𝑊1
𝑅𝐷 = = = = =
𝜌𝑤 𝑚𝑤 ⁄𝑉𝑙 𝑚𝑤 𝑊𝑤 𝑊2 − 𝑊3
Pressure Energy: Equation of Continuity:
𝑁 From law of conservation of mass:
= 𝑃. 𝑉 = 2 𝑚3 = 𝑁𝑚 = 𝐽 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑀𝑞
𝑚
𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 = 𝜌𝑞 𝑉𝑞
e.g Compressor Tank. 𝜌𝑝 𝐴𝑝 𝑑𝑝 = 𝜌𝑞 𝐴𝑞 𝑑𝑞
Bigger the tank more work can be done by 𝜌𝑝 𝐴𝑝 𝑣𝑝 𝛥𝑡 = 𝜌𝑞 𝐴𝑞 𝑣𝑞 𝛥𝑡
compressed air so higher pressure energy. 𝑣𝑝 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑣𝑞 𝐴𝑞
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
Bernoulli’s Principle: Proof:
Law of conservation of energy. according to Work -Energy theorem,
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 1 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑡 1 = 𝑃1 𝛥𝑉 (𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 1)
(assuming no friction losses in pipe, ideal 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑡 2 = −𝑃2 𝛥𝑉 (𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 2)
situation) 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 𝛥𝑉
1 1 1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ⇒ 𝑃1 𝑉 + 𝑚𝑣12 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 𝑉 + 𝑚𝑣22 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2 2 2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 1 2 1 2 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
⇒ 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
𝑉𝑜𝑙 2 2
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
1 1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 𝛥𝑉 = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) + 𝑚𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
2 2
This means as velocity increases, pressure decreases. 1 1
𝑃1 𝛥𝑉 + 𝑚𝑣1 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 𝛥𝑉 + 𝑚𝑣22 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ2
2
2 2
Torricelli Speed of Efflux: Venturimeter:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦2 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦1 Principle 1: Energy at A =
1 1 Energy at B
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 1 1
2 2 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑣𝐴2 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑣𝐵2
1
(𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) + 𝜌𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) = 𝜌𝑣12 2 2
2 1 2
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = 𝜌 (𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴2 )
case i) Inside the tank when there 2
is high pressure like pressure
From Manometer
tanks, rocket fuel tanks then
1 𝑣𝐵 2
2(𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑣𝐴2 [( ) − 1]
𝑣1 = √ + 2𝑔ℎ 2 𝑣𝐴
𝜌
Pressure P is so high that the Principle 2: 𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑣𝐵
√2𝑔ℎ then can be ignored. 1 𝐴 2
𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ= 𝜌𝑣𝐴2 [( 𝐴 ) − 1]
2 𝐴𝐵
case ii) If 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎 where the tank From this velocity at A can be deduced. No need to memorize
is open to atmosphere then 𝑣1 = √2𝑔ℎ This is torricelli’s law. this complicated formula. Just start from the basic principles.

Same as free falling body. Why free-falling body analogy?

𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ
Pitot tube: Modified pitot tube, Prandtl tube, Air speed indicator:
Energy at A = Energy at B 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
1 1 1 1
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑣𝐴2 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑣𝐵2 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑣𝐴2 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑣𝐵2
2 2 2 2
1 2
1 2
𝜌𝑣 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴
2 𝐴 2 𝐴
1
𝜌𝑣 2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
2 𝐴 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑦
𝑣𝐴 = √2𝑔ℎ 𝑃𝐵 + 𝑋 + 𝜌 𝑔ℎ = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑋 + 𝜌𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 = (𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌)𝑔ℎ

1
(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌)𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑣 2
2 𝐴
Spray Gun: Air Foil: Magnus Effect:
Viscosity: Reynold’s number: Terminal velocity of the sphere:

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝐷 − 𝐹𝐵 = 0
(𝐹𝐷 from Stoke’s formula)
𝑚𝑔 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣 + 𝜎𝑉𝑔
𝜌𝑉𝑔 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣 + 𝜎𝑉𝑔
(𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑉𝑔 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣
4𝜋𝑎3 𝑔
(𝜌 − 𝜎) = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣𝑡
𝛥𝑣
𝛥𝑥
Velocity gradient is a measure 3
of stickiness. Terminal velocity,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 2𝑎2 𝑔
𝐹∝𝐴 ⇒ 𝐹 =η𝐴 𝜌𝑣𝑑 𝑣𝑡 = (𝜌 − 𝜎)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑅𝑒 = 9𝜂
𝜂
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 η 𝑅𝑒 = 1000 Laminar stream lined flow 𝜌- density of ball
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹∕𝐴 𝐹∕𝐴 𝑅𝑒 = 1000 𝑡𝑜 2000 unstable flow 𝜎-density of liquid
= = =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝛥𝑙 𝑣 ⁄𝑙 𝑅𝑒 > 2000 Turbulent flow
/𝛥𝑡
𝑙
η ⇒ 𝑁𝑚−2 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−1 𝑠 −1 ⇒ [𝑀𝐿− 𝑇 −1 ]
Definition of Surface tension: Microscopic understanding: Surface Tension T:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 Intermolecular force of 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.0727 𝑁𝑚−1
𝑇=
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ attraction. 𝑆𝑜𝑎𝑝 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.03 𝑁𝑚−1
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑀𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 0.4355 𝑁𝑚−1
𝑇=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Needle on Surface of water: Work done on a thin film: Experiment to determine Surface tension:
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑊
𝐹. ∆𝑥 𝐹 𝑇=
2𝑙
𝑇= =
2𝑙. ∆𝑥 2𝑙
Surface acts like a stretched membrane.
2 𝑇 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
Water Mercury
Water wets the glass. Mercury does not wet the glass.
Angle of contact is acute. Angle of contact is obtuse.

Water on lotus leaf does not wet the leaf.

So angle of contact will be obtuse.
Water to glass adhesive force is higher than Mercury to mercury cohesive force is
water to water cohesive force. higher than mercury to glass adhesive
force.

Lower meniscus is used. Upper meniscus is used.

Excess Pressure:
Concave side is the higher pressure.
Surface tension is the stretched membrane holding the higher pressure.
Downward force is balanced by the excess pressure for equilibrium.
2𝑇 4𝑇
𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = (Droplet) 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = (Bubble) so 2 surfaces.
𝑟 𝑟

Proof: Work done by excess pressure

= 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 . 𝛥𝑉 = 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
= 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 . 𝛥𝑉 = 𝑇. 𝛥𝐴
𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 . 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝛥𝑟 = 𝑇. (4𝜋(𝑟 + 𝛥𝑟)2 − 4𝜋𝑟 2 )
= 𝑇(𝑟 2 + (𝛥𝑟)2 + 2𝑟𝛥𝑟 − 𝑟 2 )
2𝑇
𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑟

Capillary action: Capillary rise: Proof by Excess pressure method:

Surface tension
pulling the
liquid upwards.
𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
For the entire 2𝑇
𝜌𝑔ℎ =
circumference 𝑟
force acting upwards = 2𝑇
𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑎
𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 . 2𝜋𝑎
𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 .2𝜋𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑎
𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 .2𝜋𝑎 = 𝜌. 𝑉. 𝑔 𝑇=
2𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 cos 𝜃
𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃. 2𝜋𝑎 = 𝜌. 𝜋𝑎2 . ℎ. 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 ⇒ ℎ =
𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑎 𝜌𝑔𝑎
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⇒ 𝑇 = ℎ∝
1
radius of the tube
2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎

Soap and detergents:

When added they form a interface between water and oil, dirt, grease. So the surface tension is reduced
between the water and oil So it can be washed away easily.
11.Thermal Properties
Heat Capacity: Specific Heat Capacity: Molar Heat Capacity:
∆𝑄 ∆𝑄 ∆𝑄
𝑆= 𝐶= 𝑐=
∆𝑇 𝑚. ∆𝑇 𝜇. ∆𝑇
Principle of Calorimetry or Law of Heating Curve:
mixtures: Temp. in macroscopic is equivalent to KE of
molecules in microscopic.
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 Phase or State in macroscopic is PE of molecules
𝑚𝑐𝑢 𝐶𝑐𝑢 ∆𝑇𝑐𝑢 = 𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑤 ∆𝑇𝑤 in microscopic.
𝑚𝑐𝑢 𝐶𝑐𝑢 (𝑇𝑖,𝐶𝑢 − 𝑇𝑓 ) PE of gas = 0 as the interatomic distances are far
away and there is no attraction between two gas
= 𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖,𝑤 ) molecules in ideal gases.
1 calorie = 4.2 J (energy required 𝐿𝑣 > 𝐿𝑓 because more energy required for
to raise 1g of water by 1o C) pulling the molecules apart to form liquid to gas
o
C + 273 = K as compared to solid to liquid.
Typical problem: Resulting mixture: When ice, water, steam at different temperatures are mixed, the resulting state or mixture of state and its final
equilibrium temperature depends upon the heat content of each state. E.g. 1g of ice and 1g of steam mixed will result in what? 80 cal for 0 oC ice to 0oC water +
100 cal for 0oC water to become 100oC water, so the total is 180 cal which is less than 536 cal contained in 100 oC steam to become 100oC water. So the part of
the steam turns to water by giving out 180 cal while the remaining remains as steam. So 180/536 ~0.3 g of steam turns to water at 100 oC. So 1g+0.3g water and
0.7g steam at 100oC is the final resulting mixture.

Another method that can be followed is take the final temp as Tf and use the usual Qlost = Qgained calculations to find the Tf. If the Tf is outside the expected
location in the heating curve then the assumed final location in water or ice or steam should be wrong.

Specific Heat 𝐽𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 𝐶𝑎𝑙 𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 Latent Heat 𝐽𝑔−1 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐶𝑎𝑙 𝑔−1
𝐶𝑖𝑐𝑒 2.1 2100 0.5 𝐿𝑓 336 3.36 × 102 80
𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 4.2 4200 1.0 𝐿𝑣 2256 2.256 × 106 536
𝐶𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 2 2000 0.5 𝐿𝑠 2838 2.838 × 106 676
Temperature Scale Calibration:
With two fixed points: Linear scale: With one fixed point: Triple point:
𝑋𝜃 − 𝑋0 𝑋100 − 𝑋0 𝑃
= 𝑇= 273.16 𝐾
𝜃−0 100 − 0 𝑃𝑡𝑟
𝑋𝜃 − 𝑋0
𝜃= 100
𝑋100 − 𝑋0
Anomalous or peculiar behaviour of water:
As top layers reach 4oC due to increased density it will sink. The lower layers will come to the
top layers and continue to do the same until the entire pond is 4 oC. As the top layers drop
down further in temp. the density is low so it will not sink, instead it will float forming ice
reaching 0oC or lower temperatures while the lower layers remain at 4oC. This makes aquatic
life possible in the lower layer even though the top layer is ice.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Coefficient of Linear Thermal Coefficient of Area Thermal Expansion: 𝛼𝐴 Coefficient of Volume Thermal
Expansion: 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝐴 Expansion: 𝛼𝑉
∆𝑙 = 𝛼𝐴 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑉
= 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇 𝐴 = 𝛼𝑉 ∆𝑇
𝑙 𝐴2 = 𝐴 + ∆𝐴 𝑉
𝑙2 = 𝑙 + ∆𝑙 𝐴2 = 𝐴(1 + 𝛼𝐴 ∆𝑇) 𝑉2 = 𝑉 + ∆𝑉
𝑙2 = 𝑙(1 + 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇) 𝑉2 = 𝑉(1 + 𝛼𝑉 ∆𝑇)
Similar to temp. coefficient of For Isotropic Solids, 𝛼𝐴 = 2𝛼𝑙 For Isotropic Solids, 𝛼𝑉 = 3𝛼𝑙
∆𝐴 = (𝑙 + ∆𝑙)2 − 𝑙 2 1
resistivity or resistance, ∆𝐴 2𝑙∆𝑙 For Ideal Gas, 𝛼𝑉 =
= 2 𝑇
𝜌2 = 𝜌(1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑇) 𝐴 𝑙 𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇
𝑅2 = 𝑅(1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑇) 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅∆𝑇
∆𝑉 ∆𝑇
=
𝑉 𝑇

Accounting for heat transfer to the surroundings in experimental trials:

To account for heat lost or gained from the surroundings, the experiment trials should be done in two different power settings.
Determination of Specific heat capacity C: ∆𝑇 kept constant Determination of Latent heat capacity L: Time 𝑡 kept constant
in both trials, so that heat transfer to the surroundings is in both trials, so that heat transfer to the surroundings is
constant in both trials. Time taken will be different. constant in both trials.(since temperature remains constant at
Power setting 1: 𝑄1 ± ℎ = 𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇 melting point or boiling point)
𝑄1 ℎ ∆𝑇 Power setting P1: 𝑄1 ± ℎ = 𝑚1 𝐿
± =𝑚𝐶 𝑃1 . 𝑡 ± ℎ = 𝑚1 𝐿
𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡1
Power by heater, heat transfer rate to surrounding, rate of
change in temperature. Power setting P2: 𝑄2 ± ℎ = 𝑚2 𝐿
𝑃2 . 𝑡 ± ℎ = 𝑚2 𝐿
𝑄2 ℎ ∆𝑇
Power setting 2: ± =𝑚𝐶
𝑡2 𝑡2 𝑡2 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ). 𝑡 = (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 ) 𝐿
 Energy Transfer Modes
Conduction Convection Radiation
Heat transferred from one atom to the other Natural or Free Convection:  All hot bodies emit IR Infra Red radiation called
through atomic vibrations in solids. (Heat transferred in liquids Thermal radiation.
Heat conduction rate H, and gases due to movement of  It does not need a medium to transfer heat as it uses
𝐴 molecules which is caused by EM waves.
𝐻 = 𝐾 ∆𝑇 density changes which is a
𝐿 slow process)
 Black body is a very good
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑇 Forced Convection: (by
emitter and absorber of heat.
=𝐾𝐴  White is good reflector. Bad
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝐿 forcing movement molecules at a high rate to
K is the thermal cause heat transfer which is a fast process) e.g. emitter and bad absorber.
conductivity of the stirring, fan blowing on a hot body to cool it.  Rough surface absorbs well and smooth surface
material. reflects well.

Effective Thermal Conductivity 𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓. :

Junction Temp. 𝑇𝑗 : Series: Parallel:
Heat transfer rate is same Heat transfer rate is same, ∆𝑇 is same.
in a series connection, so 𝐻 = 𝐻1 = 𝐻2 Similar to 𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ,

𝐻1 = 𝐻2 𝐻 = 𝐻1 + 𝐻2
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝐾 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = 𝐾1 (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑗 ) = 𝐾2 (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇2 )
𝐴1 𝐴2 2𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
Similar to 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 , (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑗 ) + (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇2 ) 𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝐴 = 𝐾1 𝐴1 + 𝐾2 𝐴2
𝐾1 (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑗 ) = 𝐾2 (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇2 ) 𝐾 𝐾
𝑙1 𝑙2 1= + ⇒ A is Area of the effective conducting rod.
𝑇𝑗 can be found. 2
2𝐾1 2𝐾2
1 1
1 1 1
= + 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = +
𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑙 1 𝑙
Similar to electrical resistance 𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝜌𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚 =
𝐴 𝐾𝐴

Newton’s law of cooling: Typical Problem:

Rate of cooling is proportional to the difference between the A body cools down from 100oC to 75oC in 2 min, then how
body temperature and the surrounding temperature, long does it take to cool from 75 oC to 45oC?
−
𝑑𝑄
∝ (𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. ) ∆𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑡 = −𝐾(𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. )
𝑑𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑡
−𝑚𝑐 = 𝑘(𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. ) 25 100 + 75
𝑑𝑡 = −𝐾 ( − 25) → 𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1
𝑑𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 2 2
= −𝐾(𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. ) 30 75 + 45
𝑑𝑡 = −𝐾 ( − 25) → 𝐸𝑞𝑛. 2
log(𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. ) = −𝐾𝑡 + 𝐶 𝑡 2
𝑡 can be found from above.
𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. = 𝑒 −𝐾𝑡+𝐶
𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. + 𝑒 −𝐾𝑡 . 𝐶′
+ Radiation Definitions
Absorbtivity, Reflectivity, Transmittivity:
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 + 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 + 𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑎= , 𝑟= , 𝑡=
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
Opaque/Adiathermanous materials if 𝑡 = 0, then 𝑎 + 𝑟 = 1
Absorbtive Power 𝑎 : Emissive Power, 𝑒: Emissivity 𝜀:
𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑒 Heat radiated per unit area, per unit time, 𝑒
𝑎= 𝜀=
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 for a given temp., (Wm ) -2
𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘
Also called as Absorbtivity. ∆𝑄 1 at a given temp. ratio of e of a body to e
For black body 𝑎 = 1 𝑒= of black body.
∆𝑡 𝐴
For a black body 𝜀 = 1
Spectral absorbtive power: 𝑎𝜆 Spectral emissive power, 𝑒𝜆 : Perfect black body
𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 ∆𝑄 1 absorbs all the energy
𝑎𝜆 = 𝑒𝜆 = incident on it. E.g.
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝑡 𝐴
It is absorbtive power for a particular It is emissive power for a particular Ferry’s black body,
wavelength 𝜆. wavelength 𝜆. Wein’s black body.
Total of all spectral absorbtive power Total of all spectral emissive power adds Net Power Emitted:
adds up to absorbtive power. up to emissive power. 𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
∞ ∞
𝑎 = ∫ 𝑎𝜆 . 𝑑𝜆 𝑒 = ∫ 𝑒𝜆 . 𝑑𝜆
0 0

Solar Constant: Estimating Surface temp. of Sun:

S is the power per unit area received Power radiated by the Sun = Power radiation received by the
from the sun near the surface of earth orbital radius of earth sphere
(above the atmosphere to avoid energy loss to 1 1
𝑆 4 𝑅 2
atmosphere) 𝜎 𝑇 4 . 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑆. 4𝜋𝑅2 ⇒ 𝑇=( ) ( )
𝜎 𝑟
 + Radiation Laws
Kirchoff’s radiation law: Wein’s Displacement law: Stefan-Boltzman law:
At a given temp., ratio of 1 𝑃
𝜆𝑚 ∝ = 𝜎 𝑇 4 for black body
𝑇 𝐴
emissive power to absorbtive 𝑃
𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑏 = 𝜀 𝜎 𝑇 4 for hot body of known emissivity
power is equal for all surfaces and 𝐴
𝑃
is equal to a constant which is 𝑏 = 2.898 × 10−3 𝑚. 𝐾 = 𝜀 𝜎 (𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑟.
4
) body is in surrounding
𝐴
emissive power of black body at 𝜆𝑚 is the
that temp. wavelength which P is the power, 𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −4
𝑒1 𝑒2 is emitted with maximum intensity. Higher temp. If 𝑇 > 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. then heat radiated is positive, from body to the surroundings,
If 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. then heat radiated is negative, from surroundings to the body,
= = ⋯ = 𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 leads to higher energy, so higher frequency, so
If 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. then heat radiated is zero, so body and the surroundings are in
𝑎1 𝑎2 lower wavelength. equilibrium.
Since e and a are proportional it implies a good absorber
is also good emitter or radiator.
12.Thermodynamics
Temp. vs. Heat: Thermal or Thermodynamic Zeroth law of Internal Energy:
Temperature is a measure of hotness. equilibrium: Thermodynamics: U = KE + PE
It determines the direction of heat The variables such as P, V, T are If As Temp. increases KE increases. In
energy flow. Heat flows from hotter stabilized and does not change with 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐶 , gases already the molecules are
body to colder body. respect to time. No energy flow from 𝑇𝐵 = 𝑇𝐶 then farther way and PE=0. So internal
one system to another. 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐵 energy increase is only due to the KE
meaning A and increase.
B are in thermal equilibrium.

P vs. V Indicator diagram: Net Work done: Adiabatic ln 𝑥 , 𝑒 𝑥 graphs:

= Work by system – Work on Relationships:
the system
𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑃1 𝑉1𝛾 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝛾
𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃. 𝑑𝑉 𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑇2 𝛾
=( ) ⇒
Area under the curve is 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝑇1
work done. 𝑃1−𝛾 𝑇 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑇1 𝑉2 𝛾
= =[ ] ⇒
𝑃2 𝑉1 𝑇2 𝑉1

𝑉 𝛾−1 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. ln 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 for x > 1, -ve for x <1

Point function / State variable: Path function / Path variable:

Depends upon the state only. Internal energy U is determined by the P,V,T. Depends upon the path taken. Work done W is area under the
(+ Entropy, measure of disorder is also a point function) curve so path function.

Similar to Conservative and Non-Conservative force.

Intensive property: Independent of mass Extensive property: Dependent on mass

P, T, u, 𝜌 V, M, U
Internal Energy U can be increased by:
Giving Heat Q: Giving work W:
Temp. increases, KE increases, Internal energy increases. When work is done on the piston, pressure increases, temperature
Q +ve when given in to the system increases, internal energy increases.
Q -ve when given out of the system W +ve when work is done by the system
W -ve when work is done on the system

1st law of Thermodynamics: 𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝑈,

when work is done on the system 𝑄 − (−𝑊) = ∆𝑈, 𝑄 + 𝑊 = ∆𝑈

Heat Engine e.g. car engine Heat Pump e.g. refrigerator

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄
𝜂= = 𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝛽 = = 2
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄1 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊
𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑄2 𝑇2 𝑄2 𝑇2
= = 1− =1− = =
𝑄1 𝑄1 𝑇1 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2

2nd Law of Thermodynamics: Kelvin-Planck Statement: 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: Clausius Statement:
All heat absorbed from reservoir cannot be converted to work. There will Heat can never flow from colder object to hotter object without giving some
always be some heat lost to sink. external work.
In other words efficiency of heat engine can never be 100%. In other words COP can never be infinity.

First law of Thermodynamics applied to different Thermodynamic processes: 𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝑈

Cyclic process: ∆𝑈 = 0, 𝑄 = 𝑊
Isolated system: 𝑄 = 0, 𝑊 = 0, ∆𝑈 = 0
Isochoric process: ∆𝑉 = 0, 𝑊 = 0, 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 e.g. pressure cooker
Isothermal process: ∆𝑈 = 0, 𝑄 = 𝑊
Isobaric process: 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. , 𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉, 𝑄 = 𝑃∆𝑉 + ∆𝑈
Adiabatic process: 𝑄 = 0, −𝑊 = ∆𝑈 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 = −∆𝑈 , work on the system increases the internal energy, work by the system
decreases the internal energy.
Specific heat capacities, 𝑐𝑣 < 𝑐𝑝
Specific heat capacity at const. vol. Specific heat capacity at const. P
𝐶𝑣 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑘𝑔, 𝑐𝑣 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑘𝑔, 𝑐𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
 ∆𝑉 = 0, 𝑊 = 0, 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉,
∆𝑄 ∆𝑈 𝑄 = 𝑃∆𝑉 + ∆𝑈
= ∆𝑄 𝑃∆𝑉 ∆𝑈
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
∆𝑈 = +
𝜇𝑐𝑣 = (𝑄 = 𝜇𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇) ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
∆𝑇 𝜇𝑐𝑝 = 𝜇𝑅 + 𝜇𝑐𝑣 (𝑄 = 𝜇𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇)
𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅 Mayer’s relation.
Quasi static process: Non-Quasi static process:
Each point or state of the process is Initial and final states are in
in thermodynamic equilibrium (P, thermodynamic equilibrium, but
V, T are well defined) intermediate points are not. (P, V, T
W is made up of very small weights states cannot be well defined)
𝑑𝑤, which is removed in succession W, a large weight is removed at
gradually. once.
It is a slow process. It is a fast process.
Reversible process: Irreversible process:
If initial state is restored by reversing the process. If initial state cannot be restored by reversing the process. It will be non-quasi
It must be quasi static. No dissipative effects such as friction, viscosity are static. Dissipative effects such as friction, viscosity are present. Most practical
present. So it is hypothetical. processes are irreversible.
e.g. small weights 𝑑𝑤, are put back in small increments, state 1 is restored. e.g. when large weight W is put back at once, state 1 cannot be restored.

First law of Thermodynamics applied to: (Isobaric process)

Vaporization: Freezing:
Volume of liquid expands against the constant atmospheric pressure, some Volume of ice increases compared to the water. So work is done against the
energy is used to do work against the atmospheric pressure and most energy atmospheric pressure. Here the ∆𝑈 is negative because heat is removed from
is used to increase the PE of the molecules by pulling them apart from each the water to reduce the internal energy. PE is decreased.
other. During phase change process the KE is not changed only PE is 𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝑈
increased, increasing the internal energy U.
𝑄 − 𝑃∆𝑉 = ∆𝑈
𝑄 = 𝑃∆𝑉 + ∆𝑈
−𝑚𝐿𝑓 − 𝑃(𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑙 ) = ∆𝑈
𝑚𝐿𝑣 = 𝑃(𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉𝑙 ) + ∆𝑈
Work done by Isothermal process: Work done by Adiabatic process:
∆𝑈 = 0, 𝑄 = 𝑊 𝑐𝑝
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑘 𝛾=
𝑑𝑉 𝑐𝑣
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃. 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇 ∫ 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑑𝑉 𝑉 −𝛾+1 2
𝑉
𝑘 1 1 1 𝑃2 𝑉2𝛾 𝑃1 𝑉1𝛾
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃. 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑘 ∫ = 𝑘[ ] = [ − ]= [ − ]
𝑉𝛾 −𝛾 + 1 𝑉 1 − 𝛾 𝑉2𝛾−1 𝑉1𝛾−1 1 − 𝛾 𝑉2𝛾−1 𝑉1𝛾−1
𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑉1 1

𝑊 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇 ln = 𝜇𝑅𝑇 ln 1 𝜇𝑅
𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑊= [𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃2 𝑉2 ] = [𝑇 − 𝑇2 ]
(from Boyle’s law 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2) ln 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 for x > 1, -ve for x <1
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 1
𝑇1 > 𝑇2 is W +ve so work done by the system.
𝑑𝑃
+ Bulk Modulus of gas: 𝐵 = − 𝑑𝑉 , for isothermal 𝐵 = 𝑃, for adiabatic 𝐵 = 𝛾𝑃
𝑉

Carnot Engine: Carnot Engine’s Efficiency:

𝑉2
𝑊1−2 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇1 ln = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 work done by the gas so +ve,
𝑉1
Isothermal process so ∆𝑈 = 0, 𝑄 = 𝑊
𝜇𝑅
𝑊2−3 = [𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ] work done by the gas so +ve
𝛾−1
𝑉4 𝑉3
𝑊3−4 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇2 ln = −𝜇𝑅𝑇2 ln work done on gas so –ve
𝑉3 𝑉4
𝜇𝑅
𝑊4−1 = [𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ] work done on gas so –ve
𝛾−1
𝑉 𝑉
Net work 𝑊1−2−3−4 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇1 ln 2 − 𝜇𝑅𝑇2 ln 3
Hypothetical reversible engine with maximum efficiency when the following sequence is 𝑉1 𝑉4
done. 𝑉2 𝑉3
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝜇𝑅𝑇1 ln − 𝜇𝑅𝑇 2 ln 𝑇2
Heat should be absorbed isothermally at 𝑇1. 𝑉1 𝑉4
𝜂= = =1−
System should come from 𝑇1 to 𝑇2 adiabatically. 𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑉2 𝑇1
𝜇𝑅𝑇1 ln
Heat should be released isothermally at 𝑇2 . 𝑉1
𝑉3 𝑉2
System should come from 𝑇2 to 𝑇1 adiabatically. ( = from Adiabatic relationships.)
𝑉4 𝑉1

Carnot Theorems:
1) Heat engine working between two temperatures 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 cannot have efficiency more than that of the carnot engine.
2) Efficiency of carnot engine is independent of the nature of the working substance.
Proving Carnot Theorem 1:
𝐸𝑖𝑟𝑟 irreversible engine, 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑣 reversible engine
𝑊1 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 , 𝑊2 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄3
𝑊 𝑊
Suppose if we assume, 𝜂𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣 > 𝜂𝑟𝑒𝑣 ⇒ 1 > 2 ⇒ 𝑊1 >
𝑄1 𝑄1
𝑊2 ⇒ 𝑄2 < 𝑄3
𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑣 is reversed now as it is a reversible engine, meaning it
acts as a heat pump. However the magnitudes remains the
same but the directions are reversed.
Equivalent heat engine: 𝐸𝑖𝑟𝑟 + 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑣 , 𝑊1 − 𝑊2 = 𝑄3 − 𝑄2
From this we see all the heat energy 𝑄3 − 𝑄2 is converted to 𝑊1 − 𝑊2 work output. Which is against the Kelvin-Planck statement of Second law of
thermodynamics. So 𝜂𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣 > 𝜂𝑟𝑒𝑣 is not possible. So the efficiency of any irreversible engine can never be higher than that of the reversible carnot engine.
Proving Carnot Theorem 2:A similar argument like what we did for proving theorem 1 can be set up for two engines working in different working
substance. The final result will be 𝑊1 − 𝑊2 = 𝑄3 − 𝑄2 which is not possible according to Kelvin-Planck statement of Second law of thermodynamics. So
𝜂𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 1 > 𝜂𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2 is not possible. So the efficiency of carnot engine is independent of the working substance.
13.Kinetic Theory of Gases
Basis of Kinetic theory of gases:
 Gas consist of rapidly moving atoms or molecules.
 Interatomic forces (short range forces) important for solids and liquids, but not for gases.So it can be neglected for gases.
 It was developed by Maxwell, Boltzmann and others.
 It is very successful theory, gives molecular interpretation of pressure and temperature of a gas, consistent with gas laws,
avagadro’s hypothesis and correctly explains specific heat capacities of many gases.
 Atomic size ~10-10 m = 1Å
Interatomic Distances Solid ~ 2Å Liquid~2Å Gas ~10Å
 Mean free path is the distance a gas molecule can travel without colliding ~ 1000Å (order of thousands)
 Interatomic forces are long range attractive and short range repulsive .
John Dalton’s Atomic theory to explain laws of definite and multiple proportions obeyed by elements when they combine into
compounds.
1st law: Any given compound has a fixed proportion by mass of its constituents. H 2O,CO2
2nd law: When two elements form more than one compound for a fixed mass of one element the masses of other elements are in
the ratio of small integers. H2O : H2O2 1:2, CO : CO2 1:2
To explain these laws Dalton suggested
 Smallest constituents of elements are atoms.
 Atoms are identical but differ between different elements.
 They combine to form a molecule or compound
Gay lussac’s law: when gases combine to form another gas, their volumes are in the ratios of small integers.
Avagadro’s law or hypothesis : All gases at same V,T,P will have the same no. of molecules.(same as saying same no. of moles)
Terminology:
M total mass, N no. of molecules, µ no. of moles, E is KE per unit vol.,
m Molecular mass n no. of molecules per unit R univ. gas const., k is const.,
or weight, volume or number density Rs Specific gas const., T absolute temp.,
Mo Molar mass 𝐾𝐵 Boltzmann const u, amu is atomic mass unit ≈ mass of a proton
𝜌 mass density
R = 8.314 J mol-1 K-1 1 u = 1 amu STP 0oC, old STP 0oC, NTP 20oC,
KB = 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1 = 1.6 x 10-27 kg, 273K, 100kPa, 273K, 101.325kPa, 293K, 101.325kPa,
NA = 1 mol = 6.02 x 1023 T = oC + 273 Vmolar = 22.7L Vmolar = 22.4L Vmolar = 24L
Atom / Molecule Mass no. of atom Molecular Mass Molar Mass
𝐻 1 1u 1g
𝐻2 1 2u 2g
𝑁2 14 28u 28g
𝑂2 16 32u 32g
C 12 12u 12g
U 235 235u 235g
Boyle’s law: Charle’s law: Gay Lussac’s Pressure law:

when T is kept const. when P is kept const, when V is kept const.,

1 𝑉 ∝ 𝑇 𝑃 ∝ 𝑇
𝑃 ∝ 𝑉 𝑃
𝑉
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑇 𝑇

𝜃 is Celcius temp. 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝜃 𝜃
T is Absolute temp. 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 [1 + ] 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 [1 + ]
273.15 273.15

𝑀 𝑁 𝑀 𝑁 𝑅 𝑅
Basics: µ = =𝑁 ,𝜌= ,𝑛= , 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑀 , 𝐾𝐵 = 𝑁
𝑀𝑜 𝐴 𝑉 𝑉 𝑜 𝐴
𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑀𝑅𝑠 𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐾𝐵 𝑇
Ideal Gas Equation: 𝑃𝑉 = µ𝑅𝑇, =𝑘
𝑇
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑠 𝑇 𝑃 = 𝑛𝐾𝐵 𝑇
 Kinetic Theory of Gases: Velocity:
Pressure: 1 2 3
1 1 𝑁 2 1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 2
𝑃= 3
𝑚𝑛𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑃= 3
𝑚 𝑉 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑃= 3
𝜌𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
3𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3𝑅𝑇
RMS velocity, 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ = √𝑚
𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Kinetic Energy:
1 2 2 2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝑅𝑇
2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑀𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃 = 𝐸 Most Propable speed, 𝑣𝑚𝑝 = √ 𝑚
= √𝑚
3 2 3 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
2 𝑁 2
𝜇𝑅𝑇 = 3 𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁 𝑅𝑇 = 3 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑁 8 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 8 𝑅𝑇
𝐴 Average Speed, 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = √𝜋 = √𝜋 𝑚
3 3 𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 𝑅𝑇
2 2
1 1 1
Graham’s law of Diffusion: Rate of diffusion 𝑟 𝛼 𝑣, from kinetic theory for a given temp. 𝑣 𝛼 ,𝑟𝛼 ,𝑟𝛼
√𝑚 √𝑚 √𝜌

Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures: P = P1 + P2 + P3+….

1 1 1
Law of Equipartition of Energy: for each dof = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 , 𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 𝑚𝑣 2 , 𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡 = 𝐼𝜔2 ,
2 2 2
1 𝑑𝑦 2 1 1 1
For 1 mode of vibration = 𝐾𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟 + 𝑃𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟 = 𝑚( ) + 𝑘𝑦 2 = 𝐾 𝑇 + 𝐾 𝑇 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 𝑑𝑡 2 2 𝐵 2 𝐵
Mono Atomic Di / Linear Tri Atomic Tri Atomic Non Linear Di Atomic with 1 Tri Atomic with f
e.g He, C e.g O2, N2, H2, CO2 vibration mode vibration mode

𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
= 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. + 𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟. = 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. + 𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟. = 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. + 𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟. = 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. + 𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟. = 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. + 𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟.

= 3 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 0𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 0 𝑑𝑜𝑓 = 3 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 2𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 0 𝑑𝑜𝑓 = 3 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 3𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 0 𝑑𝑜𝑓 = 3 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 2𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 1 𝑑𝑜𝑓 = 3 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 3𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑓
1 1 1 1 1
= 3 . 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 5 . 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 6 . 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 5 . 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 6 . 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑓 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 2 2 2 2
3 5 𝑈 = 3𝑅𝑇 7 𝑈 = (3 + 𝑓)𝑅𝑇
𝑈 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑈 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑈 = 𝑅𝑇
2 2 2
3 5 𝐶𝑣 = 3𝑅 7 𝐶𝑣 = (3 + 𝑓)𝑅
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅
2 2 2
5 7 𝐶𝑝 = 4𝑅 9 𝐶𝑝 = (4 + 𝑓)𝑅
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑅
2 2 2
5 7 9
𝛾 = = 1.67 𝛾 = = 1.4 4 𝛾 = = 1.28 (4 + 𝑓)
3 5 𝛾= = 1.33 7 𝛾=
3 (3 + 𝑓)
E, KB  per molecule, U, R  per mole, Meyer’s relation Cp - Cv = R (per mole)
Mean Free Path: No. of molecules close to a molecule that can collide in time ∆𝑡 = 𝑛 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣 ∆𝑡,
Rate of collisions (no. of collisions in time ∆𝑡) = 𝑛 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣 ,
1
Time between two collisions 𝜏 = ,
𝑛 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣
1 1 1
Dist. between two collisions (mean free path) 𝑙 = .𝑣 = , more accurately 𝑙 =
𝑛 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣 𝑛 𝜋𝑑 2 √2 𝑛 𝜋𝑑 2

Predicting 𝐶𝑣 for solids using Law of Equipartition of energy: solids so 0 translational, 0 rotational, 3 dof vibrational mode, so
𝐶𝑣 = 3 𝑅, for water assuming like solid, 3 atoms so 𝐶𝑣 = 9𝑅, ≈ experimental value of 4.2 Jg-1K-1
𝛾 𝑅
Meyer’s Relation: 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅, 𝐶𝑝 = 𝛾−1 𝑅, 𝐶𝑣 = 𝛾−1
+ For mixtures:
µ1 𝐶𝑝1 + µ2 𝐶𝑝2 µ1 𝐶𝑣1 + µ2 𝐶𝑣2 µ1 𝛾1 (𝛾2 − 1) + µ2 𝛾2 (𝛾1 − 1)
𝐶𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑥 = , 𝐶𝑣 𝑚𝑖𝑥 = , 𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
µ1 + µ2 µ1 + µ2 µ1 (𝛾2 − 1) + µ2 (𝛾1 − 1)
14.Oscillations
Displ, 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 or 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅), SHM as Circular Motion:
𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 ∅ is the initial phase. radius of circle = A amplitude of SHM

Vel, 𝑣 = 𝐴𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 or 𝑣2 𝑦2
𝑣 = 𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝑦 2 , ⇒ 2 2 + 2 = 1, 𝑣, 𝑦
𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑎 𝜔 𝑎
plot will be elliptical in shape
Accel, 𝑎 = −𝐴𝜔2 sin 𝜔𝑡 Characteristic Equation of SHM
or 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑎 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙.
𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑦, + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0, 𝜔 = √ = √
𝑎 = −𝐴𝜔2 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙.

Total Energy: 𝑇𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸 Avg PE, Avg KE:

1 1 1
= 𝑘𝑦 2 + 𝑚𝑣 2 ∫ 2 𝑘𝑦 2 1 1
2 2 𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑃𝐸 = = . 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
1 1 𝑇 2 2
= 𝑚𝜔 𝑦 + 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑦 2 )
2 2
1
2 2 ∫ 2 𝑚𝑣 2
1 1
1
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 (TE is a constant) 𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝐾𝐸 = = . 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
2 𝑇 2 2
= 2𝜋 2 𝑚𝜈 2 𝐴2 Extreme position: KE=0, PE=max=TE
Energy of Oscillating body, 𝑇𝐸 ∝ 𝜈 2 𝐴2 Mean position: PE=0, KE=max=TE
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑈
Intensity, 𝐼 = = ∝ 𝜈 2 𝐴2 𝐹=−
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 ×𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑑𝑥
Damped Oscillations: Forced Oscillations:
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑠 = −𝑘𝑥⃗ , k is spring const. External Periodic Force 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐹𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑑 = −𝑏𝑣⃗ , b is damping const. 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 −𝑘𝑥⃗(𝑡) − 𝑏𝑣⃗(𝑡) + 𝐹⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎⃗(𝑡)
−𝑘𝑥⃗(𝑡) − 𝑏𝑣⃗(𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎⃗(𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑚 2 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑏 Solving this D.E, 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴′ cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + ∅)
Solving this D.E, 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒 −2𝑚𝑡 cos(𝜔′ 𝑡 + ∅) 𝐹𝑜
Amplitude is not a const. but a function of time, exponentially 𝐴′ =
decreasing. √𝑚 (𝜔 − 𝜔𝑑2 )2 + 𝜔𝑑2 𝑏 2
2 2
𝑣𝑜
𝑘 𝑏 2 tan ∅ = −
𝜔𝑑 𝑥𝑜
𝜔′ = √ −( )
𝑚 2𝑚
𝑘 Special cases are when no damping are very less damping 𝑏 = 0 and when
For special case where no damping medium, 𝑏 = 0, so 𝜔 = √ , Amplitude = A, driving frequency matches the natural frequency, 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔, resonance occurs
𝑚
the system will be undamped oscillation. with maximum amplitude.
𝑏 2
1
Mechanical Total Energy = 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴 𝑒 −2𝑚𝑡 )
2
Average life of damped oscillations:
The time taken for the initial amplitude to drop
1
to a factor of , which is 36.8% or a drop of
𝑒
63.2% is taken as the average life 𝜏. After this
time the amplitude is considered insignificant.

1
Spring Horiz, Series spring: 𝑘𝛼 Parallel Spring:
𝑙
Vert. : 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
Restoring Force 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 −𝑘𝑥 = −𝑘1 𝑥 + −𝑘2 𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 = +
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2 Imagine each mass is
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 effectively working only
𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 1 1 1 with half length of the
= + spring. 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓. = 2𝑘
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝜔=√
𝑚
Typed Problem: For the same spring, if Typed Problem: When a long spring is cut Typed Problem:
two different forces 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 cause extensions of into two pieces, their spring constant will be, 𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , then 1 𝑘 𝑙 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃 for vertical direction,
since 𝑘 ∝ ⇒ 1 = 2
𝑙 𝑘2 𝑙1
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝑘(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑥 cos 𝜃 for horizontal direction
𝑘1 𝑙1 + 𝑙2
= from effective k we can calculate the time
𝑘 𝑙1 period of oscillation.
Typed Problem: When a loose block is kept on a platform which is undergoing vertical SHM due to a spring,
mg of block always acting downwards, while the pseudo force on the block keeps changing the direction as it is opposite
to the force on the platform which is determined by −𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 (as it is SHM the force is opposite to the displacement from
the mean position). Below the mean position the mg and 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 are acting downwards so adds up sticking the block to the
platform, while above the mean position mg and 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 are acting in opposite directions and when 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 > 𝑚𝑔 then the
block looses contact with the platform.
*Pseudo force is always opposite to the force F, not opposite to the motion direction v. e.g. in braking situation motion is
forward, braking force backwards and pseudo force on the passenger is forward.
 Simple pendulum: Infinite length pendulum: + Inertial Mass Bowl and ball:
Gravitational Mass
𝑚𝑖 vs. 𝑚𝑔 :
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑎
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
= −𝑚𝑔 𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝑚𝑖 𝑎 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑔 𝜃
𝑥
𝑚𝑖 𝑎 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑔
𝑙
𝑚𝑔 𝑔
𝑎=− 𝑥
𝑚𝑖 𝑙
Seconds pendulum is one which has T = 2s, 𝑚𝑔 𝑔
on earth’s surface its length L=1m. 𝜔=√
𝑚𝑖 𝑙

Pendulum with another Force

Electric field Vert. Immersed in liquid Electric field Horiz Accelerating lift Accelerating vehicle

Satellite is continuously free falling,

so T inside a satellite is infinity

Floating cork U-tube Tunnel through earth

Torsional pendulum Elastic wire Magnetic Needle in External SHM of current carrying conductors
Magnetic field kept vertical:
At equilibrium,
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
2𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘
𝑑
Restoring force
2𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑘
(𝑑 − 𝑦)
2𝑖1 𝑖2 1 𝑔𝑑 𝑔 𝑔
𝑎 =𝑔−𝑘 =𝑔− =− 𝑦=− 𝑦
(𝑑 − 𝑦) 𝑚 𝑑−𝑦 𝑑−𝑦 𝑑
𝑔
𝜔=√
𝑑

Compression Cylinder, Compression cylinder with piston mass m, Adiabatic process assumed: Horiz or
Isothermal process vertical, gravity ignored.
𝛾 𝛾
assumed. 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑃1 (𝐴𝑥𝑜 )𝛾 = 𝑃2 (𝐴(𝑥𝑜 − 𝑥))𝛾
𝛾
𝑥𝑜 𝛾𝑥
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ⇒ ∆𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝑃1 𝑥 ≪ 𝑥𝑜
(𝑥𝑜 − 𝑥)𝛾 𝑥𝑜
Restoring force:
𝑃𝛾𝐴 𝑃𝛾𝐴 𝑃𝛾𝐴2
𝑚𝑎 = −∆𝑃. 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑎 = − 𝑥 ⇒𝜔=√ =√
𝑥𝑜 𝑚 𝑥𝑜 𝑚 𝑉𝑚
 Physical or Compound Pendulum:
Restoring torque:
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑚𝑔𝑙
𝛼=− 𝜃
𝐼
𝑔𝑙
𝜔=√ 2
𝐾 + 𝑙2

Ring: oscillating in the plane of the paper: Ring: oscillating in and out of the paper:
𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2 𝑀𝑅 2
𝐾 2 = 𝑅2 𝑀𝐾 2 =
2
𝑅2
𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑅 𝑔 𝐾2 =
𝜔=√ 2 =√ 2 =√ 2
𝐾 + 𝑙2 𝑅 + 𝑅2 2𝑅
𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑅 2𝑔
𝜔=√ 2 = =√
𝐾 + 𝑙2 √𝑅 2 2 3𝑅
+𝑅
2
Disk: oscillating in the plane of the paper: Disk: oscillating in and out of the paper:
𝑀𝑅 2 𝑀𝑅 2
𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝐾 2 =
2 4
2
𝑅2 2
𝑅2
𝐾 = 𝐾 =
2 4
𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑅 2𝑔 𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑅 4𝑔
𝜔=√ 2 = =√ 𝜔=√ 2 = =√
𝐾 + 𝑙2 √𝑅 2 2 3𝑅 𝐾 + 𝑙2 √𝑅 2 2 5𝑅
+𝑅 +𝑅
2 4
Spherical Shell: oscillating in the plane of the paper or in and Solid Sphere: oscillating in the plane of the paper or in and out of
out of the paper (3D symmetry): the paper (3D symmetry):
2 2
𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2 𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2
3 5
2 2
𝐾 2 = 𝑅2 𝐾 2 = 𝑅2
3 5
𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑅 3𝑔 𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑅 5𝑔
𝜔=√ 2 = =√ 𝜔=√ 2 = =√
𝐾 + 𝑙2 √2 𝑅 2 + 𝑅 2 5𝑅 𝐾 + 𝑙2 √2 𝑅 2 + 𝑅 2 7𝑅
3 5

Lissajous figures: Superposition of simultaneous SHM in X and Y directions of a pendulum:

𝑥2 𝑦2 2𝑥𝑦 cos ∅
Generalized Equation: + − = sin2 ∅
𝑎12 𝑎22 𝑎1 𝑎2
Phase 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
or any other value
4
Difference ∅ 2
𝑥 Displ. 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑦 Displ. 𝑦 = 𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑏 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋) 𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑏 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ) 𝑦 = 𝑏 sin(𝜔𝑡 + )
2 4
Equation 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 Oblique Ellipse
= =− = sin 𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 meaning the major
𝑏 𝑏 2 2
𝑥 𝑦 minor axes do not
𝑦= 𝑥 𝑦=− 𝑥 + 2=1
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 2 𝑏 coincide with X and Y
Straight line, Straight line, Ellipse along X and Y as major
+ve slope -ve slope and minor axes.
Graph

Resultant Displ.
𝑅 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑅 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑅 = √𝑎2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏 2 cos 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑅 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑅 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
When amplitude is 𝑅 = 𝑎√2 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑅 = 𝑎√2 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑅=𝑎 𝑅 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
same in both X
Special case is circle
and Y, 𝑎 = 𝑏
15.Waves
𝑣 = 𝜈𝜆 1 2𝜋 1 2𝜋 𝐼=
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
=
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
=
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
, 𝐼𝛼
1
, 𝐼 𝛼 𝑎2 𝜈 2
Wave 𝜈= ,𝜔 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜. = , 𝑘= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒.𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟2
𝑇 𝑇 𝜆 𝜆 Intensity, proportional to amplitude square and freq. square.
equation Freq., Angular freq. Wave no., Angular wave no. or propagation const.
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑥
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = 𝑎 sin ( 𝑥− 𝑡) = 𝑎 sin (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) = 𝑎 sin ( − 𝑡)
𝜆 𝑇 𝜆 𝑇 𝑣
𝜔 𝑑𝑦
velocity of wave 𝑣 = , is velocity of particle
𝑘 𝑑𝑡

Speed of transverse waves in String: Speed of longitudinal waves in Newton’s formula for Laplace correction for velocity
solids, gases: velocity of sound: of sound:
𝑇 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝. Sound waves travel as pressure He assumed adiabatic process, as it is
𝑣= √ =√ 𝐸 𝑌 𝐵
𝜇 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝. 𝑣=√ =√ =√
differences in air, Isothermal very fast process, no time for heat
𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 constant temp. is assumed. trasfer, so temp. cannot be constant.
T tension, 𝜇 linear density 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
As humidity ↑, 𝜌 ↓, 𝑣 ↑.
As P↑, 𝜌 ↑ 𝑣 so remains same.
𝑃 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉 𝑑𝑃 = 0 𝑃 𝛾 𝑉 𝛾−1 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉 𝛾 𝑑𝑃 = 0
As T ↑, vibr.energy ↑, 𝑣 ↑. 𝑑𝑃 𝑃 𝛾 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉 𝑑𝑃 = 0
𝑃= − =𝐵 𝑑𝑃
𝐵 𝛾𝑃 𝛾𝑃𝑉 𝛾𝑚𝑅𝑠 𝑇 𝑑𝑉
𝑣=√ =√ =√ =√ = √𝛾𝑅𝑠 𝑇 𝑉 𝛾𝑃 = − =𝐵
𝜌 𝜌 𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
⇒ 𝑣 ∝ √𝑇 𝐵 𝑃
𝑣=√ =√ 𝐵 𝛾𝑃
Sonometer 𝜌 𝜌 𝑣=√ =√
𝜌 𝜌

Input waves Resultant Wave

Progressive 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) Resultant amplitude and phase difference, 𝐴 = 𝑎 cos 𝜙 𝐵 = 𝑎 sin 𝜙
wave = 𝑎 cos 𝜙 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝐵 are the amplitudes of sine and cosine
(Linear combination 𝑎 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 𝜙 = tan−1 ( )
of Sine and Cosine + 𝑎 sin 𝜙 cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝐴 components.
waves) 𝜙 is initial phase
Super 𝑦1 = 𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝜙 𝜙 Amplitude and Phase diff. is a function
𝑦 = 2𝑎 cos ( ) sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + )
position or 𝑦2 = 𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 2 2 of 𝜙,
Interference 𝜙 is phase difference Inphase 𝜙 = 0 𝑦 = 2𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡),
Out of phase 𝜙 = 𝜋, 𝑦 = 0
+ Super 𝑦1 = 𝑎1 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑦 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
position + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝐴 = √𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
𝑦2 = 𝑎2 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Diff. = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 √𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
amplitude 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛼 (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛼 (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )2
Wave Optics For fringe width 𝛽 the phase For path diff. 𝜆 the phase diff. is 2𝜋, 𝜙
2𝜋 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑜 , 𝐼 = 4𝐼𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
diff. is 2𝜋, 𝜙= × Path Diff. 2
2𝜋 𝜆
𝜙= × Location from
𝛽
Central maxima
Standing / 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
stationary 𝑦𝑟 = 𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
waves Incident , reflected waves
𝜆
𝑦 = 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑦 = 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 (𝑥 − ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
starting from a Node. 4
For a given location 𝑥, the amplitude is constant Starting from Anti Node.
2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥
Beats 𝑦1 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔1 𝑡 (𝜔1 − 𝜔2 )𝑡 (𝜔1 + 𝜔2 )𝑡 At a given location, so 𝑘𝑥 ignored.
𝑦 = 2𝑎 cos sin 𝜈𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 = 𝜈1 − 𝜈2
𝑦2 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔2 𝑡 2 2

Waves of slightly different

frequencies.

𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) Forward moving wave, propagation in +ve x

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) direction
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡) Reverse moving wave, propagation in -ve x
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡) direction
 Longitudinal standing waves in Open pipes: Transverse standing waves in strings:
𝑣 𝑣
𝜈1 = = = 𝜈1
𝜆1 2𝐿
𝐿 = 𝜆1 /2 𝐿 = 𝜆1 /2
𝑣 𝑣
𝜈2 = = = 2𝜈1
𝜆2 𝐿
𝐿 = 𝜆2 𝐿 = 𝜆2
𝑣 𝑣
𝜈3 = = = 3𝜈1
𝜆3 2𝐿/3
𝐿 = 3𝜆3 /2 n loops = n times 𝜈1 fundamental 𝐿 = 3𝜆3 /2
𝜆 freq. 𝜆
Location of AN from a reference AN = 𝑛 , n=0,1,2… Odd & Even harmonics Location of N from a reference node N = 𝑛 , n=0,1,2…
2 2
Longitudinal standing waves in Closed pipes: Resonating Column
𝑣 𝑣 with water as closed
𝜈1 = = = 𝜈1
𝜆1 4𝐿 end:
𝐿 = 𝜆1 /4 e End correction
𝑣 𝑣 𝜆
𝜈2 = = = 3𝜈1 = 𝐿1 + 𝑒
𝜆2 4𝐿/3 4
𝐿 = 3𝜆2 /4
𝑣 𝑣 3𝜆
𝜈3 = = = 5𝜈1 = 𝐿2 + 𝑒
𝜆3 4𝐿/5 4
𝐿 = 5𝜆3 /4
𝜆 Odd harmonics only
Location of AN from a reference node N = (2𝑛 + 1) ,
4
𝜆
n=0,1,2… = 𝐿2 −𝐿1
2
Doppler Effect Derivations:
When Source is moving: When Observer is moving: When both source and observer are
The wave pattern gets compressed meaning the observed The wave pattern does not get changed but the moving:
wavelength is reduced, so observed frequency is relative velocity of the wave is changed w.r.t the The wave pattern will change and the relative
increased. observer. So relative velocity velocity of the wave w.r.t the observer is,
𝑣𝑠 𝑇 + 𝜆′ = 𝜆 of wave is, 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = 𝜆′ 𝜈 ′
𝜆′ = 𝜆 − 𝑣𝑠 𝑇 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = 𝜆 𝜈 ′ 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = (𝜆 − 𝑣𝑠 𝑇) 𝜈 ′
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣𝑠 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣𝑠
= − 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = 𝜈 ′ 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = ( − ) 𝜈 ′
𝜈′ 𝜈 𝜈 𝜈 𝜈 𝜈
𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜
′
𝜈 = 𝜈[ ] 𝜈′ = 𝜈 [ ] 𝜈′ = 𝜈 [ ]
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠 𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠

Sign convention of the velocities: Doppler Effect Generalized Doppler shift in freq.:
Velocity of wave 𝑣 is the reference and it is always positive. Equation: 𝑣𝑠
When 𝑣𝑠 , 𝑣𝑜 , 𝑣𝑤 are in the same direction as 𝑣, then they are taken 𝜈 ′ = 𝜈 (1 + )
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑤 − 𝑣𝑜 ν
as +ve, otherwise –ve. 𝑣𝑤 is wind velocity. 𝜈′ = 𝜈 ( ) 𝜆 Δν 𝑣𝑠
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑤 − 𝑣𝑠 = =
Δ𝜆 ν 𝑣
Typed Problem: Doppler Effect when two cars or submarines are moving and one sends out sound signals and Typed Problem: Wave equation with
receives it back after reflection from the other vehicle. Split it in to two problems. exponential term
𝑣 − 𝑣𝐵 2 2
𝑦 = 𝑒 −(𝑎𝑥 +𝑏𝑡 +2√𝑎𝑏 𝑥𝑡)
𝜈1 = 𝜈𝑜 ( )
𝑣 − 𝑣𝐴 𝑦 = 𝑒 −(√𝑎𝑥+√𝑏𝑡)
2
𝑣 + 𝑣𝐵
𝜈2 = 𝜈1 ( ) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
𝑣 + 𝑣𝐴 𝜔
𝑣 − 𝑣𝐵 𝑣 + 𝑣𝐵 𝑣=
𝜈2 = 𝜈𝑜 ( )( ) 𝑘
𝑣 − 𝑣𝐴 𝑣 + 𝑣𝐴

Quincke’s tube: Octaves in musical instruments:

Path Difference between two paths
= ABC – ADC
Max sound intensity when Path
Diff. = 𝑛𝜆
𝜆
Min sound intensity when Path Diff. = (2𝑛 − 1)
2
Attenuation: weakening of signals. Reverberation time, time taken for sound to fade away:
𝑃
Attenuation dB = 10 log10 𝑖 = 10 log10 𝑖
𝐼 V
𝑃𝑜 𝐼𝑜 𝑇𝑅 𝛼
Ratio of input power to output power or input intensity to S
V volume of room,
output intensity. S surface area of room.
Tuning fork: Loudness Amplitude and Intensity
Filing: Removal of mass: Frequency increases Pitch Frequency
Loading: Addition of mass: Frequency decreases Quality Waveform difference
Bel and decibel
16.Electric Charges and Fields
If the charges are stationary we call it as static If the charges are moving we call it as current
charges or static electricity. electricity.
What are charges? (Charging by friction) When we rub a plastic
When we rub a glass rod with cat fur, the
rod with wool or silk plastic rod acquires a
cloth, the glass rod type of charge we call
acquires a type of negative charge and
charge we call the fur acquires an
positive charge and the cloth acquires an opposite opposite type of charge we call positive.
type of charge we call negative.
Basic property of charge: .

Same type of charges repel. Opposite charges attract.

Gold leaf elctroscope: (Charging by contact) Conventional current: Most of the time positive
Charges flow from one object to charge refers to positive ions which cannot move
another by contact. around easily. It is the movement of the free electrons
which is more common. However for convenience
we say positive charge is moving in one direction,
called the conventional current direction, even though
what we mean is free electrons moving in the
opposite direction.
How does a charged rod or charged comb attract neutral pieces of paper?
Due to a phenomenon called Polarization, the neutral atom tend to get polarized meaning one side it is more
negative and other side is more positive. So attraction happens.
Charging by Induction: Single metallic sphere: Charging by Induction: Double metallic spheres:

Properties of charges:
Charges are additive: Algebraic sum of all the charges will give the total charge.
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + 𝑞4
Charge conservation: Charges can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be moved from one object to
another.
Charges are quantized: Elementary charge 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶, any charge is an integral multiple of e.
𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒
Charge is a scalar. Does not have any direction.
Coulomb’s law: Newton’s third law proof:
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝐹⃗21 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟̂21
𝐹∝ 0 𝑟2
𝑟2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝐹⃗12 = − 𝑟̂
𝐹= 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 21
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝜀0 is the electrical permittivity of vacuum or air. 𝐹⃗12 = −𝐹⃗21
𝜀 is the electrical permittivity of given medium.
Principle of superposition: Force: Principle of superposition: Electric field:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + ⋯ 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗1 + 𝐸⃗⃗2 + ⋯
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑘𝑞0 [ 2 𝑟̂1 + 2 𝑟̂2 + ⋯ ] 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑘 [ 2 𝑟̂1 + 2 𝑟̂2 + ⋯ ]
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2

Electric Field: 𝐸⃗⃗ Graphical representation of 𝐸⃗⃗ :

𝑞0 test charge has to be very small so that it does not Graphically electric field is represented by relative
alter the original electric field number of lines (actual number of lines does not
matter).
𝐹⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ = lim If the number of lines per unit area is more 𝐸⃗⃗ is
𝑞0 →0 𝑞0
stronger in a given area.
𝑄𝑞
𝑘 20 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠
𝐸= 𝑟 𝐸⃗⃗ ∝
𝑞0 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
1 𝑄 𝛺 is the steradians (3D angle
𝐸= enclosed)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑛 𝑛
𝐸1 = 𝑘 2 , 𝐸2 = 𝑘 2
𝑟1 𝛺 𝑟2 𝛺
We can see n, 𝛺, k are constants.
1
𝐸∝ 2
𝑟
Electric Flux:𝜙𝐸 Special cases:
𝜃 = 00 , 𝐸⃗⃗ and 𝐴⃗ are parallel,
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝐴⃗ 𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 0 = 𝐸𝐴
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝜃 = 900 , 𝐸⃗⃗ and 𝐴⃗ are
perpendicular,
𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 90 = 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 represents small elemental area. 𝜃 = 1800 , 𝐸⃗⃗ and 𝐴⃗ are anti-parallel,
Area vector is perpendicular to the plane of the area. 𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 180 = −𝐸𝐴
Properties of field lines:
1. Tangent to the field line represents the direction
of the force experienced by a test charge at that
particular point.
2. Starts from positive charge and ends in negative
charge.
3. Continuous lines, no break. But no loops unlike
magnetic field lines.
4. No intersection of lines possible because the
resultatnt field at a given point can only be
pointing in one direction.
Electric Dipole: Electric Dipole moment: 𝑝⃗
Two equal and opposite 𝑝 = 𝑞(2𝑙)
charges separated by a small 𝑝 direction is taken from –ve to +ve.
distance is called an electric
dipole. e.g. H+Cl-, Na+Cl-.
E due to a dipole : Axial line E due to a dipole : Equatorial line
Y components will cancel each other.
𝑞 𝑞
𝐸1 = 𝑘 2 , 𝐸 2 = 𝑘 2
(√𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 ) (√𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )
𝐸 = 𝐸1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸2 cos 𝜃
𝑞 𝑞
𝐸1 = 𝑘 , 𝐸2 = −𝑘 𝐸 = 2𝐸1 cos 𝜃
(𝑟 − 𝑙)2 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2
𝑞
𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 𝐸 = 2𝑘 2 cos 𝜃
𝑞 𝑞 𝑟 + 𝑙2
𝐸=𝑘 −𝑘 𝑞 𝑙
(𝑟 − 𝑙) 2 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2 𝐸 = 2𝑘 2
𝑟 + 𝑙 2 √𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2
2𝑟𝑙 2𝑝𝑟 𝑝
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑞 2 = 𝑘 𝐸=𝑘 2
(𝑟 − 𝑙 2 )2 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 )2 (𝑟 + 𝑙 2 )3/2
If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙, If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙,
1 2𝑝 1 𝑝
𝐸= 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
In vector form, In vector form,
1 2𝑝⃗ 1 𝑝⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗ = −
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
-ve because 𝐸 is opposite to 𝑝 direction.
E due to electric dipole: B due to magnetic dipole or bar magnet:

1 2𝑝𝑟 1 2𝑝 𝜇0 2𝑚𝑟 𝜇0 2𝑚
𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 2 2 2
~ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙 𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ~ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑙 ) 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3 2 2
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙 ) 2 4𝜋 𝑟 3
1 𝑝 1 𝑝 𝜇0 𝑚 𝜇0 𝑚
𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ~ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙 𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ~ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )3⁄2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3 4𝜋 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )3⁄2 4𝜋 𝑟 3

Torque due to electric dipole in an external electric Torque due to magnetic dipole or bar magnet in an
field E: external magnetic field B:

Torque due to a couple,

𝜏 = 𝐹 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝜏 = 𝑞𝐸 2𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃
𝜏⃗ = 𝑚 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝜏⃗ = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗
Stable Equilibrium 𝜃 = 0𝑜 Unstable Equilibrium: 𝜃 = 180𝑜
𝜃 is the angle between 𝑝⃗ and 𝐸⃗⃗ .

For uniform 𝐸⃗⃗ , For uniform 𝐸⃗⃗ ,

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0, 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0, 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0
Why is it called stable equilibrium? Why is it called unstable equilibrium?

For non-uniform 𝐸⃗⃗ , meaning the field is increasing or For non-uniform 𝐸⃗⃗ , meaning the field is increasing or
decreasing from left to right, decreasing from left to right,
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ≠ 0, 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ≠ 0, 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0
⃗⃗
for example in an increasing 𝐸 , net force will be ⃗⃗
for example in an increasing 𝐸 , net force will be
towards right. towards left.
Linear charge density: Surface charge density: Volume charge density:

.
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
𝜆= 𝜎= 𝜌=
𝑙 𝐴 𝑉

For metallic conductors hollow or For insulators charge can be filled

solid, charges lie only in the outer in the entire space. So 𝜌.
surface. So only 𝜎 not 𝜌. Why? Charges cannot move due to
Why? Charges can move due to absence of free electrons.
free electrons.
Gauss Law: Prove Gauss law using a point charge and Gaussian
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 surface:
𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜 𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝑞 1 𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
𝜀𝑜 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠. cos 0
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
1 𝑞
Gaussian Surface 1 and 2 have = . 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
the same Electric flux. Why? 𝑞
As the distance from the charge increases, 𝐸 ⃗⃗ =
𝜀𝑜
decreases, but area increases.
E due to infinitely long charged wire: E due to infinitely long thin plate:

𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
𝜙𝐸 = 𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 𝜎𝐴
∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 =
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
𝜆𝑙 𝜎𝐴
𝐸. 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 𝐸. 2𝐴 =
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
𝜆 𝜎
𝐸= 𝐸=
2𝜋𝑟𝜀𝑜 2𝜀𝑜
Top and bottom surface electric flux becomes zero Other surfaces electric flux becomes zero because
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are perpendicular, 𝜃 = 90𝑜 .
because 𝐸⃗⃗ and 𝑑𝑠 𝐸⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 are perpendicular, 𝜃 = 90𝑜 .

E and r are inversely proportional. E is independent of the distance from the plate.

E due to spherical shell: Special cases:

𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 On the surface: 𝑟 = 𝑅,

𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜 1 𝑞
𝜎 4𝜋𝑅 2 𝐸=
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 2
∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
𝜀𝑜
𝜎 4𝜋𝑅 2 Inside the shell: 𝑟 < 𝑅, 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 0, so
𝐸4𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝜀𝑜 𝐸=0
2 2
𝜎𝑅 𝑞 𝑅
𝐸= 2
=
𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝑅 𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
2

1 𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
E due to a spherical shell is same as E due to a point
charge. This shows charge on the spherical shell can
be assumed to be acting from the center of the sphere
for 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅.
Prove 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 0 : E inside and outside two oppositely charged plates:
Parallel plate capacitor:

𝜙1 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝐴⃗ = 𝐸 𝐴 cos 180 = −𝐸 𝐴 𝜎

𝜙2 = 0 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = , 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 0
𝜀𝑜
⃗⃗ ⃗
𝜙3 = 𝐸 . 𝐴 = 𝐸 𝐴 cos 0 = 𝐸 𝐴
Total Flux,
𝜙𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 + 𝜙3 = 0
So,
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 0
17.Electric Potential
Electric potential energy: Electric potential:
The work done to bring a charge is defined as the work done per unit charge from
against another charge from infinity to the given point.
infinity is stored as Electric
potential energy.
V due to a point charge:
qo is the test charge moved against the source
charge q.
𝑞 𝑞𝑜
𝑟 𝑈=𝑘
𝑑𝑥 𝑟
𝑈 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 ∫
∞ 𝑥
2 𝑈 𝑘𝑞 1 𝑞
𝑟 𝑉= = =
1 1 1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
= 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 [ ] = 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 [ − ] = 𝑘
𝑥 ∞ 𝑟 ∞ 𝑟
Electric Potential Difference is the difference of 𝑘𝑔𝑚 ⋅
𝐽 𝑁𝑚 2 𝑚
the potential between two different points. 𝑉= = = 𝑠 = 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝐴−1 𝑠 −3
1 1 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑘 𝑞 ( − )
𝑟2 𝑟1 Dimension [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝐴−1 ]

V due to an Electric Dipole: Special Cases:

1. Along the Axial line:
𝑝
𝜃 = 00 𝑉𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑘
𝑟2
2. Along the Equatorial line:
𝜃 = 900 𝑉𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 0
No work done to bring a charge in the equatorial
line.
3. When r and 𝜃, are kept the same, it will trace a
𝑟12 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 − 2𝑙𝑟 cos 𝜃
locus of points in the base of a cone. The V is
𝑙 2 2𝑙 2𝑙
= 𝑟 2 (1 + 2 − cos 𝜃) = 𝑟 2 (1 − cos 𝜃) same in all these points.
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
−1⁄2
1 1 2𝑙 1 𝑙
= (1 − cos 𝜃) = (1 + cos 𝜃)
𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
−1⁄2
1 1 2𝑙 1 𝑙
= (1 + cos 𝜃) = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑞 𝑞 4. Vector Form:
𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 𝑘 −𝑘 𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝑟 𝑝⃗ ⋅ 𝑟⃗
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑉=𝑘 × = 𝑘
1 1 2𝑙 cos 𝜃 𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟3
𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 𝑘𝑞 [ − ] = 𝑘𝑞 =𝑘 U, V both are scalars. However vector form is
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟 2 𝑟2 possible with dot product expression.

E and V comparison: 𝑉𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 and 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 comparison:

 V due to a system of multiple charges: Work done to assemble charges: Energy stored in
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ a system of charges: Self energy:
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑈𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑘 [ + + + ⋯ ]
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊21 + 𝑊31 + 𝑊32
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 . 𝑞0 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞2 𝑞3
=0+𝑘 +𝑘 +𝑘
𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟23
Work done or Energy of a charge inside an Work done or Energy of two charges inside an
External 𝐸⃗⃗ : External 𝐸⃗⃗ :
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑 = 𝑞𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 = 𝑞 𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉(𝑟)
𝑊1 = 𝑞𝑉(𝑟1 ) 𝑊2 = 𝑞𝑉(𝑟2 )
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞1 𝑉(𝑟1 ) + 𝑞2 𝑉(𝑟2 ) +
𝑟12
Rotational work done by a dipole in an External 𝐸⃗⃗ : Special cases:
Case 1: 𝜃 = 0° 𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 Case 2: 𝜃 = 90° 𝑈=0
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝜏 ⋅ 𝑑𝜃 Case 3: 𝜃 = 180° 𝑈 = 𝑝𝐸
𝑊 = 𝑝𝐸∫ sin 𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝜃
𝑊 = −𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 Work done to rotate from 𝜃1 → 𝜃2
𝜃
𝑈 = 𝑊 = −𝑝⃗. 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑊𝜃1 →𝜃2 = −𝑝𝐸[𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃]𝜃21
𝑊 = 𝑝𝐸[𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 ]
Relationship between E and V: E and V in uniform electric field:
𝛿𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝛿𝑙
𝛿𝑊 𝐹
= ⋅ 𝛿𝑙 𝑉
𝑞 𝑞 𝐸=
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝐸 ⋅ 𝛿𝑙 𝑑
𝑉 − (𝑉 + 𝛿𝑉) = 𝐸 ⋅ 𝛿𝑙
−𝛿𝑉 = 𝐸 ⋅ 𝛿𝑙
−𝛿𝑉 For three dimensional vector:
𝐸= 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂
𝛿𝑙
E = Gradient of the Potential graph 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
-ve sign represents potential is increasing in the 𝐸⃗⃗ = − ( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
direction opposite to the electric field. 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑟
Redistribution of Charges in Spheres:
Distance between them is assumed to be higher compared to the radius of the
spheres, such that the voltage on the surface of the sphere is not affected by
the other sphere. By conservation of charges:
𝑞1 + 𝑞2 = 𝑞1′ + 𝑞2′
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑉1 + 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 𝑉2 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑉 + 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 𝑉
𝑟1 𝑉1 + 𝑟2 𝑉2 = 𝑟1 𝑉 + 𝑟2 𝑉
Similar to Redistribution of charges in capacitors.
+ Vande Graff Principle 1: + Vande Graff Principle 2:
Action of Points: Charges leak out from the sharp Charges always flow from inner sphere to outer
points. Charges are static, so sphere, as inner sphere is in a higher potential
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 always. 𝑉𝐴 > 𝑉𝐵
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑄
= 𝑉𝐴 = +
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟 𝑅
𝜎1 𝑟1 = 𝜎2 𝑟2 𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑄
𝑉𝐵 = +
1 𝑅 𝑅
𝜎 𝛼 1 1
𝑟 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑘𝑞 ( − ) > 0
𝑟 𝑅
Equipotential Surface:
Work done to move a charge
from one point to another in
an equipotential surface is
zero.
Since electric force is a
conservative force, for work
done between any two points,
the initial and final points matter and the path taken
does not matter.
Equipotential Surfaces in an uniform 𝐸⃗⃗ :
Equipotential Surface and Electric field are always
perpendicular:
If we assume E is not perpendicular to the
equipotential surface then there will be two
components Ex and Ey. Since Ey is along the
equipotential surface to move the charge along the
equipotential surface we have to do some work
(because of Ey component) which is contradictory to
definition of equipotential surface. So, there cannot
be E component along the equipotential surface.
Equipotential Surfaces in a dipole:

Equipotential Surfaces near identical point charges:

Electrostatics of Conductors:
Electrostatic Shielding:

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 0, Electric field is zero inside a charge spherical shell. Since metal has infinite amount of electron,
E external is equal E internal. E effective inside is equal to zero. This property is called electrostatic
shielding. Sensitive equipment can be kept inside a metallic container so that the sensitive equipment can be
protected from external electric field.
Voltage inside a spherical shell: Excess charge inside the conductor is zero:
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀0
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝐸⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐴⃗ =
𝜀0
Since 𝐸⃗⃗ = 0 inside the shell,
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 0
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑊 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 0
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝐸⃗⃗ is perpendicular to the surface: 𝐸⃗⃗ at the surface:
At equilibrium the charges on the 𝛿𝑠 is the small elemental surface area.
surface are not moving. If we assume 𝐸 ⃗⃗ 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸⃗⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛿𝑠 =
is not perpendicular then there will be 𝜀0
𝑞
non-zero tangential component along ⇒𝐸=
the surface which means the charges 𝛿𝑠 𝜀0
𝜎
will experience a force, so the charges 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑛̂
will move in that direction. But charges are not 𝜀0
moving in equilibrium so there cannot be any
tangential component of E along the surface.
18.Electrostatics at a glance
Electric Magnetic
Dipole inside an external
field

Constant k 1 𝜇𝑜
𝑘= = 9 ⨯ 109 𝑘= = 10−7
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 4𝜋
Dipole Moment 𝑝 = 2𝑞𝑙 𝑚 = 2𝑞𝑚 𝑙
Torque 𝜏⃗ = 𝑝⃗ 𝑋 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝜏⃗ = 𝑚
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝜏 = 𝑚𝐵 sin 𝜃
Rotational PE 𝑈 = −𝑝⃗ . 𝐸 ⃗⃗ 𝑈 = −𝑚 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝐵
𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 𝑈 = −𝑚𝐵 cos 𝜃
Rotational Work 𝜃1 to 𝜃2 𝑊 = 𝑝𝐸 (cos 𝜃1 − cos 𝜃2 ) 𝑊 = 𝑚𝐵 (cos 𝜃1 − cos 𝜃2 )
Non-Uniform 𝐸⃗⃗ or 𝐵
⃗⃗ Dipole in line with the 𝐸⃗⃗ or 𝐵
⃗⃗ will be experiencing no net torque, but will
experience net force.
Stable Equilibrium small disturbance, the setup comes back to its original position. 𝜃=0o
Unstable Equilibrium small disturbance, the setup does not come back to its original
position. 𝜃=180o
Dipole, Axial line,
Equatorial line

E, B on axial line of Dipole 2𝑝𝑟 2𝑚𝑟

𝐸=𝑘 𝐵=𝑘
(𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 )2 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 )2
2𝑝 2𝑝⃗ 2𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙 then by approx. 𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑟3 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑘 3 𝐵=𝑘 ⃗⃗ = 𝑘 2𝑚
𝐵
𝑟 𝑟3 3 𝑟

E, B on equatorial line of 𝑝 𝑚
𝐸=𝑘 𝐵=𝑘
Dipole (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )3⁄2 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )3⁄2
𝑝 𝑝⃗ 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙 then by approx. 𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑟3 𝐸⃗⃗ = −𝑘 𝑟 3 𝐵 = 𝑘 𝑟3 ⃗⃗ = −𝑘 𝑚
𝐵 𝑟3

+ 𝑝 𝑚
𝐸=𝑘 √3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 1 𝐵=𝑘 √3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 1
E, B at a general point, 𝑟3 𝑟3
𝑟≫𝑙
V at a general point 𝑝 cos 𝜃
𝑉=𝑘
𝑟2
Flux
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝐴⃗ = 𝐸𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵 ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ . 𝐴⃗ = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 = ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝐴

Gauss Law 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 𝜙𝐵 = 0

𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜 Flux in = Flux out, Mono poles do not exist in magnetism.

Total Flux 𝜙𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜙𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝜙𝑖𝑛 𝜙𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜙𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝜙𝑖𝑛

=0

Relative Permittivity, 𝜀 𝜇
𝜀𝑟 = =𝐾 𝜇𝑟 =
Permeability 𝜀𝑜 𝜇𝑜
K is dielectric constant. 𝐸⃗⃗ in the medium will decrease
by K times. Water 80, Soil 3-7, Concrete, 4-5.
Coloumb’s Force: Electric field strength: Electric Potential Electric Potential:
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝐹 𝑄 Energy: 𝑊 𝑄
𝐹=𝑘 2 𝐸= =𝑘 2 𝑉= =𝑘
𝑟 𝑞 𝑟 𝑞 𝑟
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈 = 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑘
𝑟
Motion of charged particle inside 𝐸⃗⃗ : Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment:
1
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 When charged oil drop suspended in
air,
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 𝑞𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔

𝑞𝐸 1 1 𝑞𝐸 𝑥 2
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2 𝑦=
𝑚 2 2 𝑚 𝑣02

Spherical shell + Solid sphere (Insulator) + Hollow Cylinder + Solid Cylinder

(Conductor) (Conductor) (Insulator)

𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
Using Gauss Law for E: 𝜙𝐸 = For V using 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑟
𝜀𝑜

For 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅 For 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅 For 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅 For 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅

𝜎 𝑅2 𝑞 𝜌 𝑅3 𝑞 𝜆 𝜆
𝐸= = 𝑘 𝐸= = 𝑘 𝐸= 𝐸=
𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑟2 3𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑟2 2𝜋𝑟𝜀𝑜 2𝜋𝑟𝜀𝑜

For 𝑟 < 𝑅, 𝐸 = 0 For 𝑟 < 𝑅 For 𝑟 < 𝑅, 𝐸 = 0 For 𝑟 < 𝑅

𝜌𝑟 𝑞 𝑞

𝐸2𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 𝜋𝑅
2
2 𝑙𝜋𝑟 𝑙

𝐸= = 𝑘 3𝑟 𝜀𝑜
3𝜀𝑜 𝑅 𝜆𝑟
𝐸=
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 2

For 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅 For 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅 For 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅 For 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅

𝑞 𝑞 𝜆 𝜆
𝑉=𝑘 𝑉=𝑘 𝑉= ln 𝑟 𝑉= ln 𝑟
𝑟 𝑟 2𝜋𝜀𝑜 2𝜋𝜀𝑜
For 𝑟 < 𝑅 For 𝑟 < 𝑅 For 𝑟 < 𝑅
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝑉𝑅 𝑡𝑜 𝑟 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝑉𝑅 𝑡𝑜 𝑟
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝑉𝑅 𝑡𝑜 𝑟
= 𝑘𝑅+0
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
= 𝑘 − 𝑘 3 (𝑟 2 − 𝑅 2 ) 𝜆
= 2𝜋𝜀 ln 𝑅 + 0
𝑅 2𝑅 𝑜
𝑞 𝑟2
=𝑘 (3 − 2 )
2𝑅 𝑅

At center: 𝑟 = 0
3
𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
2

Same concepts and formulas are applicable for g gravitational field and B magetic field. Only the constant term will change.
 + Circular Ring + Circular Disk

𝑑𝑞 𝑥 𝑞 𝑅 𝑑𝑞 𝑥 𝑞
Hint 𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸 cos 𝜙 = ∫ 𝑘 (𝑅2 +𝑥 2) (𝑅2 +𝑥 2)1⁄2 𝑑𝑞 = 2𝜋𝑅 . 𝑑𝑙 Hint 𝐸 = ∫0 𝑑𝐸 = ∫ 𝑘 (𝑟2 +𝑥 2)3⁄2 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜋𝑅2 . 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
𝑞𝑥 2𝑞𝑥 1 1
𝐸=𝑘 𝐸=𝑘
( − )
(𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2 )3⁄2 2
𝑅 𝑥 √𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2
At the center, 𝑥 = 0, 𝐸 = 0 At the center, 𝑥 = 0, 𝐸 = 0
𝑑𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
Hint 𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑘 √𝑅2 𝑑𝑞 = 2𝜋𝑅 . 𝑑𝑙 Hint 𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑘 √𝑟2 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜋𝑅2 . 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
+𝑥 2 +𝑥 2

𝑞 2𝑞
𝑉=𝑘 (√𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥)
𝑉=𝑘
√𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑅2
𝑞 2𝑞
At the center, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑅 At the center, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑅

Flux through a square plane near a charge: Imagine a cube with the square plane as one of the sides then,
𝜙𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒
𝜙𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑝1 =
6
18.Capacitors
Basics of Capacitor:
When connected to a cell, electrons from the metal plate A are pulled and deposited over
the metal plate B. So A becomes positive and B becomes negative. While this charging is
happening, the current is flowing and the bulb will be glowing. Once capacitor is fully
charged, no current flows, bulb does not glow. 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0

E inside capacitor: Energy stored in Capacitor:

𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 Energy is stored in the form of electric field between
𝜎 𝜎 the two plates.
= + Area under curve = Energy
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
𝑈 = ∫ 𝑑𝑈
𝜎
𝐸= = ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑞
𝜀0 𝑞
Charge Voltage Relation: = ∫ 𝑑𝑞
𝐶
𝑄∝𝑉 2
1𝑞 1 1
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 𝑈= = 𝐶𝑉 2 = 𝑞𝑉
1𝐶 2𝐶 2 2
1𝐹 = Energy density:
1𝑉 1 𝜀0 𝐴 2 2
𝑈= 𝐸 𝑑
2 𝑑
Capacitance without Dielectric: 𝑈 1
𝜎 𝑢= = 𝜀0 𝐸 2
𝐸= 𝑣𝑜𝑙 2
𝜀0 Force of attraction between two plates of Capacitor:
𝑉 𝑄 Work done in moving the electrons from one plate to
=
𝑑 𝜀0 𝐴 another is the energy stored in capacitor.
𝜀0 𝐴 1
𝐶0 = 𝐹. 𝑑 = 𝐶𝑉 2
𝑑 2
1 𝐶𝑉 2 1
𝐹= = 𝜀0 𝐴𝐸 2
2 𝑑 2
Capacitors in Series: Capacitors in Parallel:
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝐶𝑃 𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉
= +
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
1 1 1 Here V is same.
= +
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2
Here Q is same. Energy stored in Parallel:
Energy stored in Series: 1 1
𝑈 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑉 2 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )𝑉 2
𝑄2 1 1 1 2 2
𝑈= = 𝑄2 [ + ]
2𝐶𝑆 2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑈 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2
𝑈 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2
Al plates introduced in a Capacitor: n identical plates Capacitor:
It acts as though capacitors If n identical plates are arranged
connected in series such that, alternate plates are
however the effective connected to opposite polarities of
capacitance remains the a battery, then it will act like (n-1)
same. The capacitance of capacitors connected in parallel.
one part alone will be C/3 in the above case. 𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (𝑛 − 1) 𝐶
Redistribution of charges: Water analogy:

As the stop cock is removed, water flows from the higher level to the lower level, until the level equalizes.
The total amount of water before and after is the same.
As the capacitors are connected, charges flow from higher voltage to lower voltage until the voltage is same
in both. The total amount of charges before and after is the same.
+Redistribution of Charges in series: Redistribution of Charges in parallel : Conservation
When + connected to -, - of charges.
connected to +, then charges will
redistribute but this is in series. 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄1 ′ + 𝑄2′
−𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄1 ′ + 𝑄2′ 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉
−𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2
−𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 𝑉=
𝑉= 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Energy loss in Redistribution of Charges:
1 1 1 1
𝑈𝑖 − 𝑈𝑓 = ( 𝐶1 𝑉12 + 𝐶2 𝑉22 ) − ( 𝐶1 𝑉 2 + 𝐶2 𝑉 2 )
2 2 2 2

Potential Divider formula in Capacitors: Typed Problem:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄 Combination of capacitors for required capacitance
𝐶1 𝐶2 with voltage restriction:
𝐶1 𝑉1 = 𝐶2 𝑉2 = 𝑉 2 𝜇F required for a 1000V supply. But 1 𝜇F
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
𝐶2 𝐶1 capacitors with 300V max. voltage capacity is
𝑉1 = 𝑉 , 𝑉2 = 𝑉 available. How many of them are required and how
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
This works for only two capacitors. Generalized should we arrange them?
expression for more than two capacitors will be, Four capacitors in series so each get
𝑉 only 250V, ¼ capacitance in one
𝐶1 𝑉1 = 𝐶2 𝑉2 =
1 1 arm. So we will need 8 parallel
[𝐶 + 𝐶 + ⋯ ]
1 2 arms to give 2 𝜇F.
Steady state and Transients in Circuit: Wheatstone Bridge:
Voltage is same across all the three 𝐶 𝐶
If it is balanced 𝐶1 = 𝐶3 , then 𝐶5
arms. 2 4

1- After fully charged no current will not charge as there will not be
flows.Steady state reached. any current in the centre arm, as
2-Charging can take a while according to RC the voltages will be equal across
transients. After fully charged no current flows. the arm.
3-Current flows all the time.
+ Capacitance of a Sphere: + Cylindrical Capacitor:
E in the annular region, between the two cylinders.
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙. 𝜆𝑙
𝐶= = = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝐸. 𝐴 = ⇒𝐸=
𝑉 𝑘𝑞⁄ 𝜀0 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 𝜀0
𝑟
+ Spherical Capacitor: 𝛿𝑉
+𝑘𝑞 −𝑘𝑞 𝐸=− ⇒ 𝑉 = ∫ 𝛿𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸𝛿𝑙
𝑉1 = + 𝛿𝑙
𝑎 𝑏 𝜆 𝜆 𝑏
+𝑘𝑞 −𝑘𝑞 𝑉 = −∫ 𝑑𝑟 = log
𝑉2 = + 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
𝑞 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎𝑏 𝑞 𝜆𝑙 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙
𝐶= = 𝐶= = =
𝑉 𝑏−𝑎 𝑉 𝑉 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑏 )
𝑎
+ Capacitor 1st law: Law of Charges: + Capacitor 2nd law: Law of Voltages:
Similar to Kirchoff’s 1st law, law of conservation of Similar to Kirchoff’s 2nd law, law of conservation of
charges. energy.
−𝑞1 + 𝑞2 = 𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 Loop 1,
−𝑞1 + 𝑞2 = 0 𝑞4 𝑞5
𝑉= +
𝐶4 𝐶5
Loop 2,
𝑞4 𝑞1 𝑞3
− − =0
𝐶4 𝐶1 𝐶3

Sign convention in capacitor is same as in battery,as

−𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 = 0 we follow the loop + to - is taken as +ve voltage
increase, + to + is taken as –ve voltage drop.
+ Typed Problem: Using laws of capacitors. + RC Time Dependent Transient Charging and
𝑄1 = 𝐶1 (𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉1 ) Discharging: Refer to Ch7B Transient Currents.
𝑄2 = 𝐶2 (𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉2 )
𝑄3 = 𝐶3 (𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉3 )
𝑄4 = 𝐶4 (𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉4 )
Solve to get 𝑉𝑜 ,
𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + 𝑄4 = 0
 Dielectric Polarization: Expressions in dielectric constant K:
Electric Polarization is the total
dipole moment per unit volume. 𝐸 𝑉 𝑄 ⁄𝐶 𝐶0 1 𝐸0
= = = = ⇒𝐸=
𝑃 ∝ 𝐸 𝐸0 𝑉0 𝑄 ⁄𝐶0 𝐶 𝐾 𝐾
𝑃 = 𝜒𝑒 𝐸
𝜒𝑒 Electric Susceptibility. Another method:
𝜎𝑜 − 𝜎𝑃 ∝ 𝜎𝑜 , 𝐸𝑜 − 𝐸𝑃 ∝ 𝐸𝑜
𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡. − 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡. = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡
Introducing a proportionality constant,
𝐸𝑜 − 𝐸𝑃 = 𝐸 𝐸0 𝐸0
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐸𝑃 is E due to 𝐸𝑜 − 𝐸𝑃 = ⇒𝐸=
polarization or Induced Electric field. 𝐾 𝐾
We get the same result as above.
Dielectric constant K: Specific Inductive capacity: Induced Electric field, Charge and Charge density in
𝐶 𝜀 dielectric,
𝐾= = 𝜀𝑟 = 1
𝐶0 𝜀0 𝐸𝑃 = 𝐸0 [1 − ]
Dielectric constant is the no. of times the capacitance 𝐾
1 1
of a capacitor increases by introduction of dielectric. 𝜎𝑃 = 𝜎𝑜 [1 − ] , 𝑄𝑃 = 𝑄0 [1 − ]
Also this is equal to the relative electrical 𝐾 𝐾
Polarization is same as induced charge density from
permittivity of a substance.
its definition,
Dielectric Strength or Breakdown: 2𝑞𝑙. 𝑁 𝑞 2𝑙𝑁 𝑞
E value at which a dielectric (insulator) becomes a 𝑃= = . = = 𝜎𝑃
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴 𝑑 𝐴
conductor due to free electrons released. For this
N is the no. of dipoles.
reason Capacitors cannot be charged infinitely, so a
max voltage is specified. For air dielectric 𝑃 = 𝜒𝑒 𝐸
𝜎
breakdown is 3x106 V/m or 300 V/mm. 𝜎𝑃 = 𝜒𝑒
𝜀0
𝜎𝑃 𝜒𝑒 1
= = (1 − )
𝜀𝑟 > 1 for all substances. 𝜀𝑟 = 80 for water. 𝜎 𝜀0 𝐾

Introducing Dielectric in a capacitor: Battery

Battery connected:
disconnected:

When there is no water supply and suddenly the When there is water supply connected and suddenly
container containing water is expanded to become a the container containing water is expanded to
bigger container meaning bigger capacity to hold become a bigger container meaning bigger capacity
more water, amount of water remains the same, but to hold more water, amount of water keeps
the level drops down. Potential energy of water increasing, keeping the level same. Potential energy
drops down due to the drop in height. of water increases due to more water in same height.
When battery is disconnected, dielectric is When battery is connected, dielectric is introduced in
introduced in to the capacitor, electric field drops, to the capacitor, electric field and voltage remains
voltage drops, the amount of charge remains the the same, the amount of charge increases.
same. Capacitance of capacitor has increased Capacitance of capacitor has increased because it can
because it can hold more charges for the same hold more charges for the same voltage. Energy
voltage. Energy drops due to the drop in voltage. increases due to increased charges but same voltage.
𝐶 ↑ , 𝑄 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒, 𝐸 ↓, 𝑉 ↓, 𝑈 ↓ 𝐶 ↑ , 𝑄 ↑ , 𝐸, 𝑉 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒, 𝑈 ↑
Q E V C U
Battery disconnected 𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝐸0 𝑉0 𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶0 𝑈0
𝐸= 𝑉= 𝑈=
𝐾 𝐾 𝐾
Battery connected 𝑄 = 𝐾𝑄0 𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶0 𝑈 = 𝐾𝑈0
Work done in introducing a dielectric will be the change in the energy stored in the capacitor.
 + Capacitance with Dielectric: Special Cases:
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 1. Without dielectric, 𝑡 = 0,
= 𝐸0 𝑎 + 𝐸𝑡 + 𝐸0 𝑎 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶= = 𝐶𝑜
= 𝐸0 2𝑎 + 𝐸𝑡 𝑑
= 𝐸0 (𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝐸𝑡 2. Full gap with dielectric, 𝑡 = 𝑑,
𝑄 𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴
= (𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝑡 𝐶=𝐾 = 𝐾𝐶0
ԑ0 𝐴 𝜀𝐴 𝑑
𝑄 𝑡 3. For multiple dielectrics,
= [𝑑 − 𝑡 + ] 𝜀0 𝐴
ԑ0 𝐴 𝐾 𝐶= 𝑡
𝜀0 𝐴 1 𝑡2
𝐶= 𝐾1 + 𝐾2
𝑡
𝑑−𝑡+𝐾 4. For metals or conductors, 𝐾 = ∞,
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑−𝑡
In metals or conductors, 𝐸 = 0 because the induced
charges will be equal to the charges in the capacitor.
So E effective will be zero. E = Eo / K, so K = ∞.
Combination of Dielectrics: Capacitance equation: Effective Dielectric Constant:
Series: 𝑑
𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾=𝑡 𝑡2
1
𝐾 = 𝑡 +
𝑑 1 𝑡2 𝐾1 𝐾2
𝐾1 + 𝐾2 When 𝑡1 = 𝑡2 ,
2 1 1
= +
𝐾 𝐾1 𝐾2
Parallel:
𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴1 𝜀0 𝐴2 𝐾𝐴 = 𝐾1 𝐴1 + 𝐾2 𝐴2
𝐾 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
When 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 ,
𝐾1 + 𝐾2
𝐾=
2
Series and Parallel:
𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴1 𝜀0 𝐴2
𝐾 = 𝑡 𝑡2 + 𝐾 3
𝑑 1 𝑑
𝐾1 + 𝐾2
Add parallel capacitance first, then series to
write the equation easily.

Series and Parallel:

𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴1 𝜀0 𝐴2 𝜀0 𝐴3
𝐾 =𝑡 + +
𝑡2 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡1 𝑡2
𝑑 1
𝐾1 + 𝐾4 𝐾2 + 𝐾4 𝐾3 + 𝐾4

Easy method to verify the correctness of these long expressions is to substitute K in place of K1, K2, K3, K4
and see if you are getting K as the final result in the expression.
Water Analogy Electricity
Water Charge
Water flow Charge flow (Electric current)
Water level, Pressure Voltage
Restriction for water flow such as tap Resistance
Water storage tank Capacitor
Capacity of storage tank Capacitance
19. Current Electricity
Drift velocity: Current in terms of Drift velocity:
Random motion of free
electrons in a conductor
without externally applied
electric field.

Movement of electrons 𝑞 𝑁𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑒 𝑛𝐴𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝑡𝑒

under the influence of 𝑖= = = = = = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
applied electric field is
called as drift velocity. 𝑁
𝑛 = 𝑉 is the no. density of electrons and it is a
Very slow due to
material constant.
collision with vibrating atoms usually about few
mm/s. 𝜏 is the relaxation time, time between two 𝑖 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴
collisions. 𝑖 ∝ 𝑣𝑑
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑞𝐸
𝑒𝐸
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑎 𝜏 = 𝜏
𝑚
Mobility of electron 𝜇: Current density:
𝑣𝑑 ∝ 𝐸 𝑖
𝑗= = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜇𝐸 𝐴
Comparing with above equation, 𝑗 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝑒𝜏 Current is scalar, Current density is vector
𝜇=
𝑚
Mobility of 𝑒 − is constant for a given material.
Ohm’s law proof from drift velocity: Relation between 𝐸⃗⃗ and 𝑗⃗:
Macroscopically, as 𝑉 ↑, 𝑖 ↑ 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅
Microscopically, as 𝑉 ↑, 𝐸 ↑, 𝑣𝑑 ↑, 𝑖 ↑ 𝑙
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑎𝜏 𝐸𝑙 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴𝜌
𝐴
𝑒𝐸 𝐸 = 𝜌𝑗
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜏 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑗⃗
𝑚
𝑖 𝑒𝑉 𝜎 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑗⃗
= 𝜏
𝑛𝑒𝐴 𝑚 𝑙
𝑚 𝑙
𝑖=𝑉
𝑛𝑒𝑒𝜏 𝐴
𝑙
𝑉=𝜌 𝑖
𝐴
𝑉 = 𝑅𝑖
Ohm’s law proved.

Resistivity is a material constant.

𝑚
𝜌= 2
𝑛𝑒 𝜏
Conductivity,
1 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎= =
𝜌 𝑚
Metals: Alloys:
As temperature increases, the As temperature increases, the
resistivity of metals such as resistivity of alloys increases
copper increases significantly. but not very significantly. For
this reasons resistance wires are
made out of these alloys in
equipments such as resistance
box, meter bridge, potentiometer.
Temperature coefficient of resistivity, 𝛼 : 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝑚
1 𝑑𝜌 𝜎= , 𝜌= 2
𝛼= 𝑚 𝑛𝑒 𝜏
𝜌 𝑑𝑇 where n is the number of electrons per unit volume, e
1 𝜌2 − 𝜌1 is the charge of electron, m is the mass of electron
𝛼= and 𝜏 is the relaxation time.
𝜌 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝜌2 = 𝜌1 (1 + 𝛼(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ))
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 (1 + 𝛼(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ))
Conductors: Insulators and semiconductors:
As temperature increases atomic vibration increases, Initially n is very low.
more often collisions take place, relaxation time As temperature increases, covalent bond breaks, free
decreases, so resistivity 𝜌 increases. electrons are released. n increases so resistivity
decreases.
Superconductors: 𝜏 is also decreasing as in the case of conductors. But
As temperature decreases atomic vibration decreases, the effect of n increase is higher than the effect of 𝜏
relaxation time increases, so resistivity decreases. decrease.
Ohm’s Law: Dynamic resistance:
In a conductor at a given For those devices that do not obey
temperature, ohm’s law, resistance changes at
𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 every we take dynamic resistance
Δ𝑉 at a given point,
𝑅= Δ𝑉
Δ𝐼 Dynamic Resistance =
Δ𝐼

Limitations of Ohm’s law:

Tungsten filament does not
obey Ohm’s law. As
voltage increases, current
increases, temperature
increases and resistance
increases. V is not
proportional to current. Semiconductor devices such as PN junction diodes,
GaAs do not obey Ohm’s law.
Resistance in series: Resistance in parallel:
If V is the voltage drop for one rod, For a voltage difference of V, the
so the total voltage drop is 2V. current flow is i , so with two rods
2𝑉 in parallel, voltage drop is still V.
𝑅𝑆 = = 2𝑅 So i current flows through each rod.
𝑖
So as length increases 𝑉 𝑅
resistance increases 𝑅𝑃 = =
2𝑖 2
𝑅∝𝑙 So as area A increases resistance
1
decreases, 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴
𝑙 𝑙
𝑅∝ → 𝑅=𝜌
𝐴 𝐴
𝜌 is the material property resistivity, 𝑙, 𝐴 are geometric properties.
Resistance in series: Resistance in parallel:
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2
𝑖𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅1 + 𝑖𝑅2 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1
= +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
Bulbs in series: Bulbs in parallel:
𝑉 is same.
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅
So 60 W will
be glowing
brighter.
Lower power rating bulb will have thinner tungsten
filament, so higher resistance. 𝑖 is same. Note:In all our domestic circuits all
𝑃 = 𝑖 2𝑅 devices are connected in parallel
So 25 W will be glowing brighter. fashion so they can be separately switched on and
off.
Joule’s law of heating: Heat energy: Power transmission lines:
Input power is given by,
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑖
Transmission cables will have resistance 𝑅𝑐 , Power
loss in the cables will be ,
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑐
Electric PE applied is converted to KE of electrons,
𝑃2
making it to move towards the positive terminal. As 𝑃𝑐 = 2 𝑅𝑐
they hit with the atoms, this KE is converted to heat 𝑉
1
energy. Power loss is proportional to 𝑉 2 , so voltage should be
∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 kept very high during transmission of electric power.
∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑞𝑉𝐵 − 𝑞𝑉𝐴
∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑞(𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 )
∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑖𝑡∆𝑉 Commercial unit,
𝐻 = 𝑉𝑖𝑡 1 𝑘𝑊 − ℎ𝑟 = 103 𝐽/𝑠 × 3600 𝑠 = 3.6 × 106 𝐽
Heat energy and Power, Note: We pay for electricity on energy units.
𝐻 = 𝑉𝑖𝑡 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑖
2
𝐻 = 𝑖 𝑅𝑡 𝑃 = 𝑖 2𝑅
2
𝑉 𝑡 𝑉2
𝐻= 𝑃=
𝑅 𝑅
Colour coding for carbon resistors: Example:
Colour Code Tolerance
0 Black Gold 5%
1 Brown Silver 10%
2 Red No 20% Red, Orange, Blue, Gold
3 Orange colour 23 x 106 𝛺, 5% tolerance
4 Yellow
5 Green BBROY of Great Britain
6 Blue Visited Gate Way of India.
7 Violet
8 Grey
9 White
Internal resistance: Charging circuit:
Resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell. 𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝑖𝑟
𝑉 = 𝜀 − (−𝑖)𝑟
𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝑖𝑟 Current taken –ve because it is
flowing into the battery that is
𝜀 is emf of the cell, getting charged in the opposite
maximum voltage possible in direction.
a cell, V is the terminal 𝑉 = 𝜀 + 𝑖𝑟
voltage across the cell, r is This means that the supply voltage should be 𝑖𝑟 value
the internal resistance. 𝑖𝑟 is called the lost volts or more than the battery emf 𝜀 that needs to be charged
back emf. Above relation can also be obtained by to.
Kirchoff’s law. Same result can be obtained using Kirchoff’s law:
𝜀 𝑉 − 𝜀 = 𝑖𝑟
𝑖=
𝑅+𝑟 𝑉 = 𝜀 + 𝑖𝑟
Maximum power to external circuit:
Using maxima principle in differentiation,
𝑉 = −𝑟𝑖 + 𝜀 𝑃 = 𝑖 2𝑅
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 𝜀 2
𝑃=( ) 𝑅
𝑅+𝑟
𝑑𝑃 (𝑅 + 𝑟)2 − 2𝑅(𝑅 + 𝑟)
= 𝜀2 =0
𝑑𝑅 (𝑅 + 𝑟)4
𝜀 𝑅=𝑟
𝑉= 𝑟
1+𝑅 when external resistance
is equal to internal
resistance, power is
maximum in the
external circuit.
Cells in series: Cells in parallel:
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝜀1 − 𝑖1 𝑟1
𝑉𝐶𝐷 = 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐷 = 𝜀2 − 𝑖2 𝑟2
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶𝐷
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝜀1 − 𝑖𝑟1
𝜀1 𝑉 𝜀2 𝑉
𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐶 = 𝜀2 − 𝑖𝑟2 𝑖 =[ − ]+[ − ]
𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐶 𝜀1 𝜀2 1 1
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐶 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 − 𝑖(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) 𝑖 = [ + ]−𝑉[ + ]
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2
𝑉 = 𝜀𝑒𝑞. − 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑞.
𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝜀𝑒𝑞. 𝑉
𝑖= −
𝑟𝑒𝑞. 𝑟𝑒𝑞.
𝜀𝑒𝑞. 𝜀1 𝜀2 1 1 1
= + , = +
𝑟𝑒𝑞. 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑒𝑞. 𝑟1 𝑟2
 m rows and n columns of cells: For maximum current denominator should be
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 minimum,
𝑖=
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑟 + 𝑚𝑅 = (√𝑛𝑟 − √𝑚𝑅)2 + 2√𝑚𝑛𝑟𝑅
𝑛𝜀 Square term has to be minimum, so equate to zero
𝑖 = 𝑛𝑟
√𝑛𝑟 = √𝑚𝑅
𝑚 +𝑅 𝑚𝑅
𝑚𝑛𝜀 𝑟=
𝑖= 𝑛
𝑛𝑟 + 𝑚𝑅
Current supplied if it was only one cell,
𝜀
𝑖1𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 =
𝑅+𝑟
Special case 1: when m=1, n cells in series, Special case 2: when n=1, cells in parallel,
𝑛𝜀 𝑚𝜀
𝑖= 𝑖=
𝑛𝑟 + 𝑅 𝑟 + 𝑚𝑅
If 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, then If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑅, then
𝑛𝜀 𝑚𝜀
𝑖= = 𝑛 𝑖1𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑖= = 𝑚 𝑖1𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑅 𝑟
n times current of one cell is obtained , so series m times current of one cell is obtained, so parallel
arrangement is advantageous. arrangement is advantageous.

If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑅, then If 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, then
𝑛𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
𝑖= = = 𝑖1𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑖= = 𝑖1𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑛𝑟 𝑟 𝑅
So, no current advantage of putting cells in series. So, no current advantage of putting cells in parallel.

Kirchhoff’s laws:
Current rule, Junction rule:
Based on law of conservation of charges.
𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 = 𝑖4 + 𝑖5
𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 − 𝑖4 − 𝑖5 = 0
Algebraic sum of all the currents in a
junction is zero. Sum of currents
entering the junction is equal to sum
of currents leaving the junction.
𝛴𝑖 = 0
Voltage rule, Loop rule:
Based on law of conservation of energy.
𝜀1 + 𝜀2 = 𝑖(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
𝜀1 + 𝜀2 − 𝑖(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) = 0
Algebraic sum of changes
in potential around any
closed loop involving resistors and cells is zero.
𝛴𝑉 = 0

10 + 5 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 10 − 5 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 10 − 5 = −𝑖2 − 𝑖3
Tricks for loop rule equation formation:
1. Write all the emf of the cells in LHS and write all the 𝑖𝑅 consumption on the RHS.
2. If the second cell is flowing current in the same direction as the first cell then take it as positive 𝜀,
otherwise take it as negative 𝜀. This means + of one cell to – of the other cell is same direction.
3. If the loop direction and assumed current flow direction are in the opposite direction then write it as – 𝑖𝑅.
4. If current direction is unknown assume a direction. If the final answer for current comes in negative the
assumed current direction should be taken in opposite.
Balanced Wheatstone bridge: If battery and galvanometer are interchanged in a
balanced Wheatstone / metre bridge, what will be the
result?

𝑃 𝑅 𝑃 𝑄
Loop 1, = → =
𝑄 𝑆 𝑅 𝑆
𝑖1 𝑃 − 𝑖2 𝑄 = 0 From the newly formed bridge, we can say that this is
𝑖1 𝑃 = 𝑖2 𝑄 the condition for balanced Wheatstone bridge. So
Loop 2, when galvanometer and battery are interchanged, the
𝑖1 𝑅 − 𝑖2 𝑆 = 0 resulting bridge is also a balanced Wheatstone
𝑖1 𝑅 = 𝑖2 𝑆 bridge.
𝑃 𝑄 𝑃 𝑅
= , =
𝑅 𝑆 𝑄 𝑆
This ratio of resistors gives a condition where the two
terminals of the galvanometer are in the same
potential. So there is no current in the galvanometer.
Unbalanced Wheatstone bridge: Equivalent resistance of an unbalanced wheatstone
bridge can be found by,
𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑞. =
𝑖1 + 𝑖2
If V is unknown a suitable value can be assumed to
find 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3 from the three equations that can be
got from the three loops shown. Note 𝑅𝑒𝑞. is
independent of supply voltage.

Metre Bridge: When there is no current flow in galvanometer,

𝑅 𝑆
=
𝑃 𝑄
𝜌𝑙𝐴𝐽 𝜌𝑙𝐽𝐵
𝐴 = 𝐴
𝑃 𝑄
𝑃 𝑄
=
Meter bridge is a special case of wheatstone bridge. 𝑙𝐴𝐽 𝑙𝐽𝐵
Thick copper strips ensures no voltage drop across 100 − 𝑙1
the connectors. 𝑄=𝑃
𝑙1
Potentiometer: Why longer length desired?
As length increases potential gradient decreases.
10V over 1 m will give, 𝜙 = 10 V/m = 0.01 V/mm.
10V over 10 m will give, 𝜙 = 1 V/m = 0.001 V/mm.
So we can measure the voltages more accurately. In
other words sensitivity will be higher with higher
length of resistance wire.

Potential gradient is denoted as 𝜙. It is defined as the Why potentiometer is preferred over other methods
voltage per unit length. for measuring the emf of the cell?
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝑖𝑟
𝜙= When balance point is reached current flow through
𝑙𝐴𝐵
Sensitivity defined as, the cell is zero, 𝑖 = 0,
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝐴𝐵 1 𝑉=𝜀
= = Since there is no current drawn from the cell, this
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝜙
Here note that length measurement is the output, method is very accurate.
voltage supplied from the cell is the input.
To find the emf of the cell and to compare the emf of To find the internal resistance of the cell:
two cells:

From trial 1, cell connected to the potentiometer and

When 𝑉𝐴𝐽 = 𝜀1 , there is no current flow in the balance point is arrived,
galvanometer. This is called the balancing point. 𝜀 = 𝜙 𝑙1
From trial 2, cell and known external resistance R
𝜀1 = 𝑉𝐴𝐽 connected to the potentiometer and the balance point
𝜀1 = 𝜙 𝑙𝐴𝐽 is arrived,
𝑉 = 𝜙 𝑙2
𝜀1 = 𝜙 𝑙1 Note that though current is not flowing through
𝜀2 = 𝜙 𝑙2 galvanometer at balance point, current is still flowing
in the secondary circuit between the cell and the
𝜀1 𝑙1 resistance R.
=
𝜀2 𝑙2 𝜀 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝑟
𝜀 = 𝑖(𝑅 + 𝑟)
𝑉
𝜀 = (𝑅 + 𝑟)
𝑅
𝜀 𝑟
=1+
𝑉 𝑅
𝑟 𝜀
= −1
𝑅 𝑉
𝑙1
𝑟 = 𝑅 [ − 1]
𝑙2
 𝑉𝐴 + 3 + 2 − 1 − 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉 + 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉𝐵
AB, here we are going downhill from higher AB, here we are going uphill from lower voltage to
voltage to lower voltage seen from current direction, higher voltage seen from current direction, so level
so level decreases, so – 𝑖𝑅. (As current flows through increases, so +𝑖𝑅.
the resistance, energy will be lost, so – 𝑖𝑅)
Resistors arranged in a cube: Infinite ladder logic:

If each side of the cube has the same resistance, then 𝑅 ≅ 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
current will split in an uniform pattern at each corner Since one of the 𝑟 and 𝑅 are in parallel and two more
as shown. However this is applicable only when the 𝑟 are in series,
connections in and out are diametrically opposite. 𝑅𝑟
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + 2𝑟
𝑅+𝑟
𝑅𝑟
+ 2𝑟 = 𝑅
𝑅+𝑟
Solve the quadratic equation to find R which will also
be approximately close to total equivalent resistance.
Same method can be used for infintely arranged
capacitors.
Stretching the wire: Constant current source:

For example if the 100𝛺 resistor is changed to 90𝛺,

the current is not going to change significantly as the
100𝛺 is very small compared to 10𝑘𝛺.
When a wire is stretched, usually we assume that the
volume remains the same, length increases, area
decreases.
𝐴1 𝑙1 = 𝐴2 𝑙2

If length is increased by 4%, 𝑙2 = 1.04 𝑙1

If length is increased by 40%, 𝑙2 = 1.4 𝑙1
If length is decreased by 5%, 𝑙2 = 0.95 𝑙1
If length is decreased by 50%, 𝑙2 = 0.50 𝑙1
Resistance in series: Voltage Divider formula:

𝑉 𝑉
𝑉1 = .𝑅 𝑉2 = .𝑅
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2
20.Moving charges and Magnetism
Magnetic Force: Electric Force:

𝐹⃗𝑚 = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗
Magnetic force experienced by a moving charge(q), Electric force experienced by charge (q) in electric
with a velocity v, in magnetic field. field.
Direction is given by Right Hand Thumb rule or Direction is given by along the direction of 𝐸⃗⃗ for
Fleming’s left hand rule, for a positive charge. positive charge.
Stationary charge do not experience magnetic force.
Lorentz force: Velocity Selector arrangement:
If the magnetic field and electric field are applied
simultaneously, then

𝐹⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑒
𝐹⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞[(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ) + 𝐸⃗⃗ ]
This is called Lorentz force. Note
it is vector addition. ⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸⃗⃗ are mutually perpendicular, then 𝐹𝑚
If 𝑣⃗, 𝐵
and 𝐹𝑒 will be in opposite direction. If 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑒 then
Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor: net force is zero. There is no acceleration, so v is
constant.
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑒
𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 90 = 𝑞𝐸
𝑞𝑣𝐵 = 𝑞𝐸
𝐹 = 𝑁 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ) 𝐸
𝐹 = 𝑛𝐴𝑙 𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑣=
𝐵
where n is the number of electrons per unit volume. This is called velocity selector arrangement. All the
𝐹⃗ = 𝑖(𝑙⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ ) other particles with different velocity will bend away
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 sin 𝜃 and particles with this particular velocity alone will
Direction is given by Right Hand Thumb rule or go straight without deviation.
Fleming’s left hand rule.
Circular path: Cyclotron:

Centripetal force provided by magnetic force.

𝑚𝑣 2
= 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝑟
Velocity in the orbit, Frequency of revolution of charged particle =
𝑞𝐵𝑟
𝑣= frequency of AC oscillator (in the order of 10 MHz)
𝑚 This is possible due to the fact that frequency of
Time period and Frequency, circular motion does not change with higher radius
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑚 𝐵𝑞
𝑇= = , 𝜈= and higher velocity so higher KE.
𝑣 𝑞𝐵 2𝜋𝑚 AC oscillator frequency should match with frequency
Time period and frequency is independent of the of circular motion, which is the resonant frequency.
velocity of particle because higher the veolcity, 𝐵𝑞
higher the radius, bigger the path to be travelled in 𝜈0 =
2𝜋𝑚
the same time. Velocity in the exit,
𝑞𝐵𝑅
Kinetic energy, 𝑣𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 =
𝑚
1 𝑞2𝐵2𝑟 2 There is magnetic field inside the dees. But no
𝐾𝐸 =
2 𝑚 magnetic field in the gap between the two dees.
Helical path:
1. Cyclotron used to accelerate proton, alpha
particle etc.
2. Neutrons cannot be used in cyclotron due to its
neutral charge.
3. Electrons mass is so small that as the speed
increases, the relativistic mass becomes
Pitch is given from the velocity parallel to magnetic significant and natural frequency will change
field, continuously.
2𝜋𝑚 𝑚0
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = 𝑣𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 × 𝑇 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃 × 𝑚=
𝑞𝐵 2
√1 − 𝑣2
Radius of the helix is given by velocity perpendicular 𝑐
to the magnetic field, However Synchronous cyclotrons have the capability
𝑞𝐵𝑟 to change the AC oscillator frequency as the natural
𝑣 sin 𝜃 =
𝑚 frequency of circular motion changes.

+ For one revolution energy gain is 2qV as it is

accelerated twice by the voltage V, so for n rev.
energy gain is,
1 2
𝑛 2𝑞𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
2
21.Magnetic effects of electric current:
Biot - Savart’s law Coulomb’s law
Oersted discovered that a current carrying conductor
has a magnetic field around it.

Empirical relation given by Biot-Savart for the

magnetic field is,
𝜇0 𝑖𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗)
𝜇 𝑖(𝑑𝑙 1 𝑞
𝑑𝐵 = , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
𝑑𝐵 𝐸=
4𝜋 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑟3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
The direction of the magnetic field will be Direction of the electric field is the line joining two
⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑟⃗, given by Right hand
perpendicular to both 𝑑𝑙 charges.
thumb rule or vector cross product.
𝑖𝑑𝑙 is the vector source that produces this magnetic q is the scalar source that produces this electric field.
field.
Magnetic field also depends upon 𝜃, the angle Electric field does not change with the angle of one
between ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟⃗ . charge w.r.t the other charge.
Follows inverse square law. Follows inverse square law.

+ B at a point due to straight current carrying B at the axis of current carrying circular loop:
conductor:

R, dl in terms of the inputs R,𝜙 write 𝜙 in terms of a, r and r in terms of a and x.

𝐸𝐺 = 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟 sin 𝑑𝜙 = 𝑟 𝑑𝜙 𝑎
𝑅 𝑅 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 , sin 𝜙 =
𝑟
cos 𝜙 = ⇒ 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑟⃗ are perpendicular 𝜃 = 90𝑜 sin 𝜃 = 1
𝑟 cos 𝜙 Since 𝑑𝑙
𝜇0 𝑖𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝜇0 𝑖 𝑟𝑑𝜙 𝜇0 𝑖 cos 𝜙 𝜇0 𝑖𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝜇0 𝑖𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 = = = 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝐵 = =
4𝜋 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑟 2
2𝜋
𝜇0 𝑖 + 𝜙2 𝜇0 𝑖 𝜇0 𝑖 𝑎 𝜇0 𝑖 𝑎 2𝜋𝑎
𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 = ∫ cos 𝜙 𝑑𝜙 =
+𝜙
[sin 𝜙]−𝜙2 𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 sin 𝜙 = ∫ 3 𝑑𝑙 =
4𝜋𝑅 −𝜙 4𝜋𝑅 1 0 4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 (𝑎 + 𝑥 2 )3⁄2
2
1
𝜇0 𝑖 2𝜋𝑎2
𝜇0 𝑖 𝐵=
𝐵= [sin 𝜙1 + sin 𝜙2 ] 4𝜋 (𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )3⁄2
4𝜋 𝑅
For infinitely long conductor, 𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 900 , At the centre 𝑥 = 0
𝜇0 2𝑖 𝜇0 𝑖 2𝜋
𝐵= 𝐵𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑎
Using Ampere’s circuital law this result is obtained
very easily.
Force between two current carrying parallel Using Biot-Savart law: B at the centre of the current
conductors: carrying loop,
𝜇0 𝑖𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝜇0 𝑖 2𝜋𝑎
𝐵𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 = ∫ =
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖2 𝑙 4𝜋 𝑟2 4𝜋 𝑎2
𝜇0 2𝑖1
𝐵=
4𝜋 𝑅
𝜇0 2𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑙
𝐹=
4𝜋 𝑅 B at the center of a sector:
𝐹 𝜇0 2𝑖1 𝑖2 Only the curved shape contributes
=
𝑙 4𝜋 𝑅 for the magnetic field at the center
Same direction currents attract each other. Opposite of the sector, as the straight wires
direction currents repel each other. do not contribute for the magnetic
Definition of Ampere: based on Force experienced by field at the center.
two current carrying parallel conductors. 𝐵𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐵= .𝜃
If force per unit length, 2𝜋
𝐹 𝑁 𝜃 in radians.
= 2 × 10−7
𝑙 𝑚
when 𝑅 = 1m then the current in each of the
conductor is 1A.
B due to closely wound flat circular coil:
𝜇0 2𝜋 𝑁
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑥
4𝜋 𝑥 𝑏 − 𝑎
𝜇0 𝑖 2𝜋 𝑁 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝜇0 𝑖 2𝜋 𝑁 𝑏
𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 = ∫ = ln
4𝜋 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 4𝜋 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑎
 Electrostatics Magnetostatics
1. Static charges give rise to electric field. 1. Moving charges give rise to magnetic field.
2. Coulomb’s law 2. Biot – Savart’s law
1 𝑑𝑄 𝜇0 𝑖 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑟2
3. Gauss law 3. Ampere’s circuital law
𝑞 ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 ∫𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝜀0

Gaussian surface is 3D. For static charge. Amperean loop is 2D. For moving charge (current)
For infinitely long straight conductor:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙.
⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∫𝐵
𝐵. 2𝜋𝑅 = 𝜇0 𝑖
𝜇0 𝑖
𝐵=
2𝜋 𝑅
It is very important to note that
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 is along the Amperean loop. In Biot-Savart law ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
is along the current direction in the conductor.
B due to a solid rod: + B due to a hollow rod:
For r < R, using Ampere’s circuital For r < 𝑟2 , 𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙. = 0, so 𝐵 = 0
law and the proportionate amount of
current that flows through the region For 𝑟2 < 𝑟 < 𝑟1 using Ampere’s
inside radius r, circuital law and the proportionate
𝜇0 2 𝑖 𝜇0 2𝑖𝑟
𝐵𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑑 = 2
𝜋𝑟 2 = amount of current that flows through
4𝜋 𝑟 𝜋𝑅 4𝜋 𝑅 2 the region inside radius r,
𝜇0 2 𝑖
For r > R, 𝐵ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑜𝑑 = 2 2 𝜋(𝑟 2 − 𝑟22 )
𝜇0 2𝑖 4𝜋 𝑟 𝜋(𝑟1 − 𝑟2 )
𝐵𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑑 = For r > R,
4𝜋 𝑟 𝜇0 2𝑖
𝐵ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑜𝑑 =
4𝜋 𝑟
B inside a solenoid: B due to a Toroid:

𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫𝐵 ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ For circle of radius inside the toroid,
Along ab and cd path, 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 are perpendicular. bc
𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 0, so 𝐵 = 0.
path is farther from the solenoid so approximated to
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
zero. ∫𝑎 𝐵⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑏 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑐 𝐵 ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 0 For the circle on the toroid,
𝑑
∫𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵𝑥
⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑎
𝐵. 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝑖 𝑛 2𝜋𝑟
⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖
𝐵𝑥 = 𝜇0 𝑁𝑖
n is the number of coil per unit length, 𝑛 = 𝑁⁄𝑥 For the circle outside the toroid,
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖 𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = +𝑖 − 𝑖 = 0, so 𝐵 = 0.
𝜇 𝑛𝑖
B at the ends of a solenoid:𝐵 = 02
 Torque on a current loop in magnetic field: Electric Moving coil Galvanometer:
motor.

𝜏 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃
To get maximum torque, we use a radial magnetic
field such that angle between 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⃗⃗ is always 90o.
So,
𝜏 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝐵
Hooke’s law for coil spring,
A Current carrying conductor in a magnetic field 𝜏 = 𝑘𝜙
experiences a force. A current carrying loop in a k is the coil spring constant.
magnetic field experiences a torque. 𝑘𝜙 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝐵
Torque due to a couple, All other terms are constant. So deflection is
𝜏 = Force x perpendicular distance between forces proportional to current.
𝜏 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 𝑏 sin 𝜃 Current sensitivity, deflection per unit current,
𝜏 = 𝐵𝑖𝐴 sin 𝜃 𝜙 𝑁𝐴𝐵
=
For N no. of turns, 𝑖 𝑘
𝜏 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 Figure of merit = 𝑖/𝜙.
𝜃 is the angle between 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵⃗⃗ . Voltage sensitivity, deflection per unit voltage,
𝜙 𝑁𝐴𝐵
Note, in 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 sin 𝜃, 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑙 , 𝐵. =
𝑉 𝑘𝑅
Convertion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter: Convertion of Galvanometer to Ammeter:

𝑉 = 𝑖𝑔 (𝑅𝑉 + 𝑅𝐺 ) 𝑖𝑔 𝑅𝐺 = (𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 )𝑅𝐴
 Voltmeter is connected in parallel to the external  Ammeter is connected in series to the external
resistor R. A very high resistance 𝑅𝑉 is placed in resistor R. A very low resistance 𝑅𝐴 , also called
series with the galvanometer G. as shunt resistance is placed in parallel with the
 V is the full scale maximum voltage to be galvanometer G.
measured then 𝑖𝑔 is the maximum safe current  𝑖 is the full scale maximum current to be
that can flow in the galvanometer. measured and 𝑖𝑔 is the maximum safe current that
 𝑖𝑔 should be very low so 𝑅𝑉 has to be very high, can flow in the galvanometer.
so that the main current 𝑖 is not changed too much  Since 𝑖𝑔 is very low, 𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 is very large and
due to the measurement process.(Potentiometer shunt resistance 𝑅𝐴 has to be very low.
does not take any current for measurement)  𝑖𝑔 will cause the maximum deflection in the G,
 𝑖𝑔 will cause the maximum deflection in the G, but it will be calibrated to maximum current 𝑖.
but it will be calibrated to maximum voltage V.
 If 𝑖𝑔 = 1𝐴 produces full scale deflection, 𝑖 = 10A is what we want to have for full scale, shunt must be
1/9th of 𝑅𝐺 to get this result.
 Shunt is a thick copper strip in parallel to the Galvanometer coil. When very high currents are there in circuit, it
will pass through shunt S and the coil G will not be damaged due to high current. Once the galvanometer shows
some closeness to zero current and we are sure the current is not too high, then shunt S can be removed, so that
current passes through G and jockey can be further adjusted to get zero current, as in potentiometer.
 Magnetic dipole moment in a current carrying loop: Orbital magnetic moment of electron:
Magnetic dipole moment of electron loop,

𝜏⃗ = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗

𝜏⃗ = 𝑚 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵 𝑒 2 𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝜏⃗ = 𝑚𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑚 = 𝑖𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝑇 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝑣
𝜏⃗ = 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 Angular momentum,
Comparing the two equations, magnetic dipole 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑟
moment in a current carrying loop is,
𝑚 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴 Gyro magnetic ratio,
𝑚 𝑒
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑁𝑖𝐴⃗
𝑚 =− = 8 × 1010 𝐶/𝑘𝑔
𝐿 2𝑚𝑒
⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐴⃗ are in the same direction given by the right
𝑚
-ve represents that magnetic dipole moment m and
hand thumb rule, with thumb pointing to the north.
angular momentum 𝐿 ⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑃⃗⃗ are in the opposite
direction.

From Bohr’s postulate of quantization condition,

𝑛ℎ 𝑒 𝑛ℎ
𝐿= , 𝑚=−
2𝜋 2𝑚𝑒 2𝜋

For the electron in first orbit, n=1 then

𝑒ℎ
𝑚=− = 9.27 × 10−27 𝐴𝑚2
4𝜋𝑚𝑒
𝑒
Spin magnetic moment is given by, 𝑚 = − 𝑚 𝐿
𝑒

Torque due to electric dipole in an external electric Torque due to magnetic dipole or bar magnet in an
field E: external magnetic field B:

𝜏⃗ = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝜏⃗ = 𝑚 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵

 Current due to electron spin:

𝑞 𝑒
𝑖= = = 𝑒𝜈
𝑡 𝑇
E due to electric dipole: B due to magnetic dipole or bar magnet:

1 2𝑝𝑟 1 2𝑝 𝜇0 2𝑚𝑟 𝜇0 2𝑚
𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ~ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙 𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ~ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 )2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3 4𝜋 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 )2 4𝜋 𝑟 3
1 𝑝 1 𝑝 𝜇0 𝑚 𝜇0 𝑚
𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ⁄
~ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙 𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ~ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙
2
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑙 ) 2 3 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3 4𝜋 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )3 2 4𝜋 𝑟 3
⁄

Current carrying loop as a magnetic dipole or bar Solenoid as a magnetic dipole or bar magnet:
magnet:

𝜇0 𝑖2𝜋𝑎2
𝐵= Small dB due to the small no. of turns in dx,
4𝜋 (𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )3⁄2
𝜇0 𝑖2𝐴 𝜇0 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑖 2𝜋𝑎2
𝐵= 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑥 3 4𝜋 (𝑎2 + (𝑟 − 𝑥)2 )3⁄2
𝜇0 2𝑚 𝜇0 𝑛 𝑖 2𝜋𝑎2 +𝑙 𝜇0 𝑖 2𝜋𝑎2 𝑛2𝑙
𝐵= 𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
4𝜋 𝑥 3 4𝜋 𝑟 3 −𝑙 4𝜋 𝑟3
So comparing with 𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 of bar magnet, we can see 𝜇0 2𝑁𝑖𝐴 𝜇0 2𝑚
current carrying loop and bar magnet are equivalent. 𝐵= =
4𝜋 𝑟 3 4𝜋 𝑟 3
So comparing with 𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 of bar magnet, we can see
solenoid and bar magnet are equivalent.
22.Magnetism and Matter
Magnetic needle oscillation in an external magnetic Determining B at a location by oscillating magnetic
field is SHM: needle: Vibration Magnetometer:
𝜏⃗ = 𝑚 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵 𝑚𝐵
𝜔2 =
𝜏 = 𝑚𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝐼
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 2𝜋 2 𝑚𝐵
( ) =
𝐼 is the moment of inertia 𝑇 𝐼
and 𝛼 is the angular 𝐼
acceleration. 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
Restoring torque, 𝑚𝐵
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝐵𝜃 4𝜋 2 𝐼
𝑚𝐵 𝐵=
𝛼=− 𝜃 𝑇 2𝑚
𝐼 If 𝐼 and 𝑚 are known for the needle, T time period of
𝛼 = −𝜔2 𝜃 oscillation can be found experimentally, then B can
𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥 be determined.
Comapring it with the characteristic equation of
SHM, it is proved the oscillation will be SHM.
Rotational work done by an electric dipole in an Rotational work done by a magnetic dipole in an
External 𝐸⃗⃗ : ⃗⃗:
External 𝐵

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝜏 ⋅ 𝑑𝜃 ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝜏 ⋅ 𝑑𝜃
𝑊 = 𝑝𝐸∫ sin 𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝜃 𝑊 = 𝑚𝐵∫ sin 𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝜃
𝑊 = −𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 𝑊 = −𝑚𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝑈 = 𝑊 = −𝑝⃗. 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑈 = 𝑊 = −𝑚 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗. 𝐵
Special cases: Special cases:
Case 1: 𝜃 = 0° 𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸 Case 1: 𝜃 = 0° 𝑈 = −𝑚𝐵
Case 2: 𝜃 = 90° 𝑈=0 Case 2: 𝜃 = 90° 𝑈=0
Case 3: 𝜃 = 180° 𝑈 = 𝑝𝐸 Case 3: 𝜃 = 180° 𝑈 = 𝑚𝐵
Work done to rotate from 𝜃1 → 𝜃2 Work done to rotate from 𝜃1 → 𝜃2
𝜃 𝜃
𝑊𝜃1 →𝜃2 = −𝑝𝐸[𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃]𝜃21 𝑊𝜃1 →𝜃2 = −𝑚𝐵[𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃]𝜃21
𝑊𝜃1 →𝜃2 = 𝑝𝐸[𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 ] 𝑊𝜃1 →𝜃2 = 𝑚𝐵[𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 ]

Gauss law of Electrostatics Gauss law of Magnetostatics

Net electric flux, Net magnetic flux,
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙. 𝜙𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑞𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙.
𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀0 𝑞𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙. is the magnetic
Net flux = Outward charge or pole strength.
field lines – inward 𝑞𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙. = 0 this is because
field lines in a Gaussian surface. mono poles do not exist in
Case 1: There is a net charge enclosed inside the magnetic field. Whenever there is a N pole on one
Gaussian surface and there is net field lines flowing end there is S pole on the other end inside the
out of the surface. Gaussian surface.
𝜙𝐵 = 0
Case 2: There is no net charge enclosed inside the
𝐵⃗⃗ . 𝐴⃗ = 0
Gaussian surface 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙. = 0 and net flux is zero
𝜙𝐸 = 0 because no. of field lines coming in is equal Outward flowing magnetic flux lines is equal to
to no. of field lines going out. inward flowing flux lines. So net flux is zero.
Gauss law for magnetism is given as “Net magnetic
flux through any closed surface is zero.”
Electric field lines are open loops. Mono poles exist Magnetic field lines are closed loops. Mono poles do
in electrostatics. not exists in magnetism.
Terminology in Magnetism:
Magnetising Intensity, Magnetising field, Magnetic dipole moment, 𝑚:
Magnetic field strength Externally applied, 𝐻 : For a current carrying loop,

𝑚 = 𝑖𝐴, 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝐴𝑚2

For a Bar magnet,

𝐻 = 𝑛𝑖, 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝐴𝑚−1 𝑚 = 2𝑞𝑚 𝑙

Higher the no. of turns per unit length and higher the
current will increase the capability of magnetising
field to magnetise the substance. 𝑖 is called the
magnetising current.
This is something which we control externally.
Magnetic field, Magnetic Field strength, Magnetic
Induction, Magnetic flux density, 𝐵:
B is proportional to the number of magnetic lines
crossing a unit area perpendicular to the field.
Magnetism, no. of lines resulting in the medium. So
it depends upon the medium.
𝐹 polarization. Magnetism resulting inside the
𝐵= , 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑁𝐴−1 𝑚−1
𝑖𝑙
Tesla or Wb /𝑚2 , 1 Tesla = 104 Gauss
𝑞𝑚 is the pole strength or magnetic charge, similar to
𝑞 electric charge in electric dipole moment. Its unit is
𝐴𝑚. Poles are situated slightly inside the ends. So the
2𝑙 is slightly smaller than the length of the bar
magnet.
Intensity of Magnetisation (internal), M:
𝑚𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑀= , 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝐴𝑚−1
𝑉
Net magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of the
magnetised substance" . Similar to electric
polarization this can be called as magnetic
substance.
𝑀𝐹𝑒 > 𝑀𝐴𝑙

Magnetic permeability 𝜇 : Magnetic susceptibility, χ :

Resulting magnetic field B in a medium is Resulting magnetic field B in a medium is
proportional to the externally applied magnetising proportional to the externally applied magnetising
field or magnetising intensity. field or magnetising intensity.
𝐵∝𝐻 𝑀∝𝐻
𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 𝑀 =χ𝐻
𝐵=𝜇𝑛𝑖 𝑀
𝐵 χ= , 𝑁𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝐻
𝜇= , 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑁𝐴−2 χ is a proportionality constant that is dependent upon
𝐻
𝜇 is the proportionality constant that is dependent the material or the substance. How easily a substance
upon the medium called magnetic permeability. This is magnetised in a magnetic field. Ratio of intensity
means the resulting magnetic field is stronger in of magnetisation to magnetising intensity.
vaccum but weaker in a medium such as water (susceptibile means vulnerable, or how easily
though the externally applied magnetising intensity is influenced)
the same.
Relative Magnetic permeability 𝜇𝑟 : Important Relationships:
𝜇 𝐵⁄𝐻 𝐵 𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐵0 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 + 𝐵𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑙.
𝜇𝑟 = = = , 𝑁𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻 + 𝜇 𝑜 𝑀
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 ⁄𝐻 𝐵𝑜
Ratio of magnetic permeability of the substance to 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐻 + 𝑀)
the permeability of free space.
This is similar to ԑ𝑟 relative electrical permittivity. 1 𝐵 𝐻 𝑀
=( + )
Magnetic flux, 𝜙 : 𝜇𝑜 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵 ⃗⃗ . 𝐴⃗, 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑇𝑚2 𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒
 Dia-magnetism
No inherent magnetic moment in
each atom due to paired electrons
cancelling their magnetic moments
due to opposite directions.
e.g. Bi, Si, Cu, Pb, N2, H2O, NaCl
Feebly repelled by a magnet.
Moves from stronger to weaker
region of field. (nearer to poles
stronger field, farther is weaker)
When placed in external magnetic
field intensity 𝐻 ⃗⃗ , they will feebly
get magnetised in the opposite
direction of 𝐻⃗⃗ , due to induced
magnetic dipole moment 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗, being
in opposite direction to 𝐻 ⃗⃗ .
So the no. of field lines inside the
substance will decrease slightly.
Magnetic susceptibility,
−1 ≤ χ < 0
Very small negative value.
e.g. -0.00017 (Bi)
Relative Permeability,
0 ≤ 𝜇𝑟 < 1
𝜇 < 𝜇𝑜
e.g. 0.99983 (Bi)
Temperature dependence of 𝑀, 𝜒:
𝑀, 𝜒 are independent of
temperature change.
Para-magnetism
Inherent magnetic moment present
in each atom due to unpaired
electrons.
Atomic magnets are randomly
oriented. So macroscopically
𝑚
⃗⃗⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0.
e.g. Al, Na, Ca, O2, CuCl2
Feebly attracted by a magnet.
Moves from weaker to stronger
region of field.
When placed in external magnetic
field intensity 𝐻 ⃗⃗ , they will feebly
get magnetised in the same
direction of 𝐻⃗⃗ , due to induced
magnetic dipole moment 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗, being
in the same direction to 𝐻 ⃗⃗ .
So the no. of field lines inside the
substance will increase slightly.
Magnetic susceptibility,
0<χ<ε
Very small positive value.
e.g. +0.00002 (Al)
Relative Permeability,
1 < 𝜇𝑟 < 1 + ε
𝜇 > 𝜇𝑜
e.g. 1.00002 (Al)
Temperature dependence of 𝑀, 𝜒:
Curie’s law:
𝐵 µ0 𝐻
𝑀𝛼 𝛼
𝑇 𝑇
𝑀 µ0
=𝜒=𝐶
𝐻 𝑇
C is Curie’s constant.
Ferro-magnetism
Group of atoms called domains,
within which atomic magnets are
aligned in the same direction.
Domains are randomly oriented.
So macroscopically 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0.
e.g. Fe, Ni, Co, Gd Gadolinium
Strongly attracted by a magnet.
Moves from weaker to stronger
region of field.
When placed in external magnetic
⃗⃗ , they will strongly
field intensity 𝐻
get magnetised in the same
⃗⃗ , due to induced
direction of 𝐻
magnetic dipole moment 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗, being
⃗⃗
in the same direction to 𝐻 .
So the no. of field lines inside the
substance will increase drastically.
Magnetic susceptibility,
χ≫1
Very high positive value.
e.g. +200,000 (Fe)
Relative Permeability,
𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1
𝜇 ≫ 𝜇𝑜
e.g. 200,001 (Fe)
Temperature dependence of 𝑀, 𝜒:
Curie-Weiss law:
𝐶
𝜒=
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐
After the Curie’s temperature 𝑇𝑐 ,
ferro magnetic material shows
para magnetic properties. C is
const.
Earth’s magnetism:
Angle of Declination: Angle of Inclination or Angle of Dip 𝛼:

Angle between the horizontal and earth’s field is

Angle between GM and MM is Angle of Declination
𝜃.
This angle does not remain constant at a given place
over a period of time. Over thousands of years this
field or MM seems rotating w.r.t GM. This is a
mystery and area of research. The presently accepted
theory is that the molten metals in the core of the
earth gives rise to this magnetism.
called Angle of Dip. White lines show the horizontal
line at a location on earth. Angle of needle is dipping
down in the northern hemisphere (CCW so +ve) and
rising up in the southern hemisphere (CW so -ve)
from the horizontal.
Special Cases:
At magnetic equator : 𝛼 = 0, dip needle is horizontal.
At poles: 𝛼 = 90𝑜 , dip needle is vertical.

Magnetic compass is a magnetic needle oscillating in Dip needle or Dip circle is a magnetic needle
the horizontal plane, aligning with the horizontal oscillating in a vertical plane (usually in MM
component of earth’s magnetic field 𝐵𝐻 . determined by magnetic compass), aligning with the
earth’s magnetic field 𝐵𝐸 .
Earth’s field is approx. ~ 0.31 G = 0.31 x 10-4 Tesla 𝐵𝑉
𝐵𝐸 = √𝐵𝐻2 + 𝐵𝑉2 , tan 𝛼 =
𝐵𝐻
Neutral points or Null points: + Apparent Dip Angles:
These are the points where equal and opposite
magnetic fields cancel each other becomes zero,
needle showing no deflection.
In this configuration, Null points
will be on the equatorial line of the
magnet, where the
𝐵𝑒𝑞. = 𝐵𝐻
𝜇0 𝑚
3 = 𝐵𝐻
4𝜋 𝑟𝑒𝑞.
P1, P2 are perpendicular planes, 𝜃1 is the dip in plane
1, 𝜃2 is the dip in plane 2, 𝜃 is the dip in MM plane.
In this configuration, Null points
𝐵𝑉 is same in all the planes.
will be on the axial line of the 𝐵𝑉
magnet, where the tan 𝜃1 =
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝐵𝐻 𝐵𝐻 cos 𝜃 ′
𝐵𝑉
𝜇0 2𝑚 tan 𝜃2 =
= 𝐵𝐻 𝐵𝐻 sin 𝜃 ′
3
4𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑉
tan 𝜃 =
𝑟𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 21⁄3 𝑟𝑒𝑞. = 1.26 𝑟𝑒𝑞. 𝐵𝐻
cot 𝜃1 + cot 𝜃2 = cot 2 𝜃
2 2

Resultant Field: Isoclinic: Locations on earth where same dip angles

or same inclination observed.
Isogonal: Locations on earth where same declination
observed.
Agonic: zero declination.
+ Atomic Theory for Dia-magnetism:
Inherent magnetic moment is zero because both 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ will cancel each other.
When external magnetic field is applied into the paper, induced current will be in such a way that it will
oppose the change that caused it (according to Lenz’s law).

Electron 1 2
Spin direction CCW CW
Inherent current direction CW CCW
Inherent magnetic moement Into the paper, 𝑚⃗⃗⃗1 Out of the paper, 𝑚⃗⃗⃗2
External magnetic field Into the paper, 𝑚
⃗⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 Into the paper, 𝑚
⃗⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡
Induced magnetic moement Out of the paper Out of the paper
Induced current CCW CCW
Net current = Inherent current reduced increased
– induced current
Electron speed reduced increased
Comment: Electron slows down for the one Electron speeds up for the one where
where the inherent magnetic the inherent magnetic moment is
moment is along the same direction opposing the external magnetic
as the external magnetic field. field.
Net magnetic moment = Decreased and into the paper along Increased and out of the paper
Inherent magnetic moment – ⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡
the 𝐵 opposing the 𝐵 ⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡
induced magnetic moment
Why the total induced ⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡
So the total magnetic moment will be out of the paper opposing the 𝐵
magnetic moment is opposite and gets repelled.
to the external field and gets
repelled?
Super conductivity and Dia-magnetism:
Very low temperature for conductors can be achieved by liquid nitrogen or liquid oxygen called Cryogenics.
𝑉
𝑟 → 0, 𝐼 → 𝑅 , ∴ 𝐼 → ∞ , High currents are required in medical applications and magnetically levitated
trains.
Super conductors exhibit perfect diamagnetism. It means all atomic magnets are turned in opposite direction
to the external field. So all lines are expelled out.
𝜇
𝜒 = −1, 𝜇𝑟 = 0, 𝜇𝑟 = , 𝜇 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 0
𝜇0
This means no field lines through the material. This phenomenon in superconductor is called Meissner effect.
Domain theory for Ferro magnetism:
⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 is very strong the domains will turn to align with the 𝐵
1. If 𝐵 ⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 called domain rotation.
⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 is weak, then the domains which are favourably oriented will grow into the unfavourably oriented
2. If 𝐵
domains called domain growth.
Hysterisis Loop:
 As 𝐻⃗⃗ external magnetising intensity increases, 𝐵 ⃗⃗ will also
increase initially as the atomic magnets are getting aligned in the
direction of 𝐻⃗⃗ . However beyond a point after all atomic magnets have
been aligned, increasing 𝐻 ⃗⃗ will not have any effect and we say it is
saurated.
 Retentivity or residual magnetism is the magnetism that is
retained even when the external 𝐻 ⃗⃗ is brought to zero.
 Coercivity is the 𝐻⃗⃗ that needs to be applied in the opposite
direction to cancel out the retained residual magnetism.
 Area inside the loop for a given material represents hysteresis energy lost per unit volume. ( B. H =
N/Am . A/m  N/m2  Nm/m3  J/m3)
Permanent magnet: Electro-magnets:
Steel, Alnico,Co-steel , Soft iron core.
Ticonal
High coercivity makes it Though high retentivity is there for soft
a preferred choice for iron, the low coercivity is sufficient to
permanent magnets as it make it lose its residual magnetism very
will not get demagnetised easily.
very easily.
How permanent magnets are made? How magnets are Demagnetised:
1. Hold iron in N-S direction and hammer it. Underlying principle is that if all the atomic magnets
are aligned in the same direction then we say the
material is magnetised. If they are randomly oriented
we say it lost its magnetism. Disorienting the atomic
magnets to turn to random directions can be achieved
by hammering, heating, dropping several times or
varying AC current.

2. Hold steel rod and stroke it with one end of bar

magnet a large number of times always in the
same sense to make a permanent magnet.
 Tangent Galvanometer:
Principle: When earth’s horizontal magnetic field 𝐵𝐻 and the
magnetic field due to a current carrying coil 𝐵𝑚 are set
perpendicular to each other, the compass needle deflects to the
resultant direction.

𝐵𝑚 𝜇0 𝑁 𝑖 2𝜋
tan 𝜙 = , 𝐵𝑚 =
𝐵𝐻 4𝜋 𝑎

Deflection Magnetometer:

Principle: When earth’s horizontal magnetic

field 𝐵𝐻 and the magnetic field due to a bar
magnet 𝐵𝑚 are set perpendicular to each
other, the compass needle deflects to the resultant direction.
𝐵𝑚
tan 𝜙 = ,
𝐵𝐻
𝜇0 2𝑚𝑟 𝜇0 2𝑚
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 2 2 2
~ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙 ) 4𝜋 𝑟 3
𝜇0 𝑚 𝜇0 𝑚
𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ⁄
~ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙
2
4𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑙 )2 3 2 4𝜋 𝑟 3

Comparing two bar magnets:

Using Deflection method: Using Deflection method:
Tan A – End On – Axial Position: Tan B – Broad side on – Equatorial Position:
𝜇0 2𝑚1 𝑟1 𝜇0 𝑚1
𝐵𝐻 . tan 𝜙1 = 𝐵𝐻 . tan 𝜙1 =
4𝜋 (𝑟12 − 𝑙12 )2 4𝜋 (𝑟1 + 𝑙12 )3/2
2

𝜇0 2𝑚2 𝑟2 𝜇0 𝑚2
𝐵𝐻 . tan 𝜙2 = 𝐵𝐻 . tan 𝜙2 =
4𝜋 (𝑟22 − 𝑙22 )2 4𝜋 (𝑟2 + 𝑙22 )3/2
2

Using Null Deflection method: Using Null Deflection method:

Tan A – End On – Axial Position: Tan B – Broad side on – Equatorial Position:

First deflect the needle

using the 1st bar magnet by
placing it on one side. Then
adjust the 2nd bar magnet
placing it on the other side,
First deflect the needle using the 1st bar magnet by until the deflection
placing it on one side. Then adjust the 2nd bar magnet becomes zero.
placing it on the other side, until the deflection
becomes zero.
𝐵1 = 𝐵2 𝐵1 = 𝐵2
𝜇0 2𝑚1 𝑟1 𝜇0 2𝑚2 𝑟2 𝜇0 𝑚1 𝜇0 𝑚2
= 2 2 =
4𝜋 (𝑟1 − 𝑙1 )2 4𝜋 (𝑟22 − 𝑙22 )2
2 2 4𝜋 (𝑟1 + 𝑙1 ) 3/2 4𝜋 (𝑟2 + 𝑙22 )3/2
2
 Magnetic force between magnets:

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑁𝑁 + 𝐹𝑆𝑆 + 𝐹𝑁𝑆 + 𝐹𝑆𝑁

𝜇0 1 1 2
= 𝑞𝑚1 𝑞𝑚2 [ + − ]
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 2𝑙)2 (𝑟 + 2𝑙)2 𝑟 2
though 𝑙 ≪ 𝑟, do not ignore 𝑙 2 before simplification,
𝜇0 24 𝑙 2 𝜇0 6 𝜇0 6𝑚1 𝑚2
= 𝑞𝑚1 𝑞𝑚2 4 = (𝑞𝑚1 2𝑙)(𝑞𝑚2 2𝑙) 4 =
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟 4
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹∝
𝑟4

 Breaking a bar magnet into two halves either along the axis or along the equatorial line, pole strength is
halved in the earlier case and length is halved in the later case. Since 𝑚 = 2𝑙. 𝑞𝑚 , magnetic moment will
be halved in both cases.
23.Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Experiments: Faraday’s law:
𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀=−
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙
= −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
= −𝑁 (𝐵 ⃗⃗ . 𝐴⃗)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝜀 = −𝑁 (𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡
emf can be generated by changing any of the three
quantities such as magnetic field, area or the angle
between them.
Lenz’s Law:

Induced current is seen only during switching ON

and OFF.
By law of conservation of energy, direction of
Induced emf exists even in an open circuit. But induced current is in such a way that it opposes the
induced current can flow only in a closed circuit. change in magnetic flux that produces it.
Motional emf by Faraday’s law: Motional emf by Lorentz force:
𝑑𝜙𝐵 Free electrons in the rod are
𝜀= pushed to P according to Lorentz
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 force.
= (𝐵. 𝐴 cos 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞 (𝑣⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ )
𝑑𝐴 P will be negative and Q will be
=𝐵
𝑑𝑡 positive
𝑑 So a potential difference is
= 𝐵 (𝑙𝑥)
𝑑𝑡 produced. So if P and Q are connected with an external
𝑑 circuit then there will be a current flow from Q to P.
= 𝐵𝑙 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑡 𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑆⃗
𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 𝑊 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑙
𝑊
⃗⃗ and 𝐴⃗ are parallel in this case.
cos 𝜃 = 1 as 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙
𝑞
𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙
Force applied for motional emf: Power applied for motional emf:
By Newton’s 3rd law, force (𝐵𝑣𝑙)2
applied in the rod to keep it 𝑃𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝐹. 𝑣 =
𝑅
moving at const. velocity v is 𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 will also be the same. 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑖 can also be
equal to Lorentz force in the rod used to arrive at the above expression.
generated due to current flow.
𝐵2𝑙2𝑣
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 =
𝑅
Rotational emf: Relation between Induced charge and magnetic flux:
Because of small element 𝑑𝑟 a small emf 𝑑𝜀 is Δ𝜙𝐵
|𝜀| =
produced. Δ𝑡
𝑑𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝑑𝑟 Δ𝜙𝐵
𝑖𝑅 =
𝑑𝜀 = 𝐵𝑟𝜔𝑑𝑟 Δ𝑡
𝑟2
𝑅 Δ𝑄 Δ𝜙𝐵
𝜀 = 𝐵𝜔 [ ] 𝑅=
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
2 0 𝛥𝜙𝐵
𝐵𝜔𝑅 2 𝛥𝑄 =
𝜀= 𝑅
2 This means the induced charge does not depend upon
By Right hand thumb rule, we can see the center will time or the rate of change of magnetic flux or how
become positive and the rim will become negative. quickly the magnet is brought near the coil.
More no. of spokes would not increase the emf as
they will all be in parallel connection between the
center and the rim. However the energy stored will be
more. For a disk eddy currents will be generated.
Expanding loop area in magnetic field: Contracting loop area in magnetic field:
Assume N pole is Assume N pole is going
coming closer to the away from the loop, so
loop, so the loop the loop becomes S to
becomes N to oppose it. oppose it.

Wire cutting magnetic field lines: Wire not cutting magnetic field lines:
𝜃 = 0𝑜 or 180𝑜 𝜀 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵𝐴, emf generated. 𝜃 = 90𝑜 𝜀 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 0, emf not generated.

Air plane’s wing as conductor in Earth’s magnetic Emf generated in a coil moved in varying magnetic
field: field:
When going horizontally at
a given height E-W or N-S
direction, the wing cuts
only the vertical component
BV and not the horizontal
component BH.
When raising up vertically when the plane is facing 𝜀 = 𝜀1 − 𝜀2
𝜇𝑜 2𝑖 𝜇𝑜 2𝑖
in N-S direction, then it will be cutting only the BH. =[ − ] 𝑣𝑏
4𝜋 𝑥 4𝜋 (𝑥 + 𝑙)
When raising up vertically when the plane is facing
in E-W direction, then it will not be cutting either BH
or BV.
Coil moving through an uniform magnetic field: Charging of capacitor using induced current:
While entering and
exiting the magnetic
field region emf is
generated as there is
a change in the area
common to coil and field. Also it will be opposite in
direction.
While moving inside the field region, there is no emf
generated as there is no change in area.
Closed ring: Open ring:

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑝. No induced current, so no induced magnetic field.

𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑝.
𝑎=𝑔−
𝑚
𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑝. is due to the induced magnetic field and
magnet’s magnetic field repelling each other.
Wire loop near a current carrying conductor:

Motional emf in an inclined plane:

.

𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝐴 𝑑 𝑑
= (𝐵. 𝐴 cos 𝜃) = 𝐵 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵 cos 𝜃 (𝑙𝑥) = 𝐵𝑙 cos 𝜃 (𝑥) = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

⃗⃗ and 𝐴⃗ and it is also the angle of the plane with the horizontal.
𝜃 is the angle between 𝐵
If 𝜙 is angle between B and v then, 𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 cos(90 − 𝜙) = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 sin 𝜙
.

Special case: When B and v are perpendicular, 𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙

v component perpendicular to the B direction is what matters, as it is the one that will cut the
magnetic field lines.

Non-straight conductors:
𝑙 component perpendicular to B direction is what matters, as it is the one that will cut the magnetic field lines.

𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣 (𝑙1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 + 𝑙2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 )

Induced Electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ :

By Faraday’s law, changing magnetic field induces an emf and current which can be seen as presence of
induced electric field as there is movement of charges.
Maxwell’s modified faraday’s law, with line integral 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 ,
𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀=− ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −
⇒ ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
𝐸. 2𝜋𝑎 = −𝜋𝑎2
𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑑𝐵
𝐸=−
2 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗
This 𝐸 electric field is caused by changing magnetic field and not by charged
particles, cannot define potentials w.r.t this induced electric field, closed curves without starting and
terminating points.
Eddy currents: Reducing Eddy currents:
Swirl or eddy currents are Instead of solid piece, if there is
produced in the metal piece, in between air gaps or insulator
direction of Eddy current is given sheets, then eddy currents can be
by Lenz law to oppose the change reduced. So the oscillation can
that produces it. continue for longer.
So the oscillation is arrested very quickly.
Eddy currents in Transformer:
Change in magnetic flux causes Eddy currents which dissipates as heat which is undesirable.
Instead of solid blocks, laminated sheets with insulated materials like lacquer is used.
The reasoning is 𝑚 = 𝑖𝐴 , high on solid core, while passing through the insulator eddy current
is low in laminated core. 𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 if current is reduced then loss is reduced.
Plane of the lamination should be parallel to the magnetic field. Why ?
Only if the induced eddy currents are cut by the laminated sheets, eddy currents can be reduced.
Electromagnetic braking: Electromagnetic damping: Induction furnace:

When brakes are activated, the Certain galvanometers will have a

electromagnets come closer to the
rails producing Eddy currents in the
rails. This will oppose the motion
and reduce speed. No mechanical
contact, so smooth braking.
AC Generator:
fixed non-magnetic metallic core. AC current, so Eddy currents
As the coil moves it generates Eddy generated in the metal pieces, so
currents in the core that will oppose they melt.
the motion. So the coil will stop
quickly without oscillation.

By Fleming’s right hand rule, current is flows from

By Fleming’s right hand rule, current is flows from
DCBA𝑆1 𝐵1 𝑅𝐿 𝐵2 𝑆2D, so 𝑆1 to 𝑆2 in external circuit.
ABCD𝑆2 𝐵2 𝑅𝐿 𝐵1 𝑆1A, so 𝑆2 to 𝑆1 in external circuit.
asas

Current in the external circuit keeps changing. So it is

Alternating current (AC), sinusoidal waveform.
𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝜀 = −𝑁 (𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝜀 = −𝑁 (𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝜀 = 𝑁𝐴𝐵𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜀 = 𝜀𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
The B and A are constants while the 𝜃is changing,
which produces the emf.
Charge flowing in the coil:
𝑑𝑞 𝑁𝐴𝐵𝜔
𝑖= ⇒ 𝑞 = ∫ 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
Generator: Motor:
𝜀 = 𝑁𝐴𝐵𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 , Torque is the input, emf so current is the output. 𝜏 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃, Current is the input, torque is the output.
Mutual Induction: Self Induction:
emf induced in one coil when there is emf induced in one coil when there is
changing current in other coil is called changing current in the same coil is
mutual induction phenomenon. called self induction phenomenon

Mutual inductance or coefficient of mutual induction: Self inductance or coefficient of self induction L:
𝑁1 𝜙1 ∝ 𝑖2 𝑁𝜙 ∝ 𝑖
𝑁1 𝜙1 = 𝑀𝑖2 𝑁𝜙 = 𝐿𝑖
𝑁1 𝜙1 𝑁𝜙
𝑀= 𝐿=
𝑖2 𝑖
M is defined as the magnetic flux linkage in one coil L is defined as the magnetic flux linkage in one coil
when the current is unity in the other coil. when the current is unity in the same coil.
𝑑 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑁1 𝜙1 ) = 𝑀 (𝑁𝜙) = (𝐿𝑖)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖
𝜀1 = 𝑀 𝜀=𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜀1 𝜀
𝑀= 𝐿=
𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
M is also defined as the emf induced in one coil when L is also defined as the emf induced in one coil when
the rate of change of current is unity in the other coil. the rate of change of current is unity in the same coil.
Unit of M: Henry, 𝑇𝑚2 𝐴−1 = 𝑁𝐴−2 𝑚 [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝐴−2 ] Unit of L: Henry, 𝑇𝑚2 𝐴−1 = 𝑁𝐴−2 𝑚 [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝐴−2 ]
Mutual Induction for a Solenoid: Self Induction for a Solenoid:
𝑁1 𝜙1 𝑁𝜙
𝑀= 𝐿=
𝑖2 𝑖
𝑁1 𝐵2 𝐴1 𝑁𝐵𝐴
= =
𝑖2 𝑖
µ0 𝑛2 𝑖2 𝑁1 𝐴1 µ0 𝑛𝑖𝑁𝐴
= =
𝑖2 𝑖
𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁2
= µ0 𝐴1 = µ0 𝐴
𝑙 𝑙
For Iron core, For Iron core,
𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁2
𝑀=µ 𝐴1 = µ𝑟 µ0 𝐴1 𝑀=µ 𝐴 = µ𝑟 µ0 𝐴
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝐴1 is the common area. So 𝑀12 = 𝑀21

Mutual Induction of concentric circular coils: Self Induction of concentric circular coil:
𝑁1 𝜙1 𝐵2 𝐴1 𝑁𝜙𝐵 𝑁𝐵𝐴
𝑀12 = = 𝐿= =
𝑖2 𝑖2 𝑖 𝑖
𝜇𝑜 2𝜋 𝜇𝑜 2𝜋
= [ 𝑖2 ] [𝜋𝑎12 ]⁄𝑖2 = 𝑁 [ 𝑖 ] [𝜋𝑎2 ]⁄𝑖
4𝜋 𝑎2 4𝜋 𝑎
𝑁1 𝑁2 multiplied if no. of turns more than one.
Mutual Induction of coaxial circular coils:
𝑁1 𝜙1 𝐵2 𝐴1
𝑀12 = =
𝑖2 𝑖2
𝜇𝑜 2𝜋𝑎22
= [ 𝑖2 2 ] [𝜋𝑎12 ]⁄𝑖2
4𝜋 (𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )3/2
Self Induction Theory: When key switched off, magnetic
When key switched on, magnetic flux is decreasing so there will be
flux is growing so there will be an an induced emf in the same coil,
induced emf in the same coil. This flowing in the same direction as the
will oppose the supply current decaying current according to Lenz
according to Lenz law. law. So the energy stored as
magnetic flux during the circuit is
on, is released back when circuit is
switched off.
Self Induction demonstration experiment 1: Self Induction demonstration experiment 2:
When key is switched on, LED 1 When key is switched on, bulb 1
is glowing. LED 2 will not be will glow immediately, while
glowing. bulb 2 will start glowing little
When key is switched off, LED 2 later. This is due to the induced
glows momentarily. emf opposing the current from
As the induced emf is flowing in the inductor.
the coil inductor in the same When key is switched off, bulb 1
direction as the decaying current, will go off immediately, while
only LED 2 will glow bulb 2 will glow little longer due to the induced emf
momentarily. LED 1 will not glow. flowing the current in the same direction. Magnetic
field energy stored in the inductor is given back.
Energy stored in inductor: 𝑊
Once the current is =𝜀
𝑞
established there is no 𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑖
induced emf as there is no = 𝐿
changing magnetic flux. 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡
But the magnetic flux ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑖
around the coil remains. Energy is stored in the
1 2
inductor as magnetic field. 𝑈= 𝐿𝑖
2
L value:
Higher the L
value, it
means more
opposition to
the flow of current due to the induced emf, due to changing magnetic field. L is called the electrical inertia.
While R resistance is opposition to the flow of current due to the atomic vibrations in the path of electrons.
The magnetic field gets stronger from straight conductor to circular coil to soenoid coil to solenoid coil with
iron core. So L value will also increase accordingly.
L value in AC and DC circuit does not change. However it is more important in AC cicuit as current is
always varying. In DC L is applicable only during switching on and switching off and not during steady state.
Energy stored in a capacitor: Energy stored in a coil inductor:
Energy is stored in the form of electric field and is Energy is stored in the form of magnetic field and is
given back as electrical energy during discharge. given back as electrical energy during discharge.
1 1
𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 2 𝑈 = 𝐿𝑖 2
2 2
1 𝜀𝑜 𝐴 1 𝑁2 𝐵 2
𝑈= (𝐸𝑑)2 𝑈 = µ0 𝐴( )
2 𝑑 2 𝑙 µ0 𝑛
Energy density, Energy density,
𝑈 1
𝑢= = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2 𝑈 1 𝐵2
𝑉𝑜𝑙. 2 𝑢= =
𝑉𝑜𝑙. 2 µ0
Inductor in Series: Kept far away so that no mutual Inductor in Parallel: Kept far away so that no mutual
induction between them. induction between them.
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
= +
𝐿 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝜀 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 1 1 1
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = +
𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 𝐿 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
Mutual Induction and Self Induction:
When two current carrying coils are kept close to each other, the emf induced in one of the coil is due to self
induction in same coil and mutual induction from the neighbouring coil.
𝑁1 𝜙1 = −𝐿𝑖1 − 𝑀𝑖2
𝑑 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2
(𝑁1 𝜙1 ) = −𝐿 −𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2
𝜀1 = −𝐿 −𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜀1 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜀𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 + 𝜀𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
Inductor in Series: Kept close to each other so that there is a mutual induction M between them:
Two magnetic fields are generated in each of the coil. One due to self induction and the other due to mutual
induction from the other coil. These two magnetic fields can both be in same direction or in the opposite
direction depending upon the arrangement of the two coils.
When they are in the same direction: When they are in the opposite direction:
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2
𝜀1 = −𝐿1 − 𝑀12 𝜀1 = −𝐿1 + 𝑀12
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖1
𝜀2 = −𝐿2 − 𝑀21 𝜀2 = −𝐿2 + 𝑀21
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

In series connection, In series connection,

𝜀 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 𝜀 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝜀 = −(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀) 𝜀 = −(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
24.Alternating Current
R - only: L - only: C - only:
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐸
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐸 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐸
𝑉𝐿
𝐿=
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑅 𝐸 𝑑𝑡 𝑞
𝑖= = 𝐸𝑜 = 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅 𝑅 ∫ 𝑑𝑖 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝐸𝑜 𝐿 𝑞 = 𝐸𝑜 𝐶 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐸𝑜 𝑑𝑞
𝑅 𝑖= (− cos 𝜔𝑡) 𝑖=
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐿𝜔 𝑑𝑡
𝐸𝑜 𝜋 𝑖 = 𝐸𝑜 𝐶𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑖= (− sin ( − 𝜔𝑡)) 𝐸𝑜 𝜋
𝐿𝜔 2 𝑖= sin (𝜔𝑡 + )
𝐸𝑜 𝜋 1⁄ 2
𝑖= sin (𝜔𝑡 − ) 𝐶𝜔
𝐿𝜔 2 𝐸𝑜 𝜋
𝐸𝑜 𝜋 𝑖= sin (𝜔𝑡 + )
𝑖 = sin (𝜔𝑡 − ) 𝑋𝐶 2
𝑋𝐿 2

LCR Circuit: Resonance in AC circuits:

Applied EMF and the resultant When AC supply frequency equals the Natural or
voltage are same, 𝑉 = 𝐸 Resonant frequency of the circuit, Resonance
happens.
𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶
𝑉 = √(𝑖𝑅)2 + (𝑖𝑋𝐿 − 𝑖𝑋𝐶 )2 𝑖𝑋𝐿 = 𝑖𝑋𝐶
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
𝑉 = 𝑖√𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 1
𝑉=𝑖𝑍 𝐿𝜔 =
𝐶𝜔
Impedance, 1
2
𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 𝜔 =
𝐿𝐶
1
𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 𝜔𝑜 =
tan 𝜙 = √𝐿𝐶
𝑉𝑅 1
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 𝜈𝑜 =
tan 𝜙 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
𝑅 During resonance,
𝑉𝐿 > 𝑉𝐶 is more Inductive, 𝑉
𝑉𝐿 < 𝑉𝐶 is more Capacitive. 𝑖=
𝑍
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑉
𝜙 is the angle between 𝑖=
√𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
resultant voltage and current, in this equation if it is 𝑉
+ve means i is leading so it is more Capacitive, –ve 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 , 𝑖 = 𝑅
means more Inductive. At resonance, Zmin = R purely resistive, reactance =0,
𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 for instantaneous values but and i is maximum, so power maximum. 𝜙 = 0,
2
not for rms values. 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅 .V resultant and current are in-phase.
Vresultant = VR.
Average of a varying quantity x, over a time interval RMS Values: RMS of AC current is equal to that DC
of t: current which produces
𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 . 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 the same heat in a given
∫ 𝑥(𝑡) . 𝑑𝑡 resistance as the AC
𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 = current. Root Mean
𝑡
Square RMS is the
square root of the average of i2 over a complete cycle.
𝑇 𝑇
∫ 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡 √∫0 𝑖𝑜2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑜2 𝑇
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ 0 = = √ ∫ (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
Average of Sine and cosine function over one full 𝑇 𝑇 2𝑇 0
time period is zero, which can be proved by graph or 𝑖𝑜
integration methods. 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.707 𝑖𝑜
√2
𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0.637 𝑖𝑜
RLC radio tuning circuit: As the knob is turned in a radio set, it changes the capacitance value of a
variable capacitor. So according to
1
𝜈𝑜 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
the natural frequency of the radio tuning circuit is adjusted to match the
required radio station frequency. Only the frequency of the radio station that is
in tune with the natural frequency (resonance) alone will be of maximum
current signal that can be amplified before providing it to a speaker.
Sharpness or Quality Factor Q: Expression for Quality Factor Q in terms of R, L, C:
The curve shown is the io maximum current or
current amplitude for different frequencies,
𝑉𝑜
𝑖𝑜 =
√𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
At Half-power points,
𝑃 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝑅 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
= =( ) 𝑅
2 2 √2
To find the 𝜔1 , 𝜔2 ,
When the quality factor or sharpness is high it means 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑜
=
the bandwidth is less for a given natural frequency, √2 √𝑅 2 + (𝐿𝜔 − 1 )2
so the quality of the signals are good and there is no 𝐶𝜔
overlap of nearby radio frequencies. At one of the half power point 𝜔 = 𝜔2
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞. 𝜔𝑜 𝜔𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝑄= = = =
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 2𝛥𝜔 𝑅√2 1 2
√𝑅 2 + (𝐿𝜔2 −
𝐶𝜔 ) 2
𝜔𝑜 𝐿𝜔𝑜 1 𝐿
𝑄= = = √ 1
2𝛥𝜔 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶 𝐿𝜔2 − =𝑅
𝐶𝜔2
𝐿𝜔𝑜 𝑋𝐿 𝑜 𝑉𝐿 𝑜 1
𝑄= = = 𝐿(𝜔𝑜 + 𝛥𝜔) − =𝑅
𝑅 𝑅 𝑉𝑅 𝐶(𝜔𝑜 + 𝛥𝜔)
𝛥𝜔 1
How to improve the Q? If the Q has to be doubled by 𝐿𝜔𝑜 (1 + )− =𝑅
𝜔𝑜 𝛥𝜔
reducing the bandwidth “full width at half 𝐶𝜔𝑜 (1 + 𝜔 )
𝑜
maximum”, then R can be halved. Note: Here 𝛥𝜔 𝛥𝜔 −1
increasing the L is not an option to improve the Q, 𝐿𝜔𝑜 {(1 + ) − (1 + ) }=𝑅
𝜔𝑜 𝜔𝑜
because L and C values determine the required radio
2𝛥𝜔
station frequency to be tuned for. 𝐿𝜔𝑜 =𝑅
𝜔𝑜
𝑅
𝛥𝜔 =
2𝐿
𝜔𝑜 𝐿𝜔𝑜 1 𝐿
𝑄= = = √
2𝛥𝜔 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶
Power in AC circuits: cos 𝜙 is called the power factor.
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡. = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑅
cos 𝜙 =
= 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 . 𝑖𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑍
𝜋
𝐸𝑜 𝑖𝑜 When 𝜙 = ± for L only and C only circuits, then 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔. = 0. This
= [cos(−𝜙) − cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)] 2
2 means there is no power consumed in the circuit.The power taken
∫ 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡. . 𝑑𝑡 from the source in one quarter is given back to the source in the
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔. =
𝑇 next quarter. This is possible because energy is stored in the form
𝐸𝑜 𝑖𝑜 of magnetic field energy in L only and electric field energy in C
= cos 𝜙
√2 √2 only. This is called Wattless current. However in a circuit with
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔. = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 Resistance energy is not stored but dissipated as heat.
R only: L only: C only:

Power is positive in all quarters As current increases, magnetic flux As voltage increases, charge in
meaning power is taken from the increases, so power is taken from capacitor increases, so electric
source and consumed as heat. the source. As current decreases, field in capacitor increases, so
magnetic flux decreases or power is taken from the source.
collapses to give back the stored As voltage decreases, charge
energy from inductor to the source. decreases, so electric field
decreases, to give back the stored
energy from capacitor to the
source.
Transformer: 𝑑𝜙𝐵 For ideal transformer
Principle of working is 𝜀𝑝 = −𝑁𝑝 without any losses,
𝑑𝑡
mutual induction. 𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑝 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠
Primary and Secondary 𝜀𝑠 = −𝑁𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑝 𝑖𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑖𝑠
are two different circuits. 𝜀𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑖𝑝
= = =𝑟 =
Ohm’s law is valid in 𝜀𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑖𝑠
each circuit separately. r is the transformer turn ratio.
Energy Losses: Long distance power transmission:
 Copper losses or i2R losses due to heating of
wires,
 eddy current losses due to eddy currents in the
solid iron core (overcome by laminated thin
sheets of iron core),
 flux losses (overcome by both primary and  Voltage increased, current decreased, so Ploss = i2R
secondary coils wound on the same limb), losses are reduced.
 hysteresis losses due to the hysteresis loop  Voltage drop along the lines reduced as Vdrop = iR.
(overcome by choosing the right material for  As i is small, cables and the support structures can
the core such that the hysteresis loop area is be smaller and less expensive.
minimum which represents the energy lost per
unit volume per cycle)
LC Oscillations:

Fully Electric field Partly Electric and Fully magnetic Partly Electric and Fully Electric field
(charge stationary partly Magnetic field when current partly Magnetic but in Opposite
so similar to is maximum. direction.
potential energy) (charge moving so
similar to kinetic
energy)
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐿 1 𝑞 2 𝑞𝑜2
𝑞 𝑑𝑖 𝑈𝐸 = = cos 2 𝜔𝑜 𝑡
=𝐿 2𝐶 2𝐶
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 1 2 𝐿𝑖𝑜2 2 𝑞𝑜2
𝑞 𝑑𝑖 𝑈𝐵 = 𝐿𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 = sin2 𝜔𝑜 𝑡
−𝐿 =0 2 2 2𝐶
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑞𝑜2
𝑞 𝑑 −𝑑𝑞 𝑈𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑈𝐵 =
− ( )=0 2𝐶
𝐿𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Total energy is a constant. (Conservation of Energy)
𝑑2𝑞
+ 𝜔𝑜2 𝑞 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
This is characteristic equation of SHM. 𝜔𝑜 is the
natural frequency of the LC circuit.

Solving the differential equation, initially capacitor

fully charged so cosine,
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑜 𝑡
−𝑑𝑞
𝑖= = 𝑞𝑜 𝜔𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑜 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑜 𝑡

Inductor Capacitor
Reactance 𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝜔 𝑋𝑐 = 1⁄𝐶𝜔
High frequency Open circuit Closed circuit
Low frequency/DC Closed circuit Open circuit
Low pass and High pass filter Used in Low pass filter Used in High pass filter
as low frequency passes. as high frequency passes.
DC signal and high frequency AC AC signal voltage will appear DC signal voltage will appear
superposed across L across C
Series RLC : Parallel RLC:
I is maximum when, 𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑅 + 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑖𝐶
resonance occurs, 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
1 = + +
𝜔𝑜 = 𝑅 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶
√𝐿𝐶 𝑉 𝑉
= + + 𝑉 𝐶𝜔
𝑅 𝐿𝜔
For maxima and minima,
𝑑𝑖
=0
𝑑𝜔
We find, I is minimum when,
1
𝜔=
√𝐿𝐶
 Series R: 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 1 1 1
Parallel R: 𝑅
=𝑅 +𝑅
1 2

Series L: 𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 1 1 1
Parallel L: =𝐿 +𝐿
𝐿 1 2
1 1 1 Parallel C: 𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Series C: =𝐶 +𝐶
𝐶 1 2

+ LCR Circuit Analytical solution derivation: Compare LHS and RHS,

𝑉𝑜 = 𝑞0 𝜔𝑍
𝑖0 = 𝑞0 𝜔
𝜋
𝜃=𝜙−
2
We want to find i,
𝑞 = 𝑞0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
Instantaneous voltage, 𝜋
𝑞 = 𝑞0 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 − )
𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 2
𝜋
𝑑𝑖 𝑞 𝑞 = −𝑞0 sin ( − (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙))
𝐿 + + 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑞 = −𝑞 0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑞
𝐿 2 +𝑅 + = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑖= = 𝑞0 𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
Solving for 𝑞, 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑞 = 𝑞0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) Compare it with,
𝑑𝑞 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
= 𝑞0 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡 This shows that 𝑖 is having a phase difference of 𝜙
𝑑2𝑞 with resultant voltage.
= −𝑞0 𝜔2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑅
We assumed, cos 𝜙 = 𝑍 , sin 𝜙 = 𝑐 𝑍 𝐿
(𝑋 −𝑋 )
2
−𝐿𝑞0 𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) + 𝑅𝑞0 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑞0 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
+ sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 tan 𝜙 =
𝐶 𝑅
2
𝑅 (𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋𝐿 ) 2 2
𝑅 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑞0 𝜔𝑍 ( 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 =
𝑍 𝑍 𝑍2
= 𝑉𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑍 = √𝑅 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
2

𝑞0 𝜔𝑍(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)) 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜

𝑖0 = =
= 𝑉𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑍 √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑞0 𝜔𝑍 cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 − 𝜙) = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑞0 𝜔𝑍 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 − 𝜙 + ) = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
2
Why inductors used in AC circuits to reduce current flow instead of using resistors? Inductors give wattless
current so no power loss in inductor, resistors always have power loss. This is the principle of Choke coil in
fluorescent tube lights.
Why capacitors used in AC circuits along with RL elements? Only with the introduction of capacitor, phase
shift 𝜙 between current and voltage can be adjusted as required or resonance is possible to maximize the
current and power. Since Z is reduced, cos 𝜙 power factor is increased, so power is increased.
What are spark or arc arrestors or suppressors? In highly inductice circuits when the key is opened the huge
magnetic field energy in inductor is convered to electrical energy as induced emf and a current flow in the
key through the small gap ionizing the air gap, eroding the key contact areas and also any fire risk due to
sparks. This is overcome by a capacitor in parallel to the key such that the induced current during key open
will charge the capacitor and not flow through the key contacts.
Purely inductive or capacitive is it possible in RLC, RL, RC circuits? R and XL or XC will always be in right
angle and would not cancel each other. So purely inductive or capacitive is not possible when there is
resistance.
Inductor in series with a bulb in DC supply? Starts glowing after few moments due to initial opposition of
the induced emf.
Inductor in parallel with a bulb in DC supply? Initially the bulb glows because the L arm will offer
opposition due to self inductance L. But after few moments there is no opposition in the inductor arm so the
current will flow through the less resistance path which is the L arm and bulb will stop glowing.
Admittance:
1 1 1 1
𝐴𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = = = =
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋 √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2

Primary and secondary out of phase: In the transformer, input and output voltages will be out of phase as the
secondary is by induction which will try to oppose the primary by Lenz law.
25.RC Transient Currents
+RL cicuit +RC circuit
Circuit Diagram
Charging

For charging according to KVL, For charging according to KVL,

𝜀 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑅 𝜀 = 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝑅
𝜀 − 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝑅 = 0 𝜀 − 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝑅 = 0
𝑑𝑖 𝑞
𝜀 − 𝐿 − 𝑖𝑅 = 0 𝜀 − − 𝑖𝑅 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑖 𝑞 𝑑𝑞
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐿 𝜀− − 𝑅=0
𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝑡 = − ln(𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅) + 𝐶 𝑅=𝜀−
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑖 = 0, so 𝐶 = 𝑅 ln 𝜀 ∫ =∫
𝑅 𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝜀𝐶 − 𝑞
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑜 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 ) , 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑜 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜏 ) 𝑡 = −𝑅𝐶 ln(𝑞𝑜 − 𝑞) + 𝐶
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑞 = 0, so 𝐶 = 𝑅𝐶 ln 𝑞𝑜
Where inductive time constant 𝜏 = 𝐿⁄𝑅 𝑡 𝑡
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑜 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 ) 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑜 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜏 )
Where capacitive time constant 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑞 𝑞0 −𝑡⁄ 𝜀 𝑡 𝑡
𝑖=− = 𝑒 𝜏 = 𝑒 − ⁄𝜏 = 𝑖0 𝑒 − ⁄𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑅
Note though the charge is increasing, current is
exponentially decreasing.
𝜀
𝑖 = 𝑖0 =
state DC

𝑡 = ∞,
Steady

𝑅 𝑡 = ∞, 𝑞 = 𝑞0 = 𝜀𝐶, 𝑖=0
Discharging
 For discharging according to KVL, For discharging according to KVL,
𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑅 = 0 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝑅 = 0
−𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑅 −𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝑅
𝑑𝑖 𝑞
−𝐿 = 𝑖𝑅 − = 𝑖𝑅
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝐿 𝑑𝑖 𝑞 𝑑𝑞
− ∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 − = 𝑅
𝑅 𝑖 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝑑𝑞 1
𝑡 = − ln 𝑖 + 𝐶 ∫ =− ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑅 𝑞 𝑅𝐶
𝐿 𝑡 = −𝑅𝐶 ln 𝑞 + 𝐶
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑜 , so 𝐶 = 𝑅 ln 𝑖𝑜
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑜 , so 𝐶 = 𝑅𝐶 ln 𝑞𝑜
𝑡 𝑡
𝑅 𝑡 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑜 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑜 𝑒 −𝜏
𝑖= 𝑖𝑜 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 , 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑜 𝑒 −
𝜏

𝑑𝑞 𝑞0 −𝑡⁄ 𝜀 𝑡 𝑡
𝑖=− = 𝑒 𝜏 = 𝑒 − ⁄𝜏 = 𝑖0 𝑒 − ⁄𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑅

For calculating the time constants, the resistances in the series with L and R to be taken and not the parallel
resistors as they do not slow down the charging of L and R.
𝑡
𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑒 − ⁄𝜏 in both charging and discharging of the capacitor. So in both cases the current is exponentially
decreasing, even though charge is increasing in charing.
𝑡
Discharging of capacitor due to leakage of charges through the dielectric material: 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑜 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 , R is called
the leakage resistance.
While charging the capacitor, as q increases, V increases proportionally. So Vavg = V/2.
Charging and discharging happen through different resistances, so the 𝜏 for
charging and discharging will be different. However the maximum current for
charging and discharging is determined by the resistance in the charging circuit.
𝑡
−𝐿
𝜀 −𝑡⁄𝜏 𝜀 ⁄𝑅 +𝑅
𝑖0 = 𝑅 , 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑒 =𝑅 𝑒 1 2
1 1

During charging the induced emf due to self induction is against the battery source voltage. It
acts like a battery opposing the flow of current from the source voltage. (note that usually we
would take voltage drop across a circuit element as initial – final voltage, then the battery
source voltage would look negative because voltage is not dropping but increasing.)

During discharging the induced emf due to self induction is in the same direction as the current
flow (Lenz law). It acts like a battery supporting the flow of current.

Resistance always opposes the flow of current, so the voltage always drops. Note voltage drop is
positive. Voltage across the resistace if taken as final-initial will appear negative in the KVL
equation.
Radiation Gamma ray X ray Ultra Violet ray Visible Infra Red ray Microw ave Radio wave

Wavelength < 10-3 nm 10-3 nm to 1 nm 1 nm to 400 nm 400 nm to700 nm 700 nm to 1 mm 1 mm to 10 cm > 10 cm

Frequency > 1020 Hz 1020 to 1017 Hz 1017 to 1015 Hz 1015 to 1014 Hz 1014 to 1011 Hz 1011 t o 109 Hz < 109 Hz

Medical Food, water

sterilization, To see in haze, fog, Radar, ai rcraft
Information on diagnostics,
night vision glasses, navigati on, timing Radio, Television,
26.Electromagnetic Waves

atomic nuclei, treatment of detect invisible To see the world,

Uses writing, LASIK to keep plants in fast ball s, tennis Cellular phone
used to destroy cancer cells, Photosynthesis
treatment as green house, remote serves , speeding communication
cancer cells. structure of atomic
narrow beam is switches cars
crystals
possible.
Nuclear reactions, Coolidge X-ray Special vacuum TV radio
Source Radioactive Mercury Lamp Sun, Electric lamp Hot Bodies tubes Kl ystron,
tube Antennas
elements Magnetr on valve

Sudden Ionized Gases, Excited atoms, e- Anything hot but Oscillating

deceleration of e- Inner shell e- in from higher to not glowing < Oscillati ng currents electric LC
Transition of lower energy circuits, Rapid
Production by heavy targets atoms from one 500oC, Rotation in speci al vacuum
atomic nuclei level. Difference acceleration and
such Tungsten, energy to lower vibration and tubes.
Molybdenum energy level. in energy released transition of atoms. deceleration of e-
as waves in aerials.
Photographic film, Photographic film,
Thermopiles,
Geiger Muller Geiger Muller Photographic film, Eye, photographic
Detection Bolometer, IR Point contact diodes Receiver aerials.
tube, Ionization tube, Ionization photocells. film, photocells.
photographic film
chamber chamber

Energy levels in Dosage of X rays Glass can stop Humans only the Green house effect: Micr owave Oven, AM500to1700kHz
nucleus and are critical and UV, welders use VIBGYOR. High energy / natural fr equency of
rearrangement of overdose can special goggles to Snakes can detect frequency light water m olecule FM 88 to108 MHz
nucleons emit cause cancer protect from UV, IR and insects can enters in but after coinci des with TV 54 to 890MHz
gamma. Ozone stops UV detect UV. reflection energy / microw ave causing
from sun, CFCs frequency reduced reson ance so water Cell UHF band
such as Freon to to become IR so molecul es absorb
be avoided to cannot escape the t he energy
protect ozone. glass or atmospheric
layer.
Discrepancy in Ampere’s circuital law (when capacitor is charging)
L1: In the region outside the capacitor, Amperean loop is perpendicular to the paper. Due to the current, there
is a magnetic field around the conductor, direction given
by RHT rule, magnitude is given by Ampere circuital
law. ∫ 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = µ0 𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 If we keep a compass
magnetic needle deflects due to B.
L2: In the region inside the capacitor, Amperean loop is
perpendicular to the paper. Inside the capacitor there is
no current flow. So 𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 0, ∫ 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 0, 𝐵 = 0.
However when we keep a compass, magnetic needle
deflects as similar to L1 location. So Maxwell said there
is some discrepancy in Ampere’s circuital law.
Maxwell argued if changing magnetic field can cause As in a charging capacitor, charge is increasing, the
an electric field, why can’t a changing electric field electric field is changing.
cause a magnetic field based on symmetry of nature? Electric flux is given by
𝑣 𝑄
Modified Faraday’s law: 𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸. 𝐴 = . 𝐴 = .𝐴
𝑑 ԑ0 𝐴
𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝑑𝑣 𝑑
𝑑
𝑒=− , 𝐸=−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑙 𝑄
𝜙𝐸 =
ԑ0
𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝑑𝜙𝐸 1 𝑑𝑄
∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ԑ0 𝑑𝑡
Change in magnetic flux causes electric field. 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜙𝐸 ԑ0 𝐴 𝑑𝑉
Existence of emf implies existence of electric field. 𝑖𝑑 = = ԑ0 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑑𝑡
Similar to Gauss law, but not same, as Q here is not the Q
enclosed but the charge in the capacitor plate. Changing 𝐸⃗⃗
causes a current 𝑖𝑑 called as displacement current, as charges are
displaced from one plate to another but there is no current inside
the capacitor. Current causes a magnetic field.
Modified Ampere - Maxwell law: Maxwell’s equations
𝑄
In order for the Ampere’s circuital law to work Gauss law of electricity, ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 =
ԑ0
successfully in all the regions across the capacitor
circuit and fix the discrepancy, Maxwell modified the Gauss law of magnetism, ∮ 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝜙
law, 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 + Faraday’s law modified, ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑡𝐵
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 represents change in magnetic field causes electric
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 field
𝑑𝜙
∮𝐵 ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = µ0 𝑖 Ampere Maxwell law, ∮ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = µ0 𝑖𝑐 + µ0 ԑ0 𝑑𝑡𝐸
represents change in electric field causes magnetic
⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = µ0 𝑖𝑐 + µ0 𝑖𝑑 field.
𝑑𝜙𝐸 The law of electricity and magnetism are now more
⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = µ0 𝑖𝑐 + µ0 ԑ0 symmetrical.Thus time dependent electric and magnetic
𝑑𝑡 fields give rise to each other. One very important
According to Kirchoff’s law, at the capacitor plate, consequence of this symmetry is existence of electro
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑖𝑑 . Inside capacitor 𝑖𝑐 = 0, Outside capacitor magnetic waves which James Maxwell predicted and later
𝑖𝑑 = 0 proved experimentally by Helmholtz Hertz.
Stationary charge produces electric field. Force on a charge in electric field is given by
𝑣=0 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗

Steady moving charge (current) produces Force on moving charge,

⃗⃗ 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
magnetic field 𝐵 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)

Accelerating charges produce EM fields. 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 is the energy of EM waves.

𝑣 is changing.
 Hertz experimental setup Hertz’s findings
 Hertz produced radio waves of 𝜆 10 million times
longer than light. (𝜆light= 500nm=500 x 10−9 x 10
x 106 =5m)
 He proved the wave nature of EM waves by
diffraction, refraction and polarization.
 He produced stationary waves and found their
wavelength by measuring the distance between
two successive nodes.
Electrons in the gap are accelerated by high voltage.  Using 𝑐 = 𝜈𝜆 he found EM waves travel at the
Accelerated charge produces EM waves. same speed of light.
Nature of EM waves
 𝐸⃗⃗ , 𝐵
⃗⃗ oscillations are perpendicular and both are
perpendicular to 𝑐⃗ which is the direction of propagation of
wave so it is transverse in nature. 𝐸⃗⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ is the direction.
 All EM waves travel with speed of light c = 3 x 108 m/s.
 Frequency of oscillating charge = frequency of EM wave
generated.
 Electric and Magnetic fields oscillating in space and time can sustain each other in vacuum, so they do not
require a medium of propagation.
 Wave nature was confirmed by interference, diffraction and polarization.
Wave equation, 2𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝜔 𝜆 𝜔=
𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) = 𝑇 = = 𝜆𝜈 𝑇 𝑇
𝐵 = 𝐵0 sin(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑘 2𝜋 𝑇 Frequency, cycles or Angular frequency,
waves / sec rad / sec
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜆
𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin ( 𝑧 − 𝑡) 1 2𝜋
𝜆 𝑇 𝜔 𝑘=
𝐸 in y axis, 𝐵 in x axis, wave propagating in Z =𝑐 𝜆 𝜆
Wave number, waves Angular wave number,
direction, so wave displacement is a function of 𝑘 / metre rad / metre
location z and time t. k is also called the magnitude of wave vector.

1 1 ԑ0 𝐴 2 2 1 2 1 𝐵2
𝑈𝐸 = 𝐶𝑉 2 = 𝐸 𝑑 2
𝑈𝐵 = 𝐿𝑖 = µ0 𝑛 𝐴 𝑙 2 2
2 2 𝑑 2 2 µ0 𝑛
𝑈𝐸 1 𝑈𝐵 1 𝐵 2
= ԑ0 𝐸 2
𝑢𝐸 = 𝑢𝐵 =
=
𝑣𝑜𝑙 2 𝑣𝑜𝑙 2 µ0
Energy per unit volume in 𝐸⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Energy per unit volume in 𝐵
Total energy density, Instantaneous, Energy density of EM waves is shared between 𝐸⃗⃗
𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑢𝐸 + 𝑢𝐵 ⃗⃗
and 𝐵
1 1 𝐵2 𝑢𝐸 = 𝑢𝐵
= ԑ0 𝐸 2 +
2 2 µ0 1 2
1 𝐵2
To get cycle average, use RMS ԑ 𝐸 =
2 0 2 µ0
𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝑢𝐸 𝑟𝑚𝑠 + 𝑢𝐵 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐵2
1 2
1 𝐵𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝐵𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐸2 =
𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = ԑ0 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠2
+ 2
= ԑ0 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ԑ0 µ0
2 2 µ0 µ0 𝐸 = 𝐵2𝑐 2
2
2 2
1 1 𝐵0 1 1 𝐵0 𝐸 = 𝑐𝐵
𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = ԑ0 𝐸02 + = ԑ0 𝐸02 =
4 4 µ0 2 2 µ0 𝐸
𝑐 =
Because law of conservation of energy, 𝑢𝐸 = 𝑢𝐵 . 𝐵
Similar to velocity selector arrangement.
Speed of wave in a medium is determined by medium properties,
1
4𝜋ԑ0 9 × 109 8 )2
1 1
µ0 = = (3 × 10 𝑐 = 𝑐=
10−7 √µ0 ԑ0 √µԑ
4𝜋
 Intensity, Momentum, Energy of photon, Radiation pressure,
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 2 ℎ𝑐 𝐼
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝑃=𝑢=
𝑣 𝜆 𝑐
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙 𝑈 de Broglie’s wavelength, as wave has momentum, it will exert
force and so pressure, when it falls on a
= × 𝑝= ℎ
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑙 𝑐 𝜆=
surface. Sun rays has a radiation
pressure of 7 x 10-6 N/m2 which is very
𝑝 small to be felt.
𝐼=𝑐𝑢 Momentum, 𝐹 𝐼
ℎ ℎ 𝐸 =
𝑝= = = 𝐴 𝑐
𝜆 ℎ𝑐⁄ 𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐸 𝐹=
𝑐
For perfectly reflecting surface,
pressure,
2𝐼
𝑃=
𝑐

For perfectly reflecting surface, For perfectly absorbing surface, For partially reflecting surface,
𝑈 𝑈 e.g. 40% reflected, 60% absorbed,
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑈
𝑐 𝑐
𝑈 𝑝𝑓 = 0 𝑝𝑖 =
𝑝𝑓 = − 𝑐
𝑐 𝑈 𝑈
2𝑈 ∆𝑝 = − 𝑝𝑓 = −0.4
∆𝑝 = − 𝑐 𝑐
𝑐 Force on ray by the surface, 𝑈
∆𝑝 = −1.4
Force on ray by the surface, ∆𝑝 𝑈 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐
∆𝑝 2𝑈 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹= =− =− Force on ray by the surface,
𝐹= =− = −2 ∆𝑡 𝑐. ∆𝑡 𝑐
∆𝑡 𝑐. ∆𝑡 𝑐 ∆𝑝 1.4𝑈 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐹= =− = −1.4
∆𝑡 𝑐. ∆𝑡 𝑐
1
𝑐 √ µ 0 ԑ0
Refractive Index, 𝑛 = 𝑐 = 1 = √µ𝑟 ℇ𝑟 , µ𝑟 = 1, for optical frequencies.
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
√µℇ

Wave equation, 𝑐 = 𝜈𝜆
Wein’s displacement law: 𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = 0.29 𝑐𝑚 𝐾, T Kelvin Temp. is inversely prop. to 𝜆 and directly
proportional to 𝜈
𝐸 𝐸
H is magnetising intensity, 𝐵 = µ0 𝐻, 𝑐 = 𝐵, = 377
𝐻

µ
Wave Impedance, obstruction offered by the medium for the wave, 𝑍 = √ℇ (𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠), For vacuum, 𝑍0 =
120𝜋 𝛺
𝐵 = 𝐵0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑥𝑘−𝜔𝑡) plane wave in k direction.
Energy given from a spherical source and received at a distance of d, law of conservation of
energy, 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 , 𝑃 = 4𝜋𝑑2 𝐼 = 4𝜋𝑑 2 𝑐 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 4𝜋𝑑 2 𝑐 ԑ0 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
2

Range of communication of a transmitting antenna, d, (R is radius of earth, h << R), 𝑅 2 + 𝑑 2 =

(𝑅 + ℎ)2 , 𝑑 = √2ℎ𝑅

Diagonally polarized light: When two plane polarized light are there in
the same line of wave propagation, it can produce a resultant vibration in
according to vector addition called as diagonally polarized light. E1 and
E2 are the two sources of light, ER is the resultant in the diagonal direction.
Circularly or Elliptically polarized light: If E2 is shifted by 90o phase
difference with respect to E1, then ER will keep rotating giving rise
to elliptical polarized light. When amplitudes of E1 and E2 are equal
then it will be circularly polarized light.
At different instants, polarized light at different angle giving rise to
elliptical or circular polarized light. Unlike plane polarized light,
vibrations happen in all planes rotating in a circular or elliptical
manner. Refer to Lissajous figures in 11th physics oscillations.

Poynting vector: represents the intensity (energy per unit area per unit time). W/m2.
1
𝑆⃗ = (𝐸⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ ) = 𝐸⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗⃗
µ0

𝐸⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ by Right hand thumb rule, points to the wave propagation direction. Poynting is the name of the
scientist who discovered this.
Displacement current due to a moving charge: As a charge q moves with a velocity v in space, there is a
changing 𝐸⃗⃗ due to charge movement, at area at a location r, since there is a changing 𝐸⃗⃗ , there must be a
displacement current,
𝑑𝜙𝐸 𝑑 𝑑 1 𝑞 𝑞𝐴 −2 𝑑𝑟 2𝑞𝐴𝑣
𝑖𝑑 = ԑ 0 = ԑ0 (𝐸. 𝐴) = ԑ0 ( . 𝐴) = = −
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 4𝜋ԑ0 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 3

B in inner circle: Only the displacement current enclosed inside the circle is considered so
only the charge inside the circle should be considered. Using proportions from the total id
from the capacitor plates, id inside the enclosed circle can be calculated.
28.Ray Optics
Concave mirror Convex lens

‘O’ at infinity, ‘I’ at F, real, inverted, point sized. ‘O’ at infinity, ‘I’ at F, real, inverted, point sized

‘O’ beyond C, ‘I’ between F and 2F, real, inverted, ‘O’ beyond 2F, ‘I’ between F and 2F, real, inverted,
diminished. diminished.

‘O’ at C, ‘I’ at C, real, inverted, same sized. ‘O’ at 2F, ‘I’ at 2F, real, inverted, same sized.

‘O’ between C and F, ‘I’ beyond C, real, inverted, ‘O’ between 2F and F, ‘I’ beyond 2F, real, inverted,
enlarged. enlarged.

‘O’ at F, ‘I’ at infinity, real, inverted, highly ‘O’ at F, ‘I’ at infinity, real, inverted, highly
enlarged. enlarged.

‘O’ between F and pole, ‘I’ behind mirror, virtual, ‘O’ between F and optic center, ‘I’ behind lens,
erect, enlarged. virtual, erect, enlarged.
 Convex mirror Concave lens

‘O’ at infinity, ‘I’ at F, behind the mirror, virtual, ‘O’ at infinity, ‘I’ at F, same side as ‘O’,virtual, erect,
erect, point sized point sized

‘O’ at anywhere, ‘I’ between P and F, behind the ‘O’ at anywhere, ‘I’ between F and O, same side as
mirror, virtual, erect, diminished. ‘O’, virtual, erect, diminished.

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror Convex lens Concave Lens

Converging Diverging Converging Diverging
f is negative f is positive f is positive f is negative
Real and Inverted Virtual and Erect Real and Inverted Virtual and Erect
e.g. shaving mirrors e.g. Rear view mirrors e.g. magnifying glass e.g. glass for short sight
Mirror formula, Lens formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
𝑣 𝑣
𝑀=− 𝑀=
𝑢 𝑢
𝑀 > 1 enlarged image, 𝑀 < 1 diminished image, 𝑀 = 1 same sized image,
𝑀 positive is erect image, 𝑀 negative is inverted image,
Concave mirror equation: Concave mirror: Object between F Convex mirror equation:
and P.

From the two sets of similar From the two sets of similar From the two sets of similar
triangles, triangles, triangles,
ℎ′ 𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑓 ℎ′ 𝑣 𝑣 + 𝑓 ℎ′ 𝑣 𝑓 − 𝑣
= = = = = =
ℎ 𝑢 𝑓 ℎ 𝑢 𝑓 ℎ 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = + = −
𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
Applying sign convention, Applying sign convention, Applying sign convention,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = + = −
−𝑢 −𝑓 −𝑣 −𝑢 −𝑓 𝑣 −𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = + = + =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓 𝑢 𝑣 𝑓 𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
ℎ′ 𝑣 ℎ′ 𝑣 ℎ′ 𝑣
𝑀= = 𝑀= = 𝑀= =
ℎ 𝑢 ℎ 𝑢 ℎ 𝑢
Applying sign convention, Applying sign convention, Applying sign convention,
−ℎ′ −𝑣 +ℎ′ +𝑣 +ℎ′ +𝑣
= = =
+ℎ −𝑢 +ℎ −𝑢 +ℎ −𝑢
ℎ′ −𝑣 ℎ′ −𝑣 ℎ′ −𝑣
𝑀= = 𝑀= = 𝑀= =
ℎ 𝑢 ℎ 𝑢 ℎ 𝑢

ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
tan 𝜃 = 𝑅 → 𝜃 = 𝑅 tan 𝜃 = 𝑅 → 𝜃 = 𝑅 tan 𝜃 = 𝑅 → 𝜃 = 𝑅
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
tan 2𝜃 = → 2𝜃 = tan 2𝜃 = → 2𝜃 = tan 2𝜃 = → 2𝜃 =
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
2𝑓 = 𝑅 2𝑓 = 𝑅 2𝑓 = 𝑅

Laws of Refraction: Rarer to Denser , Denser to Rarer: Relative and Absolute Refractive
Snell’s law: Index:
Refractive If refraction happens in a medium,
index or from vacuum or air then it is called
Optical density absolute refractive index.
(not mass 𝑛2
sin 𝑖 𝑛21 =
density): 𝑖>𝑟, = 𝑛𝑤𝑎 > 1 𝑛1
sin 𝑖 𝑣1 sin 𝑟
sin 𝑖 Here 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 are the absolute
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. = 𝑛21 = 𝑖<𝑟, = 𝑛𝑎𝑤 < 1 refractive index.
sin 𝑟 𝑣2 sin 𝑟
Incident ray, normal and refracted 𝑐 𝑣𝑤
𝑛𝑤𝑎 = , 𝑛𝑎𝑤 = ,
ray all lie in the same plane. 𝑣𝑤 𝑐
1
𝑛𝑎𝑤 =
𝑛𝑤𝑎
Lateral Reversibility of Light: Apparent Depth:
Shift: If the light was
incident from sin 𝑖 𝑥⁄𝑅𝐷 𝐴𝐷 1
the bottom, it = = =
sin 𝑟 𝑥⁄𝐴𝐷 𝑅𝐷 𝑛
will retrace its
𝐿 = sin(𝑖 − 𝑟) . 𝐻𝑦𝑝. path along
𝑡 𝑅𝐷
refracted ray and then through the 𝐴𝐷 =
= sin(𝑖 − 𝑟) . 𝑛
cos 𝑟 incident ray at the top. This
Apparent Shift = RD – AD
property of light is called 1
reversibility of light. = 𝑅𝐷 [1 − ]
𝑛
Refraction in Nature: Early Sunrise and Delayed Sunset:

Total Internal Reflection TIR: Medium n ic

Water 1.33 48.8o
Glass 1.4 -1.6 41o to 37o
Diamond 2.42 24.4o

sin 𝑖𝑐 1 1
=𝑛 , sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛
sin 90𝑜
ic is the critical angle. In TIR all the
energy of the incident ray is given to reflected ray as there is no refracted ray.

TIR Prisms: Snell’s window = 2 𝑖𝑐

Periscope:
TIR prisms are used in optical instruments to avoid multiple images due to
multiple images in the mirror.
Multiple images reduce the quality. So TIR prisms are used in periscopes.

Optical Fiber: Brilliance of Diamonds: Mirages:

Refraction at a spherical surface:
Rarer to denser: + Denser to rarer:

All angles are very small so can be approximated as 𝜃 ≈ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃

ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑖 𝛼 + 𝛽 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 𝑢 + 𝑅 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑖 𝛽 − 𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 𝑅 − 𝑢 𝑛1
= = = = = = = = = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑟 𝛽 − 𝛾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾 ℎ − ℎ 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑟 𝛽 + 𝛾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾 ℎ + ℎ 𝑛2
𝑅 𝑣 𝑅 𝑣
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛1
+ = − − = +
𝑢 𝑅 𝑅 𝑣 𝑅 𝑢 𝑅 𝑣
𝑛2 − 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 −𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
= + − = −
𝑅 𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 𝑢 𝑅 𝑅
Applying sign convention, Applying sign convention,
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
− = − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅 𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
Len’s maker’s formula: Usually for Biconvex lens 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅 in
magnitude,
1 1 1
= (𝑛21 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 +𝑅 −𝑅
1 2
= (𝑛21 − 1)
𝑓 𝑅
Similarly for Biconcave lens,
Surface 1 1 1 1
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 = (𝑛21 − 1) ( − )
− = 𝑓 −𝑅 +𝑅
𝑣′ 𝑢 𝑅1 1 2
Surface 2 = −(𝑛21 − 1)
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑓 𝑅
− ′= When lens is immersed in a liquid medium 3,
𝑣 𝑣 𝑅2
Adding 1 and 2 we get, 1 1 1
= (𝑛23 − 1) ( − )
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
− = +
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑛
1 1 1 1 𝑛23 = 𝑛2 𝑓 convex in concave in
𝑛1 ( − ) = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) ( − ) 3
air air
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1 1 >1 +ve convex concave
( − ) = (𝑛21 − 1) ( − ) =1 ∞ glass plate glass plate
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2
When 𝑢 = ∞, 𝑣 = 𝑓, <1 -ve concave convex
1 1 1 Gaussian form,
= (𝑛21 − 1) ( − ) 1 1 1
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
Magnification for convex lens: Magnification for concave lens:
ℎ′ 𝑣 ℎ′ 𝑣
𝑀= = 𝑀= =
ℎ 𝑢 ℎ 𝑢
Applying sign convention, Applying sign convention,
−ℎ′ +𝑣 ℎ′ −𝑣
𝑀= = 𝑀= =
+ℎ −𝑢 ℎ −𝑢
ℎ′ 𝑣 ℎ′ 𝑣
𝑀= = 𝑀= =
ℎ 𝑢 ℎ 𝑢
Power of lens: Combination of lens:
Tangent of an angle by which it
converges or diverges when 1 1 1
light falling at unit distance = ′−
𝑓1 𝑣 𝑢
from optic centre. 1 1 1
ℎ 1 = −
tan 𝛿 = = 𝑓2 𝑣 𝑣 ′
𝑓 𝑓
1 Adding we get,
𝑃=
𝑓 1 1 1 1
+ = −
The unit of power is 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑣 𝑢
dioptre 𝑚−1. For the combination
1 1 1
Thin lens bends the + =
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓
light less so less power. 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑚2

Dispersion in a prism: Refraction through a prism:

All wavelengths travel 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 180 − 𝐴
in same speed in = 180
vacuum which is a non- 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 𝐴
dispersive medium. As 𝛿 = 𝑖 − 𝑟1 + 𝑒 − 𝑟2
white light enters into a 𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑒 − (𝑟1 + 𝑟2 )
medium such as glass, 𝛿 =𝑖+𝑒−𝐴
different wavelengths travel at different speed, so From experimental results,
different refractive index, so different refraction When 𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 happens 𝑖 = 𝑒,
angle for the same incidence angle, so dispersion 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 , refracted ray inside the
happens. prism is parallel to the base of
𝑛𝑉 > 𝑛𝑅 prism.
violet bends more, it means violet travels at lower 𝐴 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
speed than red. 𝐴 = 2𝑟

Newton’s experiment with double prism: 𝛿 =𝑖+𝑒−𝐴

He proved prism itself does not create colors but 𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑖 − 𝐴
dispersion is due to the different wavelengths already 𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝐴
available in the white light. sin 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝑛21 = =
sin 𝑟 𝐴
sin 2

When angle of prism is less than 50 then sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃

𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝐴
= 𝑛21
𝐴
𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴(𝑛21 − 1)
29.Optical Instruments
Simple Microscope (Image at D = 25cm) Simple Microscope (Image at Infinity)
Linear Magnification, Angular Magnification, Magnifying Power
ℎ′ 𝑣 1 1 𝑣 −𝐷 𝜃𝑖 ℎ/𝑓 𝐷
𝑀 = = =𝑣 ( − )=1− =1− 𝑀= = =
ℎ 𝑢 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝜃𝑜 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐷 ℎ/𝐷 𝑓
𝐷
𝑀 = 1+
𝑓

h
h h θi

I F O F I F F

D From Lens makers formula, R to be smaller for f to be smaller,

so M can be bigger. But due to thickness of lens physical
restriction, M < 9
Compound Microscope (Image at D = 25 cm) Compound Microscope (Image at Infinity)
Normal Use or Normal Adjustment Relaxed Eye
𝑀 = 𝑀𝑜 𝑀𝑒 Angular Magnification, Magnifying Power
𝑣𝑜 𝐷 𝑣𝑜 𝐷 𝐿 𝐷 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑜 𝑀𝑒
𝑀 = (1 + ) = (1 − ) (1 + ) = (1 + ) 𝑣𝑜 𝐷 𝑣𝑜 𝐷 𝐿 𝐷
𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑀 = ( ) = (1 − ) ( ) = ( )
𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒

ℎ′ 𝐿
𝑀𝑜 = =
ℎ 𝑓𝑜
h L

fo h’

(uo is –ve, vo > fo so final M result will also be –ve as it is (uo is –ve so final M result will also be –ve as it is inverted
inverted image) L = vo + ue image)
+ Refracting Telescope (Image at D=25cm) Refracting Telescope (Image at Infinity)
Angular Magnification, Relaxed Eye, Normal Use
𝜃𝑖 ℎ′/𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜 1 1 Angular Magnification, Magnifying Power
𝑀= = = = 𝑓𝑜 ( − ) 𝜃𝑖 ℎ′/𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜
𝜃𝑜 ℎ′/𝑓𝑜 𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝑀= = =
1 1 𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝜃𝑜 ℎ′/𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
= 𝑓𝑜 ( − ) = − (1 + ) 𝜃𝑜 when object at its original location
−𝐷 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝐷
𝜃𝑜 when object at its original location

(𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑜 are in opposite direction angles so there will be a –ve so

final M result will also be –ve as it is inverted image, also the
Larger diameter (aperture) for more light general formula is ue not fe so ue is –ve so M is -ve) L = fo + fe
gathering so high resolving power, Limitations with lens:
making larger lens difficult, supporting the lens in the rim alone,
chromatic aberration.
+ Combination of lens with plane mirror:
See below, eqn.1 + eqn.2 gives,
2 2
=
𝑢1 𝑓
𝑓 = 𝑢1
This proves the distance where the object and image coincides will be the focal
length of the convex and concave lens combination.
Through convex lens and concave Through plane mirror 2, Through convex lens and concave
lens combination 1, rays from left 1 1 1 lens combination 3, rays from
towards right, + = right towards left, so left side is
𝑣2 𝑢2 ∞
1 1 1 1 1 positive and right side is negative,
− = + =0 1 1 1
𝑣1 −𝑢1 𝑓 −𝑣2 𝑣1 − =
1 1 1 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 𝑣3 𝑢3 𝑓
+ = → (1) 1 1 1
𝑣1 𝑢1 𝑓 − =
𝑢1 +𝑣2 𝑓
1 1 1
− = → (2)
𝑢1 𝑣1 𝑓
+ Double displacement or Conjugate foci method:
When object and screen are fixed, the lens can be moved to get the image on the
screen in two locations. D distance between the object and screen, d distance
between the two locations.
𝐷2 − 𝑑2
𝑓=
4𝐷

1 1 1 Magnification in location 1, ℎ1
= − → (1) 𝑣 𝐷 − 𝑥1 𝐷+𝑑 𝑀1 =
𝑓 𝐷 − 𝑥1 − 𝑥1 𝑀1 = = = ℎ0
1 1 1 𝑢 𝑥1 𝐷−𝑑 ℎ2
= − → (2) Magnification in location 2, 𝑀2 =
𝑓 𝐷 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥2 ℎ0
𝑉 𝐷 − 𝑥2 𝐷 − 𝑑 1
𝑀2 = = = 𝑀1 =
𝑑 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑢 𝑥2 𝐷+𝑑 𝑀2
𝑥2 = 𝑑 + 𝑥1
1 1 1 𝑀1 𝐷+𝑑 2 ℎ1 ℎ0
= + = [ ] =
𝑓 𝐷 − (𝑑 + 𝑥1 ) 𝑑 + 𝑥1 𝑀2 𝐷−𝑑 ℎ0 ℎ2
(1) = (2) ℎ0 = √ℎ1 ℎ2
(𝐷 − 𝑥1 ) 𝑥1 = [ 𝐷 − (𝑑 + 𝑥1 )](𝑑 + 𝑥1 )
𝐷 𝑥1 − 𝑥12 = 𝐷𝑑 − 𝑑2 − 𝑑𝑥1 + 𝐷𝑥1 − 𝑑𝑥1 − 𝑥12
2𝑑 𝑥1 = 𝐷𝑑 − 𝑑2
𝐷−𝑑 𝐷+𝑑
𝑥1 = 𝑥2 =
2 2
Substitute 𝑥1 in equation 1 to find 𝑓 expression.
Object kept symmetrical : Object kept asymmetrical:
360
If is even then same formula,
𝜃
No of images, 360
360 𝑛= −1
𝑛= −1 𝜃
𝜃
360
𝐼1, 𝐼2, are the primary images If is odd then
𝜃
𝐼1′ , 𝐼2′ are the secondary images of 360
𝑛=
𝐼1, 𝐼2 𝜃
𝐼1′′ , 𝐼2′′ both are shown but only
one will be visible depending upon
the viewing angle.
+ Newton’s formula for mirror / lens: +Terrestrial telescope with erecting lens:

Erecting lens just inverts the objective image.

𝑥1 , 𝑥2 are the distances of object and image from the Object at infinity, so objective image will be at 𝑓𝑜 . So
focal length. the length of telescope will be,
1 1 1 𝐿 = 𝑓𝑜 + 4𝑓 + 𝑓𝑒
= +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 Depending upon where the final image is, either 𝑓𝑒 or
1 1 1 𝑢𝑒 is used for the length of the telescope.
= + Since erecting lens does not change the
𝑓 𝑥2 + 𝑓 𝑥1 + 𝑓
1 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 2𝑓 magnification, the overall magnification remains the
= same. 𝑀 = 𝑓𝑜.
𝑓
𝑓 (𝑥1 + 𝑓) (𝑥2 + 𝑓) 𝑒
𝑥1 𝑥2 = 𝑓 2 Due to additional reflection and absorbtion in
Also, for convex lens 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 are distance from two erecting lens, the image quality is reduced. So not
different focus points. preferred for astronomical telescope.
Object length to Image length in axial or longitudinal Special case: Infinitely long object, with one end of it
direction: at a distance of 𝑢 and other end at infinity,
𝐿 .

𝑓𝑢
𝑢2 = 𝑢 + 𝑣1 =
2 𝑢−𝑓
𝐿
𝑢1 = 𝑢 − Since 𝑢2 = ∞,
2
Find 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 to get length 𝑣2 = 𝑓
of image, 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝑓2
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 =
𝑢−𝑓
Mirror Lens
−𝑣 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣
𝑀𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 = = = 𝑀𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 = = =
𝑢 𝑓−𝑢 𝑓 𝑢 𝑓+𝑢 𝑓
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 2 𝑓 2 𝑓−𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 2 𝑓 2 𝑓−𝑣 2
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =− =( ) =( ) =( ) 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =− =( ) =( ) =( )
𝑑𝑢 𝑢 𝑓−𝑢 𝑓 𝑑𝑢 𝑢 𝑓+𝑢 𝑓
asN

Normal eye:

Short sight: Long sight:

Object at infinity cannot be seen clearly, so the Object at usual least distance of distinct vision D=25
corrective lens should form the image at the far point, cm cannot be seen clearly. So an object kept at D=25
which acts as the virtual object for eye lens, so that cm should form an image at the near point distance
the final image will form on retina. say 75 cm, which acts as a virtual object for the eye
1 1 1 lens, so that the final image will form on retina.
= − 1 1 1
𝑓 𝑣 ∞ = −
𝑓=𝑣 𝑓 −75 −25
Since v is negative here, f will be negative meaning a 𝑓 = +37.5 𝑐𝑚
concave lens is used for correction, with a focal So convex lens used for correction.
length equal to the far point distnace.
Speed of object and image: Combination of convex mirror and plane mirror:
1 1 1 When the images coincide, virtual
= +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 image is at 𝑣 = 2𝑥 − 𝑢, using this
1 𝑑𝑣 1 𝑑𝑢 and 𝑢 and 𝑥 values, 𝑓 of the
− 2 − =0 convex mirror can be found.
𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑢2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑢
= − 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑢 𝑑𝑡
Apparent depth for a combination of more than one liquid:
ℎ1
𝐴𝐷1 =
𝑛1 ⁄𝑛2
ℎ1
ℎ2 + 𝐴𝐷1 ℎ2 𝑛1 ⁄𝑛2 ℎ2 ℎ1 ℎ1 ℎ2
𝐴𝐷2 = = + = + = +
𝑛2 ⁄𝑛0 𝑛2 ⁄𝑛0 𝑛2 ⁄𝑛0 𝑛2 ⁄𝑛0 𝑛1 ⁄𝑛0 𝑛1 𝑛2
ℎ1 ℎ2 1 1
𝐴𝑝𝑝. 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 = ℎ1 + ℎ2 − [ + ] = ℎ1 [1 − ] + ℎ2 [1 − ]
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
Phosphorescent material (glow in dark toys): Apparent depth and Apparent speed inside the water:
Takes energy / light and gives 𝐷 = ℎ + 𝐴𝐷
own light with lower energy 𝑦
𝐷=ℎ+
than incident energy. So 𝜈 𝑛
emitted will be lower and 𝜆 𝑑𝐷 𝑑ℎ 1 𝑑𝑦
= +
will be higher. 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡

Radius of curvature from Aperture dimensions: Spherical transparent glass:

(𝑅 − 𝑡)2 + 𝑟 2 = 𝑅 2 𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2
𝑅 2 + 𝑡 2 − 2𝑅𝑡 + 𝑟 2 = 𝑅 2 = (𝛼 − 𝛽) + (𝛼 − 𝛽)
2 = 2 (𝛼 − 𝛽)
𝑡 is negligible, so
𝑟2 From prism principles
𝑅= when 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝛽, 𝑒 =
2𝑡
𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝛼
Acceptance angle of Optical fibre:
1 1 𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖2 = = 𝑛 =
𝑛 2 𝑛2
𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖1 𝑛2
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (90 − 𝑖2 ) 𝑛3

𝑛2 √𝑛22 − 𝑛12
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖1 = . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑖2 =
𝑛3 𝑛3
𝑖1 is the acceptance angle, beyond which TIR will not happen, refraction will happen and signal is not
transmitted properly.
Special case: When outer medium and the cladding are air, then, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖1 = √𝑛22 − 1
Combination of lens out of contact: Introduction of glass slab, shift in image or apparent
source:

When glass slab introduced between source and lens,

source remains at 𝑆1, but it appears as though the rays
ℎ1 are coming from 𝑆2 . So the new object location 𝑢′ =
tan 𝛿1 =
𝑓1 𝑢 − 𝑆.
ℎ1 − ℎ2 When glass slab introduced between image and lens,
tan 𝛿1 = image at 𝐼1 , gets shifted to 𝐼2 . So the new image
𝑑
ℎ1 ℎ1 − ℎ2 location 𝑣 ′ = 𝑣 + 𝑆.
𝛿1 = = 𝐿
𝑓1 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 =
𝑑ℎ1 𝑆
ℎ2 = ℎ1 − 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑖 − 𝑟)
𝑓1 𝑆=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 = 𝑡 [1 − ]
ℎ1 ℎ1 ℎ2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
= + 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑖
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 = 𝑡 [1 − ]
𝜇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟
ℎ1 ℎ1 ℎ1 𝑑ℎ1 1
= + − 𝑆𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 ≈ 𝑡 [1 − ]
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝜇
1 1 1 𝑑
= + −
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
Special case, when lenses are in contact, 𝑑 = 0
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
Location of the effective lens will be at P, at a
distance 𝑃𝑃2 , where the corresponding total deviation
𝛿 is shown.
ℎ1 − ℎ2
tan 𝛿 =
𝑃𝑃2
ℎ1 − ℎ2 𝑑⁄𝑓1
𝑃𝑃2 = =
ℎ1 ⁄𝑓 1⁄𝑓
Lens cut into half: Plano convex lens:

As rays are bent only by

one surface, less bending,
more focal length.
Intensity remains same.
Focal length remains same but intensity is halved as Focal length doubled.
the no. of rays are halved.
Dispersive power and Linear Chromatic aberration: Condition for Achromatism:
𝜔1 1 1
𝛿𝑉 −𝛿𝑅 𝑛𝑉 −𝑛𝑅 = −
𝑓1 𝑓𝑉1 𝑓𝑅1
𝜔= =
𝛿𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑛−1 𝜔2 1 1
= −
𝑓2 𝑓𝑉2 𝑓𝑅2
𝑅 1 1 𝜔1 𝜔2 1 1
2 (𝑓𝑉 − 𝑓𝑅 ) 𝑓1
+
𝑓2
=[ +
𝑓𝑉1 𝑓𝑉2
]
=
𝑅 1 1 1
2 𝑓 −[ + ]
𝑓𝑅1 𝑓𝑅2
1 1 𝐹𝑅 − 𝐹𝑉
𝜔 1 1 = − =
= − 𝐹𝑉 𝐹𝑅 𝐹𝑉 𝐹𝑅
𝑓 𝑓𝑉 𝑓𝑅
For achromatism, the combined focal length of Violet
and Red should coincide, so 𝐹𝑅 − 𝐹𝑉 = 0, so the
𝑓 2 = 𝑓𝑉 𝑓𝑅
𝑓𝑅 − 𝑓𝑉 condition for achromatic doublet is
𝜔= 𝜔1 𝜔2
𝑓 + =0
𝑓1 𝑓2
𝜔1 , 𝜔2 are positive, so 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 should be opposite signs.
𝛿𝑉 +𝛿𝑅 So usually an achromatic doublet is made of a
𝛿𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
2 combination of convex and concave lens made of
different materials cemented together. Achromatic
𝑛𝑉 +𝑛𝑅
𝑛= condition is true only for the two specific colours it is
2 designed for.
No deviation: No dispersion:
For original path of ray, no deviation to be observed, Dispersion should cancel out. Deviation from
but dispersion can be there. original path of ray may be there.
𝛿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0 (𝛿𝑉 − 𝛿𝑅 )𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0
𝛿1 = − 𝛿2 (𝛿𝑉 − 𝛿𝑅 )1 = −(𝛿𝑉 − 𝛿𝑅 )2
𝐴1 (𝑛1 − 1) = −𝐴2 (𝑛2 − 1) 𝐴1 (𝑛𝑉1 − 𝑛𝑅1 ) = −𝐴2 (𝑛𝑉2 − 𝑛𝑅2 )

Sperical aberration in mirror: Sperical aberration in lens:

𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝑓𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 − 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

Parabolic mirrors used to avoid Hollow disk stopper used

spherical aberration. to cutoff marginal rays
but it reduces the
intensity of image.
Circle: Radians (2D) Sphere: Steradians (3D)
Circumference = 2𝜋𝑟 Area of sphere = 4𝜋𝑟 2
1 rad is when L= r 1 sr is when Area = 𝑟 2
2𝜋 rad is one full circle 4𝜋 sr. is one full sphere

Luminous intensity measured in Candella cd. one 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 (𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠)

candle. 𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑙𝑢𝑥) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 )
𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠) 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎) × 4𝜋(𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛)
= 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎) =
4𝜋𝑟 2
× 4𝜋(𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛) 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎)
4𝜋=12.57 =
𝑟2
 30. Wave Optics
Coherent Sources: Frequency is same, phase difference is constant.
Wavefront: all particles lying in the surface are in the same phase of oscillation.
Snell’s law:
sin 𝑖 𝜇2 𝑣1 𝜆1
= = =
sin 𝑟 𝜇1 𝑣2 𝜆2
refractive index inversely proportional to velocity and wavelength.
Huygen’s Wave Theory:
 Every particle acts as a new source, from which waves originate. These waves
are called secondary wavelets.
 Speed of secondary wavelets is same as the speed of light in that medium.
 Envelope of secondary wavelets in forward direction gives new wave front in
that instant.

Law of Reflection: Law of Refraction: Law of Refraction: Frequency remains

rarer to denser denser to rarer same:

AC is common
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝐴𝐴′ 𝐶 = 900
𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴′ Snell’s law Snell’s law 𝜆1 𝐵𝐶 𝑣1 𝑡
= =
RHS – Congruency sin 𝑖 𝐵𝐶 ⁄𝐴𝐶 𝑣1 𝑡 sin 𝑖 𝐵𝐶 ⁄𝐴𝐶 𝑣1 𝑡 1 𝜆2 𝐴𝐴′ 𝑣2 𝑡
= = =𝑛 = = = 𝑣1 𝑣2
So 𝑖 = 𝑟 sin 𝑟 𝐴𝐴′⁄𝐴𝐶 𝑣2 𝑡 sin 𝑟 𝐴𝐴′⁄𝐴𝐶 𝑣2 𝑡 𝑛 =
𝜆1 𝜆2
𝜈1 = 𝜈2
Optical path: is the equivalent distance travelled by Wavelength in the refracting medium:
light in vacuum in the same time as the given 𝜈1 = 𝜈2
medium. D is the distance travelled in the given 𝑣1 𝑣2
=
medium. 𝑣 is the velocity of light in the medium. n is 𝜆1 𝜆2
the refractive index. 𝑣2 𝜆1
𝐷 𝜆2 = 𝜆1 =
Optical path = 𝑐. 𝑡 = 𝑐. 𝑣 = 𝑛𝐷 𝑣1 𝑛
Effective path diff. = (𝑛 − 1) 𝐷 For rarer to denser, as n > 1, 𝜆2 < 𝜆1 .

Doppler Effect in light:

𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝜈′ = 𝜈 ( )
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠
𝑐 − 𝑣𝑠 −1
𝜈′ = ( ) 𝜈
𝑐
𝑣𝑠
𝜈 ′ = 𝜈 (1 + )
𝑐
Δ𝜈 𝜈 ′ − 𝜈 𝑣𝑠 Δ𝜆
= =− =−
𝜈 𝜈 𝑐 𝜆
𝑣𝑠 is the speed of star in the radial direction towards the earth. Most cases the stars are moving away from the
earth, so 𝑣𝑠 is taken as negative as it is opposite to the light velocity 𝑐, also the observed frequency decreases.
Interference: Fringe location and Fringe width:
Interference of light is the phenomenon of
redistribution of energy in space when
two coherent waves superpose on each
other.

Crest + crest gives constructive interference or bright

fringe or maxima. 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃
Crest + trough gives destructive interference or dark
fringe or minima. (𝑆2 𝑃)2 − (𝑆1 𝑃)2
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
= 𝐷2 + (𝑥 + ) − 𝐷2 + (𝑥 − )
2 2
(𝑆2 𝑃 + 𝑆1 𝑃)(𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃) = 2𝑥𝑑
2𝐷 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 2𝑥𝑑
Bright and dark fringe location,
𝑛𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
𝑥𝑛 = , 𝑥𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1)
𝑑 2𝑑
Fringe width,
𝜆𝐷
Constructive interference, 𝛽 = 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥𝑛−1 =
𝑑
Path diff. = n𝜆, Phase diff. 𝜙=2𝑛𝜋 Angular location,
Destructive interference, 𝑥𝑛 𝑛𝜆
𝜆 𝜃𝑛 ≈ tan 𝜃𝑛 = =
Path diff. =(2𝑛 − 1) 2, Phase diff. 𝜙 = (2𝑛 − 1)𝜋 𝐷 𝑑
2𝜋 Angular width,
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝜆
𝜆 𝜃𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝜃𝑛 − 𝜃𝑛−1 =
2𝜋 𝑑
𝜙𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝜙0 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 For bright fringes, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … … ..
𝜆 For dark fringes, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … … ..
𝜙0 Initial phase difference between the two sources.
Hyperbolic fringes or straight fringes?
The locus of the points having the constant path difference happens to be
hyperbolic in nature. However as the d increases, hyperbolic lines almost
becomes straight lines.

White light:
𝑛𝜆
𝜃𝑛 =
𝑑
As wavelength increases, angular displacement increases. So we see the
VIBGYOR spectrum. This is not dispersion due to refraction.

Source shifted: In the double slit if the source is displaced by an angle to one side the central bright fringe
will get shifted by the same angle in the other side as shown.

In double slit arrangement if source is in the center line between the slits
then the 𝜙0 = 0, however if the source is unsymmetrical then there will
be a phase difference between the waves from the slits determined from
the path difference.
Wave equation simplified:
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜔 = 𝑇 𝑡 , 𝑘 = 𝜆 𝑥 Displacement of particle changes with location 𝑥 and time 𝑡. For the given 𝑥 position,
𝑘𝑥 term can be ignored to make the equation simple. So 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡.
Coherent waves with same amplitude: + Coherent waves with different amplitude:
Constant phase difference between the two waves Waves with different amplitude.
emanating from the two sources. 𝑦1 = 𝑎1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑦1 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑦2 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑦2 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
Resultant wave, = 𝑎1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙) + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
= 𝑎(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
𝜙 𝜙 = 𝑅 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
= 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + )
2 2 Phase 𝜙 is given by,
𝜙 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
Amplitude of the resultant wave = 2𝑎 cos 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 =
𝜙 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
Resultant wave is 2 phase with 𝑦1 .
Amplitude of the resultant wave is given by,
Intensity is directly proportional to amplitude
square, 𝐼0 = 4𝑎2 𝑅 = √𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
𝜙
𝐼 = 𝑘 4𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) 𝐼 = 𝑘(𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙)
2 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
𝜙
𝐼 = 4𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) Special cases,
2
Special cases, 𝜙 = 0, 𝜙 = 𝜋 𝑜𝑟 180,
𝜙 = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋, …. 𝜙 = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋 …. In-phase Out of phase
2
Maxima, In-phase Minima, Out of phase 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 ) 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )2
2 2
𝐼 = 4𝐼0 𝐼=0 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (√𝐼1 + √𝐼2 ) 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (√𝐼1 − √𝐼2 )
At bright fringes the intensity is not 2𝐼0 but 4𝐼0 . If 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 then 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0 and it will be dark. If
Energy disappearing in the dark fringe 2𝐼0 is what is amplitudes are not same then destructive
reappearing at the bright fringe. Law of conservation intereference is present but it may not be dark.
of energy.
If one of the slit is closed, the intensity on screen will 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘(2𝑎12 + 2𝑎22 )
be 𝐼0 from the other slit. 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
2 2
Energy dissipated in dark fringe, reappears on bright
fringe. Energy conservation valid.
Overlap fringes of two monochromatic wavelengths: + Free falling screen and motion of fringes:
At the point of fringes As screen falls down D
coinciding, fringe changes, so the fringe locations
location distance is will move away from the center
same. in the x direction, also they are
moving in y direction along
For bright fringe 𝑛𝜆𝐷
with the screen. 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑑
coincidence,
𝑑𝑥𝑛 𝑛𝜆 𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷
𝑛𝜆1 𝐷 𝑚𝜆2 𝐷 𝑣𝑥 = = . , 𝑣𝑦 = = 𝑔𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 2 𝑥𝑛 𝑛𝜆 𝑑 2 𝐷 𝑑2𝐷
For dark fringe coincidence, 𝑎𝑥 = = . , 𝑎 𝑦 = =𝑔
𝜆1 𝐷 𝜆2 𝐷 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
(2𝑛 − 1) = (2𝑚 − 1)
2 𝑑 2 𝑑
Diffraction:
By Huygen’s principle the aperture acts
as a new source. So spherical wavefront
emerges from the aperture. We would have
expected to see the light only in the region
straight ahead of the slit. However we will
see the light outside the slit region also.

Bending of light around the corners of

obstacles and apertures is called
Diffraction. However the size of the
aperture should be comparable with the
wavelength of the waves.

Radio waves (𝜆 few m to km) can bend around buildings or even small mountains.
Light (𝜆 400nm to 700nm) can bend around small apertures of size 0.1mm.
More diffraction as slit size gets smaller. On the screen behind the aperture, the distribution of light intensity
in a particular pattern is called Diffraction pattern.
Central bright fringe: Dark fringe:
1 and 1’, 2 and 2’ and so When path difference
on have zero path between A and B is 𝑛𝜆,
difference, so then we would expect a
constructive interference, bright fringe. However in
so central maxima. reality we get a dark
fringe.
If slit is divided into half,
we can see 1 and 1’, 2 and 2’ and so on have 𝜆/2
path difference, so destructive interference.
First order bright fringe: Second order bright fringe:
When path difference When path difference
between A and B is between A and B is
3𝜆/2, then we would 5𝜆/2, then we would
expect a dark fringe. expect a dark fringe.
However in reality we However in reality we
get a bright fringe. get a bright fringe.

If slit is divided into three equal divisions, we can see
1 and 1’, 2 and 2’ and so on have 𝜆/2 path
difference, so they cancel each other. However the
third part will still provide light which is not
cancelled out. So there will be a maxima but with
reduced intensity as only one third of the slit is
providing the light.
If slit is divided into
five equal divisions, we can see 1 and 1’, 2 and 2’
and so on have 𝜆/2 path difference, so they cancel
each other. Similarly 1’’ and 1’’’, 2’’ and 2’’’ and so
on have 𝜆/2 path difference, so they cancel each
other However the fifth part will still provide light
which is not cancelled out. So there will be a maxima
but with reduced intensity as only one fifth of the slit
is providing the light.
Interference: Two slit, two coherent sources, Diffraction: One slit, infinite sources,
‘d’ slit separation. ‘a’ slit width.
Condition for Maxima and Minima: Condition for Maxima and Minima:
Maxima Minima Maxima Minima
Path 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 𝜆 Path 𝜆 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
diff. 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (2𝑛 − 1) diff. 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2
Phase 𝜙 = 2𝑛𝜋 𝜙 = (2𝑛 − 1)𝜋 Phase 𝜙 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 𝜙 = 2𝑛𝜋
diff. diff.
Fringe 𝑛𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 Fringe 𝜆𝐷 𝑛𝜆𝐷
location 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1) location 𝑥𝑛 = (2𝑛 + 1) 𝑥𝑛 =
𝑑 2𝑑 2𝑎 𝑎
Fringe 𝜆𝐷 Fringe 𝜆𝐷
width 𝛽= width 𝛽=
𝑑 𝑎
Angular 𝑛𝜆 𝜆 Angular 𝜆 𝑛𝜆
𝜃𝑛 = 𝜃 𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝜃𝑛 = (2𝑛 + 1) 𝜃𝑛 =
location 𝑑 2𝑑 location 2𝑎 𝑎
Angular 𝜆 Angular 𝜆
width 𝜃𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = width 𝜃𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ =
𝑑 𝑎
For bright fringes, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … … .. 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … … ..
For dark fringes, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … … .. For central bright fringe above formula not valid.

All fringes are of equal width and equal intensity. 2𝜆𝐷

Central bright fringe width = ,
𝑎
𝜆𝐷 3𝜆 𝐷
First maxima does not fall at , but at .
2𝑎 2 𝑎
Intensity, 𝐼𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑜
𝜙 is the phase difference at a given point between the 𝜙 is the phase difference at a given point between the
two waves from the two slits, two waves from A and B, the ends of the slit,
2
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 sin 𝜙⁄2
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 ( )
𝜙⁄2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 sin (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋⁄2
2

𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑜 ( ) , 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0

(2𝑛 + 1)𝜋⁄2
Intensity reduces rapidly. Ratio of intensities in
maxima,
𝐼𝑜 2 2 𝐼𝑜 2 2 𝐼𝑜 2 2
𝐼𝑜 , 2 [ ] , 2 [ ] , 2 [ ] , … …
3 𝜋 5 𝜋 7 𝜋
Double slit experiment: Diffraction and Interference:
Diffraction from each slit overlaps with each other to give
rise to Interference pattern.
no. of Interference fringes in central diffraction fringe
𝛽𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓. 2𝜆𝐷/𝑎 2𝑑
= = =
𝛽𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓. 𝜆𝐷/𝑑 𝑎
As ‘d’ increases Interference pattern increases, as ‘a’ increases
Diffraction pattern increases.
(As ‘a’ increases diffraction effect which is rounding around the
corners decreases but more sources in the wavefront gives rise to
more interaction between the source waves giving rise to more diffraction pattern.)
+ Interference in Thin films: + Newton’s rings:
Extra wave travelled by
reflected ray is 𝑥 + 𝜆/2
as it is rarer to denser
reflection the wave will
undergo an additional
phase difference of 𝜋.
Optical path of the
refracted wave will be
2𝜇𝑑. One wave reflected from the curved surface and
Path diff. between two waves, another wave from the flat mirror surface.
𝜆 Between the plano convex lens and the mirror, the
𝛿 = 2𝜇𝑑 − (𝑥 + ) medium having a refractive index 𝜇.
2
𝜆 (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 + 𝑟 2 = 𝑅 2
𝛿 = 2𝜇𝑑 − (2𝑏 sin 𝑖 + ) Ignoring 𝑡 2 ,
2
𝜆 𝑟𝑛2
𝛿 = 2𝜇𝑑 − (2𝑑 sin 𝑟 sin 𝑖 + ) 2𝑡 =
2 𝑅
𝜆 Optical path for the wave travelling through the
𝛿 = 2𝜇𝑑 − (2𝑑 sin 𝑟 𝜇 sin 𝑟 + )
2 medium of thickness t, and rarer to denser reflection
𝜆 so the additional phase difference of 𝜋 introduced.
𝛿 = 2𝜇𝑑(1 − sin2 𝑟) −
2 path difference between the two waves,
𝜆 𝜆
𝛿 = 2𝜇𝑑 cos2 𝑟 − 𝛿 = 2𝜇𝑡 +
2 2
𝑡 𝜆 For bright ring,
𝛿 = 2𝜇 cos2 𝑟 −
cos 𝑟 2 𝜆 𝜆
𝜆 2𝜇𝑡 + = 𝑛𝜆 → 2𝜇𝑡 = (2𝑛 − 1)
𝛿 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − 2 2
2 For dark ring,
For bright fringe, (reflecting surface) 𝜆 𝜆
𝜆 𝜆 2𝜇𝑡 + = (2𝑛 − 1) → 2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − = 𝑛𝜆 → 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 2
2 2
For dark fringe, (anti reflecting surface) Radius of nth dark ring,
𝜆 𝜆 2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − = (2𝑛 − 1) → 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
2 2 𝑟𝑛2
The above is for reflected ray, for transmitted rays 𝜇 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑅
passing through bottom of the glass slab, the 𝜆/2
additional path will not appear and so the condition 𝑛𝜆𝑅
𝑟𝑛 = √
for bright and dark fringe will be interchanged. 𝜇
For air as the gap, 𝜇 = 1.
For normal incidence, 𝑟 ≈ 0, cos 𝑟 ≈ 1 .
By measuring the radius of nth and n+mth rings using
Anti-reflection coatings are taken such that, microscope, 𝜆 can be found,
𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 < 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 < 𝜇𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝜆𝑅 (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜆𝑅
So the reflection in the top surface and the bottom 𝑟𝑛2 = , 2
𝑟𝑛+𝑚 =
𝜇 𝜇
surface both are rarer to denser, so the 𝜆/2 term will 2
𝑟𝑛+𝑚 − 𝑟𝑛2
cancel out in the path difference, so 𝜆=𝜇
For bright fringe, 𝑚𝑅
2𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
For dark fringe, Wavelength in the gap medium is, 𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 𝜆/𝜇
𝜆
2𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2 Note as radius and thickness are not in linear relation
𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 is taken as 𝜆/4 for minimum coating because of which the gap between the rings decreases
thickness. as radius increases. They are unequally spaced.
 + Introducing a glass plate and Fringe location shift:

𝑝𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑝𝑑𝑜𝑙𝑑 ± 𝑝𝑑 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

𝑝𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑝𝑑𝑜𝑙𝑑 ± (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 Additional path diff. due to glass slab = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡
𝑛𝜆𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 Original path diff. between S1P and S2P = 𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝑥𝑜𝑙𝑑 = = 𝑝𝑑𝑜𝑙𝑑 , 𝑥𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑝𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑝𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑝𝑑𝑜𝑙𝑑 ± 𝑝𝑑𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷 𝛽 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 ± (𝜇 − 1)𝑡
𝑥𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 = ± (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = ± (𝜇 − 1)𝑡
𝑑 𝜆 + means the path diff. due to glass slab is adding to
𝑥𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 the earlier path diff. when they are in the same wave.
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 = =±
𝛽 𝜆 - means the path diff. due to glass slab is on one wave
Entire pattern along with central bright fringe gets and the earlier path diff. is on the other wave.
shifted to the side where the slab is introduced, fringe
width remains the same. Same formulas applicable Condition for central bright fringe, maxima, and
for slab introduced in the slit 1 but shift will be minima respectively are,
upwards. 𝜆
𝑝𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 0, 𝑛𝜆, (2𝑛 − 1)
2

Phase Difference:
2𝜋 𝛽
𝜙= . (𝑝𝑑) when path diff. known , phase difference at a fraction of fringe width location say is,
𝜆 3
2𝜋 𝛽
𝜙=
𝛽 3

Slit Width and Intensity for Interference only:

𝑊1 𝐼1 𝑎1 2
= =
𝑊2 𝐼2 𝑎2 2
Intensity proportional to square of amplitude. For Diffraction the slit width does not affect the intensity of
central bright fringe, which is equal to the incident light intensity.
Slit gap in a grating: N – no. of lines per mm
1 1
𝑑= ≈ (𝑚𝑚)
𝑁−1 𝑁
Max. no. of fringes on one side: Max. angle on one side is 90o , so
𝑑
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 ⇒ 𝑛=
𝜆
But total no. of fringes on either side will be 2n+1, including the central bright fringe.
𝜆1
Wavelength in medium 2: 𝜆2 = 𝑎𝑠 𝜇 > 1 , 𝜆2 < 𝜆1 If the entire Young’s double slit experiment was
𝑛
immersed in a liquid of refractive index 𝜇, then 𝜆 alone will change, so the
𝜆𝐷 𝛽
𝛽𝑛𝑒𝑤 = =
𝜇𝑑 𝜇
𝛽 decreases, no. of fringes increases.
+ Visibility of fringes (contrast):
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉=
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
When 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 , 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0, then maximum visibility = 1, when 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 , then minimum visibility = 0.

Problem: When sodium light of wavelengths 589 nm and 589.6 nm are used, as the path difference increases
the visibility will change. At what path difference will the visibility of fringes be minimum?

Minimum visibility will happen when mth order bright fringe of 589 nm coincides with mth order dark fringe
𝑚𝜆1 𝐷 (2𝑚−1)𝜆2 𝐷
of 589.6 nm, = , m~491, so the path difference =𝑚𝜆1 =0.289 mm.
𝑑 2𝑑
Maximum visibility will happen when mth order bright fringe of 589 nm coincides with (m-1)th order bright
𝑚𝜆1 𝐷 (𝑚−1)𝜆2 𝐷
fringe of 589.6 nm, = , m~982. Again the pattern keeps repeating such that m~1473 will be
𝑑 𝑑
minimum visibility.
Fresnel Biprism: S1 and S2 acts as two virtual sources of light.
Fresnel diffraction: Source and screen at finite distance comparable with the size of
aperture.
Fraunhofer diffraction: Source and screen at infinite distance comparable with the
size of aperture. The light falling on the aperture will be parallel. If not then convex
lens used to make it parallel.
𝐷𝑓 Fresnel distance: Wave Optics or Ray Optics?
When bending of waves goes beyond the aperture size, central bright fringe to
first order minima, when it is equal to the aperture size, that distance is called as
Fresnel distance. Upto this distance we can approximately assume the light is
travelling straight and ray optics is valid. Beyond this distance more bending of
waves observed so wave optics is valid. 𝐷 < 𝐷𝑓 Ray Optics, 𝐷 > 𝐷𝑓 Wave
𝜆𝐷 𝑎2
Optics, 𝑥1 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 = 𝑎
, ⇒ 𝐷𝑓 = 𝜆

Complimentary Colours:
Some wavelengths missing means it is destructive interference for that particular colours.
Superposition of VIBGYOR gives White light. If V alone cancels out due to destructive interference then
other colours will cause white except the complimentary colour Red will appear as predominant colour.
Similarly B cancelling will result in Yellow colour. etc.
Speed of Colours:
All colours travel in the same speed only in vacuum (non-dispersive medium).
In other mediums, different colours travel at different speeds and different deviation from the original path
happens.
𝑐 𝜆
𝜇= =
𝑐𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
Higher the wavelength, higher the speed, lower the refractive index, less deviation. (red)
Lower the wavelength, lower the speed, higher the refractive index, more deviation. (violet)
Cauchy’s formula:
𝐵 𝐶 𝐵
𝜇=𝐴+ 2
+ 4+⋯≈𝐴+ 2
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
Phase change due to Reflection, Refraction:
Reflection at a rarer to denser medium causes an additional phase of 𝜋 or 180o.
Reflection at a denser to rarer medium does not cause any phase change. Refraction
at a medium does not cause any phase change.

Doppler effect symmetric and assymetric:

Whether the source moves towards the observer or the observer moves towards the source, if the effect of
frequency change is same then it is called symmetric. Doppler effect is assymmetric in sound and symmetric
in light. This is due to the fact that speed of all sources and observers are very small compared to speed of
light. This is not the case with sound.
Source towards stationary observer, when 𝑣𝑠 ≪ 𝑐 Observer moves towards stationary source,
𝑐 𝑣𝑠 𝑐 − 𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑜
𝜈′ = 𝜈 ( ) = 𝜈 (1 + ) 𝜈′ = 𝜈 ( ) = 𝜈 (1 + )
𝑐 − 𝑣𝑠 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Note observer moving towards the source means opposite to the wave velocity so direction is taken as
negative.So both expressions will be same in the case of light but not in the case of sound.
Polarization by Polaroid:

P1 P2 axis at θ w.r.t to P1 axis

Unpolarized Light Polarized Light Polarized light rotated by an angle θ
𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 Malus Law,𝐼 = 𝑘(𝑎 cos θ)2
𝐼𝑜 =
2 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θ
Polarization by reflection: Nicol Prism:
Brewster’s law, when the reflected ray and refracted ray
are perpendicular, refractive index 𝑛 = tan 𝑖𝐵 , 𝑖𝐵 is the
incident angle.
How? Light falling on the surface vibrate electrons,
Vibrations parallel to reflected ray (shown in lines in
refracted ray) does not produce any wave along the Calcite crystals are doubly
o
reflected ray, this happens only when relected and refracted ray are 90 apart. refracting and cemented
While the vibrations perpendicular to reflected ray (shown in dots in both rays) together using canada
produce waves along the reflected ray. balsm.

Specific rotation S for a given substance for polarized light:

Optical rotation ∝ Length of the substance x Concentration of substance
Optical rotation = S x Length of the substance x Concentration of substance
 Resolution:When two objects come closer the diffraction pattern from each
object comes closer and overlaps. When they are separate we see them as two
different distinct objects. If they overlap we cannot see them as two different
distinct object. This is called resolution.
Resolving limit of eye:
The smallest angle for which the points A and B will
appear as two distinct objects. For normal human eye it is
1’ (arc min) = 1/60 o. Resolving power is the reciprocal of
resolving limit.
𝜆 1.22𝜆
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑑𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ≅
𝑎 𝑎
𝜆𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 550 𝑛𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, a = dia of pupil ≅ 0.5 cm, dia of eye ball = 2.5 or 3 cm.
Microscope: Near by objects magnified. Telescope: Far away objects are brought closer.
Magnification is the key. Resolution is the key.
Resolving limit: dmin linear distance between two Resolving limit: 𝑑θ𝑚𝑖𝑛 angle subtended in objective
objects, whose images are just seen as separate. by the objects whose images are just seen as separate.
𝑎
sin 𝛽 ~
2𝑓

𝜆 1.22𝜆 1.22𝜆
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑓. 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑓 ≅𝑓 =
𝑎 𝑎 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝜆 1.22𝜆
1.22𝜆 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑑𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ≅
𝑅𝐿 = 2 𝜇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝜇 = refractive index of liquid in 𝑎 𝑎
‘a’ is the aperture of objective lens. Larger ‘a’
which the setup is immersed in, to increase the RP. preferred for higher RP.
Max value of sin 𝛽 = 1 when the object is very (Rayleigh’s criterion: Central bright of B to be at the
close to the objective lens. 𝜆 to be min so UV rays minima of the A, so the 𝑑𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the angular location
are used in microscopes. Also 𝜆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 is far smaller of the first minima of A.)
than visible light, so they are used in electron
microscope to increase the resolving power.
 31.Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
Hallwach’s experiments with Electroscope: Lenard’s experiments with Discharge tube:

As the Zn plate was exposed to UV rays, photo Initially there was no current in the circuit. When the
electrons were ejected out of the metal plate. In a negative plate was exposed to UV rays, photo
negatively charged Zn plate, the gold leaf comes electrons were ejected out which reached the positive
closer which means negative charge reduces. In a plate completing the circuit there by a current was
positively charged Zn plate, the gold leaf moves seen in the circuit. This is called photo electric effect.
away which means negative charge reduces and
positive charge increases.
Experimental results Wave theory’s failure to explain Einstein’s explanation to Photoelectric
As voltage applied increases more photo Energy of photon 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
e- reach the +ve plate increasing the As intensity increases no. of photons
current. When all photo e- are reaching increases while the energy of the
the +ve plate current is saturated. photons does not increase. More
photons, so more photo e-, so more
As Intensity increases, energy falling on current observed.
the plate increases, so the current
increases as expected. As energy of rays But since the energy of the photon
increase, energy of e- should increase remains the same, photo e- coming out
and stopping potential to stop the e- with the same energy, so energy
should have increased. But it does not required to stop the e- does not change,
increase. Why? so stopping potential does not change.
As frequency is increased the stopping As frequency increases the energy of
potential increases even though the photon increases, so photo e- comes out
intensity remains the same. Why? with higher energy, so more energy
required to stop the e-, so higher
stopping potential.

For every metal there is a minimum Minimum energy required to eject an e-

frequency called as Threshold Frequency
below which there is no photocurrent.
Why?
Zn, Cd, Mg  UV rays
Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs  Visible light
Also the slope of these curves for
different metals was constant. Why?
Instantaneous process, There is no time lag between exposure of
no time lag. rays and ejection of e- which is almost
instantaneous 10-9 s or less even when
the incident radiation is very dim. Why?
from the surface of a metal is called 𝜙𝑜
Work function of the metal.
Only when the radiation frequency is
above the Threshold frequency the
energy of the photons will be high
enough to eject the e- from the metal
surface. The excess energy becomes the
KE of the e-.
For every photon, one e- is emitted out.
Every photon interacts with one e- in an
elastic collision way (total energy, total
momentum conserved). So there is no
time lag as in case of wave interaction.
Einstein’s Photo Electric
Equation:
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝜙𝑜 + 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 − 𝜙𝑜
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈𝑜
ℎ ℎ
𝑉𝑜 = 𝜈 − 𝜈𝑜
𝑒 𝑒
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝑉𝑜 = −
𝑒𝜆 𝑒𝜆𝑜
Different values for KE of e- is because as they come out of the surface, e- collide with
the atoms and lose energy.
Properties of Photons:
1. Photons are packets or bundles or quantas of energy. 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝜈
2. They are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
3. When intensity of radiation increases, the no. of photons increases but does not increase the energy of the
photon, which is dependent on frequency of radiation.
4. They interact with particles such as e- by elastic collision. Total energy and total momentum conserved.
5. Rest mass of photon mo = 0. They travel at the speed of light. c=3 x 108 m/s
Energy of Photon: no. of Photons: 𝜂𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 Photocurrent:
ℎ𝑐 12375 𝑁= 𝐸
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 −
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞 𝑒 × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 −
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = = 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑉 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝑖= =
𝜆 𝜆 𝑖𝑛 Å 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 𝑡
Stopping potential Vo : Total KE of e-:
KE loss= PE gain 𝐾𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝐾𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙.𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉𝑜 1eV is the energy gained by one e- when it is accelerated by one volt.
When an e- is accelerated by 5V it means it will gain energy of 5 eV.
Wave picture Energy +Voltage and charging of a Sphere due to irradiation:
transfer: e- will be emitted until a point, where the positively charged sphere starts
not instantaneous, attracting the e- by reducing its KE. When KE of e- equals the PE, the
takes time t, emission of e- stops. So eV = KE
𝐼. 𝐴. 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 − . 𝜙𝑜 𝑘𝑞𝑒
= ℎ𝜈 − 𝜙𝑜
𝑟
(This is not the case in discharge tube experiment as the e- are coming back to the
plate due to the circuit flow of e-, so its positive charge does not increase due to
removal of photo e-)
Dual nature of Radiation and Matter:

While in motion light or EM radiation exhibits wave nature confirmed by interference, diffraction,
polarization. While interacting with matter they do so in energy quanta called photons confirmed by
photoelectric effect, compton effect. So radiation is wave or particle?

Louis de Broglie said, “there was no real reason to accept particle theory or wave theory exclusively. Both are
correct. Radiation must be regarded as a physical characteristics with a dual nature.”
He also said, “If radiation can behave as wave and matter, by symmetry of nature, why can’t matter behave as
waves?”
de Broglie wavelength or Matter waves: Electron pulled with accelerating potential V:
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = , 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 1.227 12.27 150
𝜆 𝜆= 𝑛𝑚 = Å=√ Å
1 √𝑉 √𝑉 𝑉
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 , 2𝑚𝐾 = 𝑝2
2 de Broglie wavelength of e- moving at a speed of say
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ 6.6 x 106 m/s will be in the order of 10-10 m which is
𝜆= = = =
𝑚𝑣 𝑝 √2𝑚𝐾 √2𝑚𝑞𝑉 significant and 1000s of order smaller than visible
 For stationary objects, 𝑣 = 0 and 𝜆 is undefined. light, so used in electron microscope which is 1000s
 For 70 kg person running at 2 m/s 𝜆 is the order of times more resolving power than the usual
of 10-36.So 𝜆 of objects in day to day life is microscopes.
insignificant.
 Matter waves are not electromagnetic in nature.
So charge of the particle does not affect de
Broglie wavelength.
Davisson-Germer Electron Diffraction Experiment:
Electrons emitted from a heated filament is accelerated by a high
potential difference between cathode filament and anode aperture. Fast
moving electron beam is scattered by the atomic crystal lattice of
Nickel. The electrons are diffracted from the crystal in all directions,
which undergo constructive and destructive interference. The
diffraction pattern for electron is not visible by naked eye, so Faraday
cylinder needs to be moved in a circular scale to measure the maxima,
minima intensity using a galvanometer.
150 150
Using de Broglie’s wavelength, 𝜆 = √ Å = √ 54 Å = 1.67 Å
𝑉
Using diffraction and interference theory, 𝜆 = 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 2 (0.91) sin 65 = 1.65 Å
Both wavelengths were in good agreement confirming the wave nature of electrons.
Davisson-Germer Electron Diffraction Experiment / Bragg’s Planes:
150
de Broglie wavelength, 𝜆 = √ Å
𝑉
For maxima, the condition using the path difference is,
Glancing Incidence: 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
Normal Incidence: 𝑏 sin 𝜙 = 𝑛𝜆
𝜃 is the Glancing angle, 𝜙 is the diffraction angle.
X-ray production: Continuous X-rays + Heisenberg’s uncertainty Principle:
-
Energy of e = Max ℎ
∆𝑥 ∆𝑝 ≈ 2𝜋
Energy of X-ray Photon
ℎ𝑐
𝑒𝑉 = ℎ𝜈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑝 ≥
ℎ𝑐 12375 4𝜋
𝑉= = As uncertainty in
𝑒 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 Å position decreases, uncertainty in momentum
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉 V is accelerating potential increases.
2
 Intensity: + Relativistic mass when in motion, KE to Temp. relation:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑚𝑜 3
𝐼= = 𝑚= 𝐾 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2 2
√1 − 𝑣2 𝑘𝐵 = 1.38 × 10−23J/K
𝑐
1 𝑚𝑜 is the rest mass. 𝑇 in Kelvin,
𝐼 𝛼
𝑑2 Total energy of a particle moving at the speed of 3⁄2 for Monoatomic,
light, 5⁄2 Diatomic,
𝐸 = √𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 4 7⁄2 Triatomic

What is Light?

Newton’s corpuscular theory: Particle nature

Huygens wave theory: Wave nature, explained Reflection, Refraction, Interference, Diffraction, Polarization.

Maxwell’s Electromagnetic wave theory: Did not explain Photo electric effect.

Einstein Planck’s Quantum hypothesis: Particle nature, Photons, Photoelectric effect, Compton effect  KE
and momentum conserved between X-ray photons and electrons.

de Broglie dual nature of light: Wave and particle nature both accepted. While propagation electromagnetic
wave theory holds, while interacting with matter such as absorption and emission, photon theory holds.
Compton Effect:
When X-rays collide with electrons, X-ray photons interact with electrons as though
they are particles conserving total momentum and total energy. After collision X-
rays transfer energy to e- increasing its KE and so the X-ray photons reduce in its
energy represented by longer wavelength.
Momentum conservation separately applied for x and y directions as momentum is a
vector quantity whereas KE is scalar quantity.
Though light or EM radiation does not have any mass, note that in the particle picture, photons will still have
momentum given by the de Broglie’s wavelength formula.
 𝜆𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 550 𝑛𝑚 (for white light), Area of Atom = 10-20 m2
1 1 1 ℎ 𝐸𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑣
 Typed problems: 𝐸𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 𝑝𝑣 = 2 𝑣→ = 2𝑐, when 𝜆𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜆𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝜆 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
 If intensity is kept constant and the frequency of the radiation is changed, then the no. of photons will
change. 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 , 𝑁1 𝐸1 = 𝑁2 𝐸2 , 𝑁1 ℎ𝜈1 = 𝑁2 ℎ𝜈2, No. of photons is inversely proportional to the
frequency when the intensity is kept constant.
 32.Atoms
Spectrum: Set of wavelengths.
Continuous Spectrum: All wavelengths in the visible Line Spectrum: Few specific lines of wavelengths
light region VIBGYOR. appearing.
Emission Spectrum: Absorption Spectrum:

When white light is passed through gaseous atoms

the light coming out when examined had VIBGYOR
spectrum with some dark lines where some
frequencies were missing. These frequencies were
absorbed by the gaseous atoms.

In the emission and absorption spectrum, the lines

perfectly matches with each other. These lines are
When gaseous atoms were electrically excited the specific to the particular gas and useful to identify the
light emitted out was found to be having specific unknown gas just like finger prints.
frequencies (Line spectrum) rather than a continous
VIBGYOR spectrum. This is called the emission line
spectrum.
JJ Thomson’s model of atom 1890:
 Cathode rays are negatively charged.
 Different material gave same type of cathode rays, which confirmed the negatively
charged electrons is a fundamental particle in all the materials.
 Plum pudding model, where the plums embedded can be imagined to be the
electrons and the pudding to be the positively charged.
 Atoms are electrically neutral. So negative charge is equal to positive charge.
 Explained: Thermionic emission, Photoelectric emission and ionisation.
 Failed to explain: Emission spectra of atoms, alpha particle scattering experiment.
Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden’s 𝛼 particle scattering experiment:

Observations Inferences / Conclusions

Most 𝛼 went straight without deflection.
Some of them deflected.
Very few 1 in 10,000 or 20,000 returned back 180o.
Most 𝛼 did no deflection, few 𝛼 did less deflection.
Different metals had different deflection.
Rutherford’s model of atom 1911:
 Atom is hollow for the most part ~10-10 m, with
positively charged nucleus concentrated in a very
small region ~10-14 to 10-15 m.
 Electrons are spinning around the nucleus.
Centripetal force for the circular motion of
electrons is provided by the electrostatic force of
attraction between electrons and positive charged
nucleus.
 Atoms are electrically neutral. So negative charge
is equal to positive charge.
Distance of Closest Approach:
Atom must be hollow or empty for the most part
Positive charge of the atom must be concentrated in
a very small space.
Positive charge is concentrated in a very small
region called nucleus which is 10,000 times smaller
than atom size.
Away from nucleus no deflection, closer to nucleus
more deflection. Coloumb’s law applicable.
Different positive charge in different metals’nucleus.
Limitations:
 As electrons spins around the
nucleus it will radiate energy,
given out as EM waves and it
will lose energy, so it will spiral into the nucleus
and will be unstable.
 As electrons spins through different orbits, it
should radiate EM waves of all frequencies. But
atomic spectra is not continuous but sharp lines
called line spectra corresponding to a particular
frequency. So line spectrum not explained.
Impact parameter b, Defelection or scattering angle 𝜃:

𝐾𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸
1 1 2𝑒. 𝑍𝑒 Impact parameter b is the distance between the center
𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼2 =
2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑜 of the nucleus to the direction of the 𝛼 particle. K is
𝑟 < 𝑟𝑜 the KE of 𝛼 particle. N is the no. of particles scattered
Size of nucleus had to be smaller than 𝑟0 , distance of in a particular angle 𝜃.
𝜃 1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝜃
closest approach. 𝑟0 = 2.5 × 10−14 𝑚 𝑏 ∝ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( 2) , 𝑏 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( 2 )
Size of nucleus estimated to be ~10-14 to 10-15 m. 𝑜
For α particle,
1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝜃 𝑍2. 𝐾
𝑏= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( ) , 𝑁 ∝
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐾 2 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛4 2
Bohr’s model of atom and postulates 1913:
1) Stable orbits: 3) Frequency condition:
Electron in certain orbits revolve around the nucleus When 𝑒 − transition from
without radiating energy thereby does not lose higher energy level to lower
energy. These orbits are called stable orbits. energy level, the difference in
energy is emitted as energy of
2) Quantization condition: photon. (EM waves).
In stable orbits angular momentum of electron is an 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈
integral multiple of ℎ/2𝜋.
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
𝑛 = 1,2,3, ….
Coloumb’s force of attraction between electron and 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈
nucleus provides the centripetal force for circular 1 1
motion. For Hydrogen atom, ∆𝐸 = 13.6 [ 2 − 2 ] 𝑒𝑉
𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑒2
=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 1 𝑚𝑒 4 1 1 ℎ𝑐
Squaring quantisation condition on both sides, − 2 [ 2 − 2 ] =
8 ℎ2 𝜀0 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝜆
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑟 2 = 1 1 𝑚𝑒 4 1 1 1 1
4𝜋 2 = [ − ] = 𝑅 [ − ]
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜆 8 ℎ3 𝑐 𝜀02 𝑛12 𝑛22 𝑛12 𝑛22
2 2 2 2 2
𝑚 𝑣 𝑟 4𝜋 2 → 𝑟 = 𝑛 ℎ 𝜀0 𝑅 = 1.097 × 107 𝑚−1 is Rydberg const., 1/ 𝜆 is the
= 𝑛
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑒2 𝜋𝑒 2 𝑚 wave number, oscillations per metre.
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑛ℎ 𝑒2
𝑣= → 𝑣𝑛 = Hydrogen Spectrum:
2𝜋𝑚𝑟 2𝑛ℎ𝜀0

𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
1 2
1 𝑒2
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑣𝑛 −
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑛
1 𝑒4 1 𝑒2
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚 2 2 2 −
2 4𝑛 ℎ 𝜀0 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0
𝑚𝜋𝑒 2
1 𝑚𝑒 4 13.6
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = − 2 2 2 → 𝐸𝑛 = − 2 𝑒𝑉
8 𝑛 ℎ 𝜀0 𝑛
1 1 1
Quantisation condition from de Broglie’s 𝐿𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛: = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ], 𝑛2 = 2,3, …
𝜆 1 𝑛2
wavelength:
Only when the circumference of an 1 1 1
𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑒𝑟: = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ], 𝑛2 = 3,4, …
orbit equals the integral multiple of 𝜆 2 𝑛2
wavelength, standing or stationary 1 1 1
electron waves are formed so that 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑛: = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ], 𝑛2 = 4,5, …
𝜆 3 𝑛2
electron does not radiate any energy 1 1 1
in these orbits. 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑡: = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ], 𝑛2 = 5,6, …
𝜆 4 𝑛2
2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
ℎ 𝑛ℎ 1 1 1
2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛 → 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑃𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑: = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ], 𝑛2 = 6,7, …
𝑚𝑣 2𝜋 𝜆 5 𝑛2
 Progressive wave transfer energy while stationary For absorption spectra only Lymann series observed.
wave does not transfer energy, so it does not lose Balmer series observed only in sun due to hot
its energy. atmospheres making electrons in excited state
 n is the quantum number. So de Broglie possible.
wavelength of e- can be found from 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 For lowest wavelength and highest frequency and
energy transition, take initial level 𝑛2 = ∞.
Limitations of Bohr’s model:
 Bohr’s model worked well for Hydrogen and Hydrogenic atoms (He+, Li2+, Be3+) where there was only
one electron.Only the nucleus and one electron interacted. But the model did not work well for more
complicated atoms with more electrons, because the electron to electron interaction became more complex.
 While Bohr’s model successfully explained the frequencies in the line spectra of Hydrogen, it failed to
explain the relative intensity variation between the frequencies. Also it did not explain the fine lines inside
the one given frequency.
Bohr’s Formula Summary:
Underlying 𝑛ℎ 𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑒2
principles 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = , =
2𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
Orbital Radius 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀𝑜 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀𝑜 1 1
𝑟𝑛 = , 𝑟𝑛 = , 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2 , 𝑟𝑛 ∝ , 𝑟𝑛 ∝
𝑚𝜋𝑒 2 𝑚𝜋𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚 𝑍
Z=1 for H, Z=2 for He+, Z=3 for Li2+, Z=4 for Be3+,
Bohr’s radius 𝑟1= 0.53 Å for 1st orbit of H, 𝑟𝑛 = 0.53 𝑛2 Å
Orbital Velocity 𝑒2 𝑍𝑒 2 1 𝑐
𝑣𝑛 = , 𝑣𝑛 = , 𝑣𝑛 ∝ , 𝑣𝑛 ∝ 𝑍, 𝑣𝑛 = 𝛼
2𝑛ℎ𝜀𝑜 2𝑛ℎ𝜀𝑜 𝑛 𝑛
𝑣1 1
𝑣1 = 2.2 x 106 m/s for 1st orbit of H, 𝛼 is called fine structure constant, 𝛼 = = 137
𝑐

Orbital Time Period, 2𝜋𝑟 4𝑛3 ℎ3 𝜀𝑜2 1

Freq. 𝑇= = 4
, 𝜈=
𝑣 𝑚𝑒 𝑇
This is the classical frequency of revolution of electron in an orbit.
Potential Energy 1 𝑒2 1 𝑚𝑒 4 1 2 𝑚𝑒 4
𝑈=− , 𝑈=− , 𝑈 = − 𝑍 2 2 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀𝑜2 4 𝑛 ℎ 𝜀𝑜
Kinetic Energy 1 𝑒2 1 𝑚𝑒 4 1 2 𝑚𝑒 4
𝐾= , 𝐾= , 𝐾= 𝑍 2 2 2
8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 8 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀𝑜2 8 𝑛 ℎ 𝜀𝑜
Total Energy 1 𝑒2 1 𝑚𝑒 4 1 2 𝑚𝑒 4 13.6
𝐸=− , 𝐸=− , 𝐸=− 𝑍 2 2 2 , 𝐸 = − 2 . 𝑍 2 𝑒𝑉
8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 8 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀𝑜2 8 𝑛 ℎ 𝜀𝑜 𝑛
𝐸1 = −13.6 𝑒𝑉 for 1st orbit of H
PE, KE, TE 𝑈 1
(magnitude) = 𝐾 = 𝐸, 𝐸𝑛 𝛼 2 , 𝐸𝑛 ∝ 𝑚, 𝐸𝑛 ∝ 𝑍 2
2 𝑛
This is true only for the underlying assumption PE=0 at infinity. If reference of PE
changes, PE value will change while the KE remains the same. TE will also change.
Orbital e- de Broglie ℎ ℎ
wavelength 𝜆= = , 𝐾 = 𝐸𝑛 , 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑝 √2𝑚𝑘
Balmer’s empirical 1 1 1 1 1 1
formula = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2] , = 𝑍2𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
𝜆 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝜆 𝑛1 𝑛2
 Ionization energy is the energy required to ionize  Ionization potential is the accelerating potential
the atom, to make the electron jump from present through which an electron gains energy equal to
orbit to infinity. 𝐸∞ − 𝐸1 = 13.6 𝑒𝑉. the ionization energy.(13.6 V)
 Excitation energy is the energy required to excite  Excitation potential is the accelerating potential
the electron from lower energy level to higher through which an electron gains energy equal to
energy level. 𝐸2 − 𝐸1. excitation energy.
 Second excitation state refers to n=3 not n=2.
Ground level will be n=1.
No. of possible transitions between a given higher and lower energy levels:
(𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )(𝑛2 − 𝑛1 + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) =
2
 Typed problem: When one H atom collides with another stationary H atom inelastically, the difference in
the KE before and after is used for the excitation of electron from lower level to higher energy level.
𝑢 1 1 𝐾𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑚𝑢 + 0 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑚𝑣, 𝑣= , ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑢2 − (2𝑚)𝑣 2 =
2 2 2 2
 If angular momentum L is conserved during the transitions, then the excess angular momentum is carried
ℎ
away by the photon emitted. 𝐿𝑛2 − 𝐿𝑛1 = 𝐿𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 , 2𝜋 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) = 𝐿𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
 No. of electrons in an orbit is given by 2n2. (2, 8, 18, 32….)
𝑑𝑊 𝑑(𝑃𝐸)
 Force from potential energy: 𝐹 = − 𝑑𝑟 = − 𝑑𝑟
+ Thomson’s Cathode Ray Experiment to determine Specific charge: 𝑒⁄𝑚 = 1.7 × 1011 𝐶 𝐾𝑔−1
Experimental setup: Velocity Selector Arrangement:
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑚
𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝐸
𝑣=
𝐵

Specific Charge by 𝐸⃗⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ fields: ⃗⃗ only:
Specific Charge by 𝐵
𝑃𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 𝑚𝑣 2
1 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵
𝑞𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑅
2
𝑒 𝑣2 𝐸2 𝑒 𝐸
= = = 2
𝑚 2𝑉 2𝑉𝐵 2 𝑚 𝐵 𝑅

Specific Charge by 𝐸⃗⃗ only:

𝑒𝐸
𝑚𝑎 = 𝐹𝑒 , 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑚
𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟: 𝑙 = 𝑣. 𝑡
′
1 2
1 𝑒𝐸 𝑙 2 1 𝑒 𝑙 2 𝐵 2
𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑟: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 = ( ) =
2 2𝑚 𝑣 2𝑚 𝐸
𝑦 ∝ 𝑦 ′ 𝑦 = 𝐶. 𝑦 ′
𝑦 𝐿
C is an equipment constant. approx. similar triangles method to get C value. 𝑦 ′ = 𝑙 = 𝐶
𝑒 2𝐸𝑦
= 2 2
𝑚 𝐶𝑙 𝐵
+ Millikan’s Oil drop Experiment to determine Elementary charge e:

Without 𝐸⃗⃗ Oil drop falling at terminal velocity 𝑣: With 𝐸⃗⃗ Oil drop made stationary in air:
Gravitational force = Buoyancy force + Viscous drag Gravitational force = Buoyancy force + Electric force
force 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑒
𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑣 4𝜋𝑟 3
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔 + 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 (𝜌 − 𝜎) 𝑔 = 𝑞𝐸
3
𝜌𝑉𝑔 = 𝜎𝑉𝑔 + 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 4𝜋𝑟 3
4𝜋𝑟 3 𝑞 = (𝜌 − 𝜎) 𝑔
(𝜌 − 𝜎) 𝑔 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 3𝐸
3 Based on the above charge q was calculated
9𝜂𝑣 to be always an integral multiple of
𝑟=√ 1.6 x 10-19 which is the elementary charge e.
2(𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔 𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒
+ X-ray Production: Coolidge tube:
 Principle: Heated filament emits electrons, these are then
accelerated by the high voltage between the anode and cathode.
High KE electrons hit the heavy metal target such as Tungsten,
Molybdenum with high melting point. As the electrons are
decelerated by the heavy metal, energy of electrons gets converted
to electromagnetic waves called X-rays.
 Only 1% of electron energy gets converted to X-ray and the
remaining gets dissipated as heat. This huge amount heat is dissipated through copper block and running
water.
 Entire setup is inside a vacuum chamber and covered with lead container to prevent radiation leak.
 As current in the filament is increased in the low voltage circuit, no. of e- increases, so intensity of x-rays
increases.
 As the accelerating voltage is increased between the cathode and anode, KE of e- increases, so energy of x-
rays increases, so more penetrating power. 50kV for penetrating human body and 100kV to penetrate thick
iron sheets. Higher the energy of x-ray, higher the frequency, lower the wavelength.
X-ray Continuous Spectrum: X-ray Characteristic Spectrum:

KE of e- is converted to X-ray photon energy.
However not all the e- are stopped/decelerated by the
top layer of atoms. So the X-ray photon does not
come out with one single frequency but with a range
of frequencies called the continuous spectrum.
Due to the high energy e- hitting the target material, if
e- in the K shell is knocked out, to fill the gap, e-
from higher energy levels L, M shells will fall into the
K shell, giving rise to Characteristic spectrum seen as
spikes. It is called Characteristic because it depends
upon the target material.

KE of e- = PE = Max Energy of X-ray Photon Moseley’s law:

1 ℎ𝑐
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉 = ℎ𝜈𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛
ℎ𝑐 12375
𝑉= =
𝑒 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 Å
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝜈𝑚𝑎𝑥 depends upon the accelerating potential V
and does not depend upon the target material.

√𝜈 = 𝑘(𝑍 − 𝑏)
Moseley concluded that atomic number not atomic
weight which is more fundamental with regard to
emission of characteristic x-rays.
√𝜈 = 𝑘𝑍 − 𝑘𝑏
𝑘is the slope and 𝑘𝑏 is the y intercept.

Note that 𝐾𝛽 > 𝐾𝛼 as the difference in the energy

𝑉𝐴 > 𝑉𝐵 so the energy of the x-ray phtons are higher transition level is higher for 𝐾𝛽 .
seen by the 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝜈𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
𝑍𝐵 > 𝑍𝐴 so the 𝐾𝐵 > 𝐾𝐴 as towards the left in the
graph means higher frequency, so higher energy.
33.Nuclei
Isotope Isobar Isotone 1𝑢~𝑚𝑝 ~𝑚𝑛 ~1.67 x 10-27 kg Abundance: A is mass no.
1 2 3 3 3 198 197 12
1𝐻 , 1𝐻 , 1𝐻 1𝐻 , 2𝐻𝑒 80𝐻𝑔, 79𝐴𝑢 1 𝑢 = 1/12 mass of 6𝐶 atom 𝐴𝑎𝑣𝑔 = % 𝐴𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 1 + % 𝐴𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 2 ..
th

Radius of Nucleus: Density of Nucleus: Molar Mass:

𝑅 ∝ 𝐴1⁄3 𝐴. 𝑢 3𝑢 1 mol = 6.02 x 1023
𝜌𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 1 g of H  6.02 x 1023 atoms
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 𝐴1⁄3 4𝜋𝑅 3 4𝜋𝑅𝑜3
𝑅𝑜 = 1.2 × 10−15 𝑚 3 4 g of He  6.02 x 1023 atoms
𝜌𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 ≅ 1017 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 235 g of U  6.02 x 1023 atoms
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 1 g of U  6.02 x 1023 / 235 atoms
𝜌𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 is independent of mass no. 1 atom of U  235 / 6.02 x 1023 g
Mass Defect of Nucleus: Binding Energy of Nucleus, 𝐸𝑏 :
∆𝑚 = 𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 − 𝑚𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 𝐸𝑏 = ∆𝑚 . 𝑐 2 , 1𝑢 ≡ 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉,
∆𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − (𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 − 𝑍𝑚𝑒 ) 𝐸𝑏 = ∆𝑚 × 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
∆𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚𝐻 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 Average Binding Energy per nucleon:
𝐸𝑏𝑛 = 𝐸𝑏 ⁄𝐴
Comparing Energies:
Valence Band to Conduction Band e.g. ~1-3 eV
Work Function 𝜙𝑜 e.g. ~ 2-5 eV
Ionization Energy IE e.g. ~ 13.6 eV
Binding Energy 𝐸𝑏 e.g. ~100 MeV
Saturation property of Nuclear force: leading to the Short Range Strong Nuclear Force, Saturation of
constancy of the BE in the range 30 < A < 170: Nuclear Force:

The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly

to zero as their distance is more than a few
femtometres, This leads to saturation of forces in a
medium or large sized nucleus, which is the reason
for the constancy of the binding energy per nucleon.
3
1𝐻 will have higher binding energy than 32𝐻𝑒. Why?
In helium 2 protons are there which will have
repulsion reducing the binding energy.
𝐸𝑏𝑛 ∝ 𝑝, 𝐸𝑏𝑛 = 𝑘𝑝, p is the no. of nucleons close to a
given nucleon that can influence this nucleon. If we
increase A by adding nucleons they will not change
the BE of the nucleon inside, since most of the
nucleons are inside and not on the surface, 𝐸𝑏𝑛 is a
constant, giving rise to the constancy of the 𝐸𝑏𝑛 .
The property that a given nucleon influences only
nucleons close to it is also referred to as saturation
property of the nuclear force.
Radioactivity:
Spontaneous emission of 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 from large unstable nuclei such as Uranium, Polonium, Radium.
Spontaneous because it is natural process and cannot be controlled by temperature, pressure or catalyst.
It is random process because we cannot say which atom is going to decay. We can only say the probability of
decay of an atom in a set of atoms.
Law of Radioactive decay: Rutherford Soddy law: Half-life:
Activity, rate of decay of atoms is proportional to the 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
no. of atoms left behind. 𝑁0
𝑑𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡1/2
− ∝𝑁 2
𝑑𝑡 1
𝑑𝑁 𝑙𝑛 = −𝜆𝑡1/2
− = 𝜆𝑁 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑙𝑛 2 = 𝜆𝑡1/2
𝑁 𝑡
𝑑𝑁 𝑙𝑛 2 0.693
∫ = − ∫ 𝜆𝑑𝑡 𝑡1/2 = =
𝑁0 𝑁 0 𝜆 𝜆
𝑁0 𝑁0
[ln 𝑁]𝑁 𝑡
𝑁0 = −𝜆[𝑡]0
After 1st half life, no. of atoms left is, =
2 21
nd 𝑁0 𝑁0
𝑁 After 2 half life, no. of atoms left is, =
4 22
𝑙𝑛 = −𝜆𝑡 rd 𝑁0 𝑁0
𝑁0 After 3 half life, no. of atoms left is, =
8 23
𝑁
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑁0
𝑁0 No. of atoms left after n half lives is, =
2𝑛
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝐴𝑜
Activity after n half lives,=
2𝑛
Activity, measured in dps-disintegrations per sec,
𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁 Mean Life:
∞
𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 ∫0 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜏= =
𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑁0
𝐴0 is the initial activity when time t = 0. 1
𝜏 = = 1.44 𝑡1/2
𝜆
Decay constant: Mean life is larger than half life because the last few
−𝑑𝑁⁄ atoms live extremely long time.
𝜆= 𝑁
Probability of an atom to survive after a time t,
𝑑𝑡 𝑁
Probability of decay of one atom, in a given unit of = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
time. Unit: s-1, min-1, yr-1 𝑁𝑜

Units of Radioactivity: Element Half-Life

disintegrations per sec (dps) Radium-226 1620 years
1 Becquerel (1Bq) = 1 dps Cobalt-60 5.27 years
1 Rutherford (1Rd)=106 dps Uranium-238 4.5 billion years
1 Curie (1 Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 dps Carbon-14 5730 years
mCi-milli curie, 𝜇𝐶𝑖-micro curie Muon (elementary particle) 2 x 10-6 s
Other elementary particles 10-23 s
Property 𝛼 𝛽 𝛾
4
Particle 2p+2n, 2𝐻𝑒nucleus Electron or positron EM wave or radiation
Mass 4u ~ 𝑢/1800 0
Charge 2e -e or +e 0
Typical speed 5% of c 99% of c c
Penetration power 1mm paper, few cm air 2 mm of Aluminium 2 cm of Lead
Ionizing power 10,000 100 1
Deflection by ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸, 𝐵⃗⃗ field Yes Yes No
Affect photographic plate Yes Yes Yes
𝛼 decay: 𝛾 decay:
𝐴 𝐴−4 4 𝛼, 𝛽emission always is
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 2𝐻𝑒 + 𝑄
238 234 4 accompanied with 𝛾
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒 + 𝑄
emission due to the newly
226 222 4
88𝑅𝑎 → 86𝑅𝑛 + 2𝐻𝑒 + 𝑄 formed nucleus falling from
𝑄 is the energy released in the form of KE of 𝛼- excited to stable nuclear
particle and the daughter nucleus. energy level.
Radioactive decay makes the nuclei to fall into a Energy carried by 𝛽 − = Q –
deeper energy well to make the nuclei more stable, Excited energy of daughter Nucleus.
increasing the binding energy, there by increasing the Energy of 𝛾 photon = ℎ𝜈= Excited energy of
binding energy per nucleon. daughter nucleus from ground level.
𝛽 − decay: 𝛽 + decay:
𝐴 𝐴 0 𝐴 𝐴 0
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝑌 + −1𝑒 + 𝜈̅ + 𝑄 𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−1𝑌 + 1𝑒 + 𝜈 + 𝑄
234 234 0 22 22 0
90𝑇ℎ → 91𝑃𝑎 + −1𝑒 + 𝜈̅ + 𝑄 11𝑁𝑎 → 10𝑁𝑒 + 1𝑒 + 𝜈 +𝑄
1 1 0 1 1 0
0𝑛 → 1𝑝 + −1𝑒 + 𝜈̅ + 𝑄 1𝑝 → 0𝑛 + 1𝑒 + 𝜈 + 𝑄
𝜈̅ is anti-neutrino which is chargeless, almost zero 𝜈 is neutrino which is chargeless, almost zero mass
mass sub-atomic particle. Since ‘n’ is becoming a ‘p’ sub-atomic particle. Since ‘p’ is becoming a ‘n’ and
and an electron , the mass no. remains same but the a positron, the mass no. remains same but the atomic
atomic no. increases by one. no. decreases by one.
∆𝑚 = 𝑚𝑁 ( 𝐴𝑍𝑋) − 𝑚𝑁 ( 𝑍+1𝐴𝑌) − 𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑚 = 𝑚𝑁 ( 𝐴𝑍𝑋) − 𝑚𝑁 ( 𝑍−1𝐴𝑌) − 𝑚𝑒
= 𝑚( 𝐴𝑍𝑋) − 𝑧 𝑚𝑒 − [𝑚( 𝑍+1𝐴𝑌) − (𝑧 + 1)𝑚𝑒 ] − 𝑚𝑒 = 𝑚( 𝐴𝑍𝑋) − 𝑧 𝑚𝑒 − [𝑚( 𝑍−1𝐴𝑌) − (𝑧 − 1)𝑚𝑒 ] − 𝑚𝑒
= 𝑚( 𝐴𝑍𝑋) − 𝑚( 𝑍+1𝐴𝑌) = 𝑚( 𝐴𝑍𝑋) − 𝑚( 𝑍−1𝐴𝑌) − 2𝑚𝑒

Mass Defect of Radioactivity or Nuclear Reaction: Possibility of a spontaneous reaction:

From the atomic masses the mass of the e- should be Only if ∆𝑚 and so ∆𝐸 are positive, the reaction will
subtracted to get the mass of the nucleus. However in take place spontaneously, otherwise it will not
some cases such as 𝛼, 𝛽 − nucelar fission etc. the me happen.
will cancel out, but this is not the case always e.g. 𝛽 +
Q released in Radioactivity and Nuclear Fission appears as KE:
Based on Momentum and KE conservation,
1 1 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼 2 𝑚𝛼
𝑄 = 𝐾𝐸𝛼 + 𝐾𝐸𝑑 = 𝐾𝐸𝛼 + 𝑚𝑑 𝑣𝑑2 = 𝐾𝐸𝛼 + 𝑚𝑑 ( ) 𝑄 = 𝐾𝐸𝛼 [1 + ]
2 2 𝑚𝑑 𝑚𝑑
𝐴𝑑 𝐴𝑑 𝐴−4
𝐾𝐸𝛼 = 𝑄. = 𝑄. = 𝑄.
𝐴𝑑 + 𝐴𝛼 𝐴𝑝 𝐴
𝐴𝛼 𝐴𝛼 4
𝐾𝐸𝑑 = 𝑄. = 𝑄. = 𝑄.
𝐴𝑑 + 𝐴𝛼 𝐴𝑝 𝐴
- +
Same principles are applicable for Beta decay, but since e and e are so small in mass, almost all the energy
will be carried by the beta particles while the daughter nucleus will be almost stationary. Maximum energy
carried by alpha or beta particles will be Q, when the daughter nucleus is stationary.
Electron Capture decay: C-14 Radio Carbon Dating:
The electron from K or L shells can be absorbed by When the specimen is alive the C-14 to C-12 ratio is
proton in the nucleus to give a neutron and neutrino. 1.3 x 10-12.
1 0 1
1𝑝 + −1𝑒 → 0𝑛 + 𝜈 So, for a 200g carbon sample from an archaeological
𝐴 0 𝐴 site means, when the specimen was alive the C-14
𝑍𝑋 + −1𝑒 → 𝑍−1𝑌 + 𝜈 + 𝛾
120 0 120 6.02 ×1023
54𝑋𝑒 + −1𝑒 → 53𝐼 + 𝜈 + 𝛾 amount would have been, 𝑁0 = 12
× 200 ×
The competing process is the 𝛽 + , as the same 𝑙𝑛 2
1.3 × 10−12 , 𝜆 = 5730𝑦𝑟𝑠 , so the initial activity,
daughter nucleus is formed.
∆𝑚 = 𝑚𝑁 ( 𝐴𝑍𝑋) + 𝑚𝑒 − 𝑚𝑁 ( 𝑍−1𝐴𝑌) 𝐴0 = 𝜆𝑁𝑜 = 50 𝐵𝑞 (𝑑𝑝𝑠),
= (𝑚( 𝐴𝑍𝑋) − 𝑧. 𝑚𝑒 ) + 𝑚𝑒 − (𝑚( 𝑍−1𝐴𝑌) − (𝑧 − 1)𝑚𝑒 ) From the present activity value and the above initial
= 𝑚( 𝐴𝑍𝑋) − 𝑚( 𝑍−1𝐴𝑌) activity value, the age of the specimen can be
By looking at ∆𝑚, if 𝛽 + is allowed then e- capture estimated using, 𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
will necessarily be allowed but not vice versa.
Nuclear Fission Chain reaction: Enrico Fermi first suggested this.
235 1 141 92 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 → 56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 + ~200 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Difference in the binding energy between the parent and the
daughter nuclei is released as fission or fusion nuclear energy.

Uncontrolled Chain reaction: Controlled Chain reaction:

e.g. Atomic bomb e.g. Nuclear reactor
Three or two neutrons coming out from one fission If some of the neutrons are absorbed without causing
will bombard more U235 to cause more fission. 1, 3, further fission, maintaining the reaction rate at a
9, 27, 81,…exponential increase in a fraction of a given level, then it is controlled chain reaction.
second causing huge release of energy or explosion.
Nuclear Fission Reactor: Multiplication factor:
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐾=
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
K=1 critical: reaction rate is maintained at the same
rate. Safe to operate the reactor. K > 1 super critical:
reaction rate is exponentially increasing. Unsafe to
operate and can lead to nuclear explosion. K < 1 sub
critical: reaction rate is decreasing and can stop the
reactor.
Fast neutrons > 2 MeV are slowed down by elastic Control rods are neutron absorbing materials such as
scattering by lighter nuclie materials called Boron, Cadmium which are used to control the chain
moderators such as water, heavy water, graphite so reaction rate.
that they become slow neutrons < 1 eV(thermal Safety rods or Shut-off rods are similar to control
neutrons), to make the chain reaction possible in rods but it is used to shut off the reactor in case of an
U235. emergency or danger.
Nuclear Reactor Power generation Problem: Breeder Reactor: U235: U238 occurs in the relative
𝑥 g is the mass of the fuel consumed in t years. abundance of 1: 145. U235 is fissionable but U238 is
Watt = not. So to make it fissionable, U238 is converted to
6.02 × 1023 Plutonium in separate reactor called Breeder reactor.
𝑥 200 𝑀𝑒𝑉 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
235 238 239 239 0
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 92𝑈 → 93𝑁𝑝 + −1𝑒 + 𝜈̅ +𝑄
𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 × 3.15 × 107 𝑠
239
93𝑁𝑝 → 239 0
94𝑃𝑢 + −1𝑒 + 𝜈̅ + 𝑄

Thermonuclear Fusion reaction: Proton-Proton Cycle: Energy production in stars:

As p-p come closer to fuse, the coloumb’s force of 1 1 2 0
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 1𝐻 + 1𝑒 + 𝜈 + 𝑄 [1+1=2]
repulsion prevents them from coming closer and 0 0
there is a huge potential barrier. To over come this, a 1𝑒 + −1𝑒 → 𝛾 + 𝛾, pair annihilation
very high energy is required in the form of millions 2 1 3
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 𝛾 [2+1=3]
of degrees temperature and pressures. 3 3 4 1
2𝐻𝑒 + 2𝐻𝑒 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 2 1𝐻 [3+3 = 4+2]
𝑒2 𝑒2 1
𝑃. 𝐸, 𝑈 = 𝑘 (𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒) = 𝑘 . 𝑒𝑉 4 11𝐻 + 2 −10𝑒 → 42𝐻𝑒 + 6𝛾 + 2𝜈 + 26.7 𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝑟 𝑟 𝑒
To overcome this height of the potential barrier, The first three reactions should happen twice to make
energy can be given in the form of heat of the the fourth reaction possible.
3
particles 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 . This is in the order of ~ 400
KeV. The temperatures will be in the order of 109 K.
Fission vs. Fusion:
Fission invariably produces spent fuel which give rise to long term harmful radioactivity. This is not the case
with fusion. Also the energy release will be many times higher in fusion as compared to fission which is why
more reasearch is done to make the fusion possible in large scale reactors.
Energy from one H atom ~ 6 MeV, Energy from 1g H ~ 6.02 x 1023 x 6 MeV
6.02 ×1023
Energy from one U atom ~ 200 MeV, Energy from 1g U ~ . 200 𝑀𝑒𝑉, So 𝐸𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 > 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
235
Two different emissions simultaneously:
Radioactive material simultaneously decaying by emission of two particles with different half lives or mean
lives, then the
𝜆𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜆1 + 𝜆2
1 1 1
= +
𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑡1 𝑡2
Mass spectrometer:
Charged particles as they enter a perpendicular magnetic field take a circular path
due to Lorentz force. From the radius of the circular path, the mass can be
determined.
𝑚𝑣 2
= 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝑟

Probing nucleons with e- :

ℎ
Nucleon size is 10-15 m. So the e- must be having a wavelength 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 < 10-15 m.

ln 𝑥 , 𝑒 𝑥 graphs: 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 × 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 × 3600 𝑠

= 3.15 × 107 𝑠,

For half life:

100502512.56.253.1251.50.750.3
750.1870.09

These numbers can be written in terms of n half lives

or 2n to simplify calculations. e.g. 3.125% = 2−5
log 𝑒 𝑥 = log 𝑒 10 . log10 𝑥
log 𝑒 𝑥 = 2.3. log10 𝑥

log 𝑒 2 = 0.693
log10 𝑒 = 0.4343
log10 2 = 0.3
𝑒 = 2.718
𝑒 −1 = 0.37
e- 1 2 3
1𝐻 1𝐻 1𝐻
Electron Proton Deutron Triton
Protium Deuterium Tritium
Specific charge, C kg-1 1.6 x 1011 1 × 108 1 1
𝑞 × 108 × 108
2 3
𝑚

 23 23
11𝑁𝑎 , 12𝑀𝑔 are called mirror isotopes. No. of protons in one element = no. of neutrons on the other.
𝑍1 = (𝐴 − 𝑍)2 , 𝑍2 = (𝐴 − 𝑍)1
 Neutron or proton separation energy is the energy required to pull one neutron or proton respectively.
This can be calculated by the neutron or proton emission reactions’ mass defect ∆𝑚 and Q which
will be negative as energy has to be supplied, endothermic.
35.Semiconductor Materials
Energy levels vs. Energy Bands:
In gaseous atoms, electrons in the orbit are not influenced by the near by atoms as the
inter atomic distance is very high. So energy levels are discreet.

In solids, atoms are so closely packed that the electrons get influenced by the near by
atoms, so the energy levels instead of discreet levels, many levels are possible
depending upon the no. of atoms available. If 1000 atoms are there then the outermost
electron will have 1000 different energy levels which are very closely packed called as
energy band.
The outermost shell containing the electrons are called the valence band VB. The next
level above the valence band where electrons with higher energy can jump to and start
freely moving conducting electricity is called conduction band CB. The gap between the VB and CB where
electrons cannot be available is called the energy gap or forbidden band.
Conductor, Insulator, Semiconductor:
In sodium 23 2 2 6 1
11𝑁𝑎 , the electrons are distributed as 2, 8, 1 or 1S , 2S , 2P , 3S . The
outermost level if it is fully filled electrons cannot move around. However if it is half
filled such as the sodium atom then the electrons can move around making electricity conduction possible.
So it is a conductor.
In Berrylium 49𝐵𝑒, the electrons are distributed as 2,2 or 1S2, 2S2. Energy levels of 2S
and 2P will overlap with each other. So the electrons in the 2S can easily jump into 2P to
conduct electricity. So it is also a conductor.

If the energy gap is more than 3 eV then the electrons from VB cannot jump to CB. So it
will be insulator. (When the energy supplied through the electric field is high enough, the
electrons can jump to CB becoming a conductor. This is phenomenon is called Dielectric
breakdown and the maximum electric field until which it remains as insulator is Dielectric
strength.
If the energy gap is less than 3 eV then the electrons from VB can jump to CB when the
required energy is supplied. The conductivity is between conductor and insulator, so it is
called as semiconductor. Silicon and Germanium are the most commonly used
semiconductor materials.
e.g.= 1.1 eV Si, 0.7 eV Ge, 0.3-0.4 eV Tellurium, 0 eV for Sn(metal), 5.2 eV C (insulator)
Intrinsic Semiconductor:
At absolute zero (0 K) none of the electrons have the energy to jump to CB so
semiconductors do not conduct electricity at 0 K. Highest energy level occupied
by an e- at 0 K in the CB is called Fermi level or Fermi energy.
As the temperature increases, electrons gain more thermal energy also called
thermal agitation which causes the electrons to jump to CB, so conduction becomes possible. However since
the no. of electrons excited to CB due to thermal energy is very little the conductivity is not significant for
practical use.
As electron jumps to CB it leaves behind an empty space in the VB called as a
hole. Very often in semiconductor terminology the hole is considered to be a
charge of +e, while that of electron is –e. This is because as electrons move
opposite to the electric field direction, we say holes move in the direction of
the electric field. Because of this, conduction is not only possible by
conduction electrons in the CB but also by the holes in the VB.
𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛𝑜 exp (− )
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑛𝑖 is the intrinsic carrier concentration, 𝑛𝑜 is a constant, 𝑘𝐵 =1.38 x 10-23 J/K or 8.6 x 10-5 eV/K, T is absolute
temperature.Typical value energy gap for intrinsic semiconductor 𝐸𝑔 ~1.2 𝑒𝑉 . 𝑛𝑖 is also proportional to T3/2.
Total current, 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑒 + 𝑖ℎ .
𝑚
Resistivity, 𝜌 = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏, as temperature increases, n increases, so 𝜌 decreases, so the conductivity increases.
 Extrinsic Semiconductor: To increase the conductivity to suitable level, semiconductor is doped with
impurity atoms in a controlled quantity. Example: 1 in 106.

p-type n-type
Trivalent Acceptor Impurity or Dopant Pentavalent Donor Impurity or Dopant
such as B,Al, Ga, In are added to Si or Ge such as P, As are added to Si or Ge
semiconductor materials to make extra semiconductor materials to make extra
holes. electrons.
Due to the availability of holes, electrons can As the 5th extra electron is not bound to the
jump into the hole, so the trivalent atom covalent bonds, it is free to move around, so
which was electrically neutral now becomes a the pentavalent atom which was electrically
negative ion. neutral now becomes a positive ion.
Holes are majority carriers, e- are minority carriers e- are majority carriers, holes are minority carriers
(due to thermal agitation) nh >> ne (due to thermal agitation) ne >> nh
Ea is the acceptor energy Ed is the donor energy level
level which is required to from which only a small
break a covalent bond and amount of energy ~0.1 eV is
-
make the e move towards the required to excite the e- to
next hole. CB.
𝑚 𝑉 𝐴 𝑁𝐷 − 𝑁𝐴 = [𝑛𝑒 − 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑒 ] − [𝑛ℎ − 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡.ℎ ]
𝜌= 2 𝑖 = = 𝑉
𝑛𝑒 𝜏 𝑅 𝜌𝑙 𝑁𝐷 − 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛𝑒 − 𝑛ℎ
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝑖 1𝑉 Law of mass action, 𝑛𝑒 . 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖2 , 𝑛𝑖 is
𝜎= =
𝑚 𝐴 𝜌𝑙 the intrinsic carrier concentration.
𝑒𝜏
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒 𝐸 From the quadratic equation formed in
𝑚 𝑗 = = 𝜎𝐸 terms of 𝑛𝑒 ,
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇 𝜌
𝑗 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 1
𝜇 = 𝑣𝑑 /𝐸 is the mobility of 𝜎= = = 𝑛𝑒𝜇 𝑛𝑒 = [(𝑁𝐷 − 𝑁𝐴 ) + √(𝑁𝐷 − 𝑁𝐴 )2 + 4𝑛𝑖2 ]
the charge carriers. 𝐸 𝐸 2
𝑖 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴 𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜎𝑒 + 𝜎ℎ
𝑖 ∝ 𝑛 𝑣𝑑 𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝜇ℎ n type is more common due to 𝜇𝑒 > 𝜇ℎ .

𝑖𝑒 ∝ 𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑑 𝑒−
𝑖ℎ ∝ 𝑛ℎ 𝑣𝑑 ℎ
PN Junction Formation:
As the p-type and n-type semiconductor are brought together to form a pn-junction,
 Large no. of free e- on the n side and large no. of holes in the p side. This
concentration gradient makes the e- on n side to combine with the holes on the p
side which is called the Diffusion current.
 e- are the minority carriers on the p side. They get attracted towards the n side
due to the 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 . This is called the Drift current.
 After certain growth of 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 , the free e- from n side cannot go to the p side.
When the diffusion current is equal to the drift current, an equilibrium is reached and
the diffusion process is stopped. 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑖𝑑𝑓 − 𝑖𝑑𝑟 = 0.
 The junction region where there are no free e- or holes (no charge carriers) is called
the Depletion layer. (Depletion width is in the order of micro meters)
 The potential developed due to the internal electric field so formed in the depletion
layer is called the Barrier potential. (0.7 V for Si, 0.3 V for Ge) A very high internal
electric field is formed.
𝑉 0.7
𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 = = −6 = 7 × 105 𝑉/𝑚
𝑑 10
 Forward Biasing
 p to +ve terminal, n to –ve terminal
 𝐸⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 , 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 are in opposite direction, depletion
layer gets thinner, barrier potential reduces.
 Both e- and holes are moving towards the
junction.
 Upto 0.7 V for Si, no significant current seen as
the majority carriers cannot jump the barrier
potential. This is called the cut-in voltage or
threshold voltage.
 Upto 0.7 V for Si, very little current flow due to
minority carriers being pulled by 𝐸⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 external
electric field (not by the internal electric field
𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 which is called Drift current)
 After 0.7 V external voltage higher than the
barrier potential so e- from n side can easily cross
the junction. So significant current flow in mA is
observed.
 e- from n side pushed or injected into p side, so it
leaves behind a hole in the n side, meaning holes
are injected to n side valence band. This is called
minority carrier injection.
 For every e- hole recombination near the junction
on p side, there is a corresponding free e-
entering into the n side from the –ve of battery,
one covalent bond breaks in p side near +ve of
battery releasing an e-.
 e- hole recombination is nothing but higher
energy e- dropping down to lower energy, in
which the energy difference is emitted as visible
light (LED) or IR.
 Significant resistance is provided only in the PN
junction ~ 10 to 50 Ω , so the voltage drop across
the junction will be higher and negligible voltage
drop across the rest of the p side and n side
regions.
Reverse Biasing
 p to –ve terminal, n to +ve terminal
 𝐸⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 , 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 are in same direction, depletion layer
gets thicker, barrier potential increases.
 Both e- and holes are moving away from the
junction.
 So majority carriers cannot flow any current.
 Very small current in 𝜇𝐴 is obeserved due to
Drift current by the few minority carriers. So the
e- in the p side are the minority carriers which
gets pulled towards the Electric filed (both
internal and external as they are in the same
direction) causing a very little current called the
Reverse current as the direction of current flow is
from n to p, so the name reverse. (e- flow from p
to n). Since the minority carriers are result of
thermal agitation the no. of minority carriers are
very low and limited so the current does not
increase beyond a small value. So it is called the
Reverse saturation current.
 As the 𝐸⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 increases 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 also increases, this
causes the covalent bonds near the junction to
break on the p side so a huge amount of electrons
are released at once (Field emission) which will
get pulled towards the n side increasing the
reverse current to an extremely high value. This
voltage is called the Avalanche Breakdown
Voltage Vbr.
 Resistance offered is in the order of 105 Ω.
Current through the diode is, Dynamic resistance,
𝑒𝑉 ∆𝑉
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑜 exp ( − 1) 𝑅=
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ∆𝑖
V is the voltage across the diode which is taken as
positive for forward bias, negative for reverse bias.
𝑖𝑜 is the reverse saturation current.
Rectifier: Device which converts AC to DC.
AC Input signal: 50 Hz Ideal DC output signal:

Half Wave Rectifier: Full Wave Rectifier: Filter Capacitor:

50 Hz 100 Hz

1 𝜋 𝑉𝑜 1 𝜋 2𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2. ∫ 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2𝜋 0 𝜋 2𝜋 0 𝜋 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝜃
1 𝜋 𝑉𝑜 1 2𝜋 2 2 𝑉𝑜 1
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑜2 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉 2 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0 2 2𝜋 0 √2 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 0

PhotoDiode:
It consists of a transparent window to allow the light to reach the junction region.It is
always connected in Reverse bias.
As light falls on the junction, e- hole pairs are generated due to e- absorbing light
energy. Before they fall into the holes again they are pulled towards the n side by the
strong 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 . So a reverse current is setup which is proportional to the intensity of the
light incident on the diode.
The current so produced due to the light incidence is so small in the order of 𝜇𝐴. So
this small current can be detected only if the diode is connected in reverse bias and not
in forward bias for opto electronic device applications.
Solar Cell: Photovoltaic Cell:
Same as photodiode but no external supply is
provided as it generates voltage.Junction area is
kept larger so more light can fall to produce
more current.
The principle of working is, as light falls on the
junction e hole pairs are generated due to e absorbing light energy (generation), these free e- are pulled
- -

towards the n side due to strong 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 due to heavy doping (separation), e- in the n side are collected in the
metallized finger electrode front contact and the holes are collected in the metal back contact (collection).
(As the charge gets discharged current increases in the circuit but the voltage decreases.)
 Light Emitting Diode: LED
Heavily doped PN junction giving out light.
In forward bias e- from n side gets pushed into the p side to fall into
the holes (minority carrier injection, e- to p and holes to n), the
difference in the energy level is emitted as radiation. Depending upon
the energy gap Eg (3 eV to 1.8 eV) different frequencies and so
different color light is possible.
GaAs 1-x –P x different percentages lead to different color LEDs. GaAs 0.6 –P 0.4 gives red LED. GaAs for
InfraRed LED. (Eg =1.4 eV < 1.8 eV)
Advantage of LED lamps over incandescent lamps: Can operate in lower voltage, consumes less power,
quick action ON-OFF, no warm up time required, long life, bandwidth range is very small 100 to 500 Å (10
to 50 nm), so almost same color monochromatic.

Zener Diode:
Basic Principle: Higher Doping level, to get lower Depletion layer so that Field
ionization can be made possible at a voltage called Zener Voltage, lower than the
Avalanche Breakdown voltage.
How does higher doping level give lower Depletion layer?
In a normal doping level the no. of holes in p side and free e- in n side will be less
near the junction, so the Eint formed will be weak so the holes and free e- farther
from the junction will also be able to cross the junction causing the depletion layer to
be large.
In a high doping level, more no. of holes and free e- near the junction so the Eint
formed will be very strong, so it will not allow further e- hole combination making
the depletion layer very thin.

What is Field Ionization and Zener Breakdown Voltage?

Reverse current is due to the minority carriers, e- from p side going to n side due to
the high 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 pulling it to towards n side. As the voltage keeps increasing 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡
increases so more e- are freed from covalent bonds and is called Field Ionization or
Internal Field Emission.
This happens at a lower voltage called Zener Breakdown voltage where the zener
diode is usually operated. This is lower than the Avalanche Breakdown voltage
where the diode will be destroyed.

Zener biasing: Methods and conditions: Always Reverse biased, at Vz Zener voltage, between Izmin to Izmax.
Beyond Izmax the diode will be damaged due to higher power. (P = Vz . Iz)
Important application of Zener diode: Voltage Regulation:
Though the current is increasing significantly at Vz, the voltage
remians almost the same. As I increases in the unregulated power
supply, the I in the Rs and the Zener diode will increase, so the VRs
increases however the Vz does not increase as it is in the zener
voltage region. 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑅𝑠 + 𝑉𝑧 = 𝑖𝑅𝑠 + 𝑉𝑧 = (𝑖𝑧 + 𝑖𝐿 )𝑅𝑠 + 𝑉𝑧
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 6𝑖𝐿 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑉𝑧
Zener diode generally designed to take some 5 times the load current. So from the above equation the 𝑅𝑠 can
be determined.

Transparent or Opaque:
Visible light have 1 to 3 eV. If this falls on material such as metals, which is having Eg less than 1 to 3 eV,
then the light will be absorbed making it opaque. If this falls on materials such as glass, which is having Eg
more than 3 eV, then the light will not be absorbed and transmits the light making it transparent.
36.Transistors
Emitter Heavily doped Moderate size
Base Very lightly doped Small size
Collector Moderately doped Large size
Input side Forward biased, Output side Reverse biased

Transistor Action: Working of Transistor:

Why 𝑖𝐵 current? Why small?

Due to 𝑉𝐵𝐵 voltage e- are pushed in emitter towards the junction. But base
is very lightly doped. So it has only few holes. So only few of the e- flow
to the base. So 𝑖𝐵 is small.

Why 𝑖𝐶 current? Why large?

As only very few e- flow through the base, what happens to the other e- which cross the EB junction? These
e- gets past the BC junction due to the high E internal due to the reverse bias and also due to the external 𝑉𝐶𝐶 .
All e- which are not going to the base reaches collector. So 𝑖𝐶 is large.

Current Equation: From Kirchoff’s law, 𝑖𝐸 = 𝑖𝐵 + 𝑖𝐶

Why Amplification?: For a small change in the 𝑖𝐵 , there is a huge change in the 𝑖𝐶 proportionally. So this
property is best suited for amplification.
Input Characteristics:
Input side is forward biased, so the VI characteristics will be similar to the
PN junction forward biased characteristics.

As 𝑉𝐵𝐵 ↑, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 ↑, potential barrier in the forward bias is reduced, so after

the cut -in voltage or the knee voltage the input current starts growing, just
like any other resistor. In this trial the output 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is kept constant.

If the 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is increased and then kept constant, we see the 𝑖𝐵 decreases, this
is because the 𝑉𝐶𝐸 increase, increases the reverse bias there by increasing
the 𝑖𝐶 and so decreasing the 𝑖𝐵 .

Output Characteristics:
Output side is reverse biased, so the VI characteristics will be similar to
the PN junction reverse biased characteristics.

Active Region: As 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ↑, 𝑖𝐶 ↑ initially and then saturates because already

all the e- are reaching the collector. In this trial 𝑖𝐵 is kept constant. (This
happens only after the cut-in voltage on the input side.) As 𝑖𝐵 ↑, 𝑖𝐶 ↑
proportionally. This important property of transistor gives the
amplification function in this region called Active region. Note 𝑖𝐵 is in 𝜇𝐴
while 𝑖𝐶 is in 𝑚𝐴.
However after certain point of 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ↑, 𝑖𝐶 saturates and does not increase further. This is due to the fact that all
the e- crossing the BC junction are already reaching the collector.

Cut-off Region: On input side when the 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0, 𝑖𝐵 = 0, 𝑖𝐶 ≈ 0, the 𝑖𝐶 will be having a very little current
due to the minority carriers in the reverse bias.

∆𝑉𝐵𝐸 ∆𝑉𝐶𝐸 ∆𝑖
Input Resistance, 𝑟𝑖 = ( ) ;Output Resistance, 𝑟𝑜 = ( ) ;Current Amplification 𝛽𝑎𝑐 = (∆𝑖𝐶 )
∆𝑖𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ∆𝑖𝐶 𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸

Transfer Characteristics: Refer to Transistor as a switch.

Transistor as Amplifier:
What is Amplification?
Amplitude and energy increases while the characteristics remains the same.

Why Transistor as Amplifier?

∆𝑖
As 𝑖𝐵 ↑, 𝑖𝐶 ↑, proportionately. So it acts as an amplifier. Current gain 𝛽𝑎𝑐 = (∆𝑖𝐶 )
𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸
Transistor as an Amplifier:
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑖𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑖𝐶 𝑅𝐶
At point ‘a’ as 𝑉 ↑, 𝑉𝑖 ↑, 𝑖𝐵 ↑, 𝑖𝐶 ↑, so 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ↓, 𝑉𝑜 ↓ so 𝑎′ appears on the
negative side. So output voltage will be out of phase.
𝑉
Voltage Gain 𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 ,
𝑖
Power Gain=Voltage Gain x Current Gain 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴𝑉 × 𝛽𝑎𝑐

Transitor as a Switch:
In Cut-off region 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑉𝑖 , 𝑖𝐵 ↓, 𝑖𝐶 ↓, so 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ↑, 𝑉𝑜 ↑, however note that while
𝑉𝐶𝐸 , 𝑉𝑜 increases, by voltage divider formula the voltage across the 𝑅𝐶 will be
low so this output load will be in OFF condition.
In Saturation region ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑉𝑖 , 𝑖𝐵 ↑, 𝑖𝐶 ↑, so 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ↓, 𝑉𝑜 ↓, however note that while
𝑉𝐶𝐸 , 𝑉𝑜 decreases, by voltage divider formula the voltage across the 𝑅𝐶 will be
high so this output load will be in ON condition.
So transistor can be used as a switch by changing the input voltage between the Cut-off and Saturation
region. For this application it is not operated in the middle region called the Active region which is for
Amplification application.

Basics of Electrical or LC oscillations in circuits:

Capacitor stores energy in the form of electric field. As capacitor is discharged, magnetic field around
inductor L is built up, Electrical energy converted to Magnetic field energy. When capacitor is completely
discharged the current does not immediately become zero. By Lenz law when the current is dying out, the
stored magnetic field provides current in the same direction. Charges accumulated in Capacitor but in
opposite direction. Magnetic field energy to Electric field energy but in opposite direction. Now the
capacitor flows the charges in the opposite direction and the process repeats. This is called LC oscillation.

However due to some resistance inherent in the circuit, energy will be lost as heat. So it will not be
undamped oscillation but damped oscillation due to energy loss.
1
Frequency of Oscillation 𝜈 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Why Transistor as Oscillator?

When an undamped oscillation is required the transistor is used to amplify the signals using a feedback loop.