3

ABOLITION-.IMPACT ON CULTURE
 CHAPTER - V
ABOLITION : IMPACT ON CULTURE

Culture is a continuum of the mental and behavioural attainments of a society.

Culture reveals itself in language and literature, art and thought, science and philosophy,

inventions and discoveries. What is not material, but intellectual and behavioural, is

culture. If one behaves well, we call him a 'cultured person.' If a society leaves some

intellectual legacy or literature or practices in law and order, experiments in governance

then we call it a 'cultured society'. For instance, we have the 'Harappan or Dravidian

Culture'. The Mother Goddess worship widely prevalent amongst the Harappans is the

culture of the Indus people'. The great bath that existed in the Mohenjodaro region shows

the 'cultural attainments of the Indus people', who gave importance or primacy to the

privacy of women bathers. Similarly, bull-baiting is a symbol of the 'Dravidan Culture'

in which youths of undaunted spirit try to overcome the strength and hard hits of the

bulls, brought up for that p\irpose.

Society is a group of people living in a particular territorial boundary, dealing with

their problems and prospects together, sharing their feelings of happiness and sorrow.

Societies are both closed and free; having created their own living pattern, customs and

conventions, rites and rituals, practices and festivals, taboos and freedoms, mental

outbursts and physical expressions, religious faiths and beliefs. What is religious to some

societies may be irreligious to other societies. What is a taboo to one society may be non-

prohibitory to another. What is good to one may be bad to another as one man's food

may be poison to another. But there are certain practices that are bad to all societies at all

times. There are still certain practices and beliefs that are male chauvinistic and inhuman.

Still some are sensual and sexual, a kind of male hegemony over the gullible females
done in the name of God. Looking at it from a bird's eye-view, it may not appear bad.

Only when one goes closer and deeper into its original but hidden intention it may

become clear. One such a practice done in the religious garb was the devadasi system,

which, when studied in a proper perspective, could throw light on its 'hidden agenda'.

Once when the 'hidden agenda' of its sexual and sensual pleasure was brought out by the

reformers, its serious impact on society could be realized. This chapter will attempt to

describe and explain the impact of the abolition on the culture of Tamil society.

Some societies, ancient societies in particular, the world over, considered sexual

promiscuity neither a taboo nor an evil. But, on the other hand, they gave the practice

religious sanction and made sacred by introducing it in the sacred centers. Sacredness

gave the institution sanctity and license and, therefore, it was practised without shame but

with dignity. When the institution became widespread, it was practised outside the

precincts of temples or any sacred centre, it acquired the stigma of licentiousness which

defiled society.

Until the advent of the reformers, the institution, with its "hidden agenda" thrived.

However, the reformers were keen on eliminating it. To put an end to an institution that

was demeaning was not an easy task. Attempts to do so were often ridiculed, resisted and

even thwarted. But once the reformers had taken the bold decision to put it down, they

were vocal in pursuit of their objective. Such a society, in ignorance of alternative moral

values, tolerates an unacceptal^le state of affairs. As we have seen, an attempt to abolish

the devadasis was mooted in 1869.

However, colonialism, missionaries and liberal minded Indians identified the

situation in temples as prostitution and eventually abolished in 1948. The Act of 1929

182
enfranchised the devadasis inams selectively. But it did not put a stop to the dedication

of girls. This Act of 1929 did not mention the nature of punishment for violation.

In this regard, K.Sadasivan observes, that it did not succeed in wiping out the

system completely from the temples ^ Lx)opholes in the Act encouraged the custom in the

name of 'Sake of Arts'. Art lovers (including some eminent freedom fighters) added

more strength to the devadasis by motivating them to continue their customary tradition

only in order to preserve a dying art. On the other hand, some leading devadasis and the

Isai Velalar Sangam strongly opposed the practice of pottukattu or gajje puje. For

instance, R.Chinniah Pillai, a member of the Kumbakonam Temple Committee, moved a

resolution at a meeting and proposed an end to the system. He criticised the attitude of

the Brahmins towards these women. He said, if the services of the devadasis were

essential, then these women of the Brahmin priests should also take-up the profession and

dance before the idols . Some vested interests and their patrons like Bangalore

K.Sadasivan, BITCSSEA, op.cit., (1988), p.25.

Indian Ladies Magazine, Vol. IV. No.l, August 1930, Cannanore, p.44.
A similar question was raised sometime back through a Journal namely India Today.
Why the devadasis or Isai Vellalars left their dance art? In response to that question,
many old devadasis and Isai Vellalars did not like to come back. They wanted their
avenge upon the society that had exploited them in those days. (India Today - August 21,
September 05, 1993). Humiliation, physical and psychological suffering and social
disgrace led them to dissociate themselves from the temples.
Again, the same question was mooted in Sadir to Bharatanatya Seminar organised by
Indu Varma and Tapasya Group at Madras Krishna Gnana Sabha on December 11,
2001. Many old Nattuvanars from various traditional quarters, including Isai Vellalars,
present day dancers, and foreign scholars attended the forum. T. Viswanathan, the
grandson of the Veena Dhanam and Ravi, the editor of Isai Vellalar Murasu magazine
said that "When we people nurtured the temple art, society considered it and looked
183
Nagarathnammal and Mylapore Doraikkaimammal^ cried that the abolition of the

institution would cause the decline of an age-old art of music and dance. E.Krishn Iyer

the trendsetter of Bharatanatyam, who learned the dance from Melattur Natesa Iyer and

some devadasis, supported the dasis to promote the art. His close association with the

establishment of the Music Academy, (1927) very much favoured the cultural

renaissance of the country in general and Tamil Nadu in particular.

Cultural Renaissance
The details of new issues in dance like the changing pattern of patronage,

legitimization of dance forms, changing definition of new classical form, the role of

dance in national identity and national integration, institutionalization,

internationalization, cultural awareness and related aspects, will be discussed in the rest of

this chapter.

down but when the higher strata or rich who practiced it, the same society looked up into
graciously andglamorously and as a marketable art".
Sri M.Sambandam, a Isai Vellalar from Pudukottai strongly condemned the India
Today's view on the recapture of dance by the Isai Vellalar community. He wrote a letter
condemning the Editor (An interview with him on June 06, 2001) "Let thisfineart go to
hell. We are not bothered. We want to live peacefully without humiliation. Other
community people so far enjoyed this fine art and flesh. Now we don't want to enter this
profession which has already been taken up by other higher strata ".
^ Indian Ladies Magazine, Vol. VI.No.l, January and February, Cannanore,1930,
p.lO.When Government applies the Madras Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act of 1930,
the police could not make any differentiation between devadasis and professional
prostitutes. They raided the houses of the devadasis, and remanded them into court.
Hence in 1938, the South Indian Devadasi Association Secretary Doraikannammal sent
a memorial to the Government with the plea that they be saved from police atrocities and
be allowed to preserve the culture of music and dance through their performances. *
GO 3210, Home Depanment June 12,.1939. The Indian Express, October, 14, 1938.
The Devadasi Memorial, Doraikannammal, Madras, November 11, 1938.
184
 Abolition of the devadasi system indirectly helped the re-emergence of the

classical art of Bharatanatyam, Carnatic music and other region-related arts. In the

early decades of the twentieth century K. A. Chidambaram extols, "Bharatanatyam had

fallen from favour with the emergence of the Anti-nautch opposition that sacred to other

forms of dance after abolition, but was later fostered, almost ironically, by Brahmin castes

as culturally acceptable'^. Abolition was backed with a lot of reluctance and emotionally

loaded debate. "This legislation should not cut at the root of art and culture which has

come to us from the past generation. These things should not be killed by our jealousy

for social reform"^. Sadir, the unique cultural heritage and its rebirth in the form of

Bharatanatyam took place during the second quarter of the twentieth century. It is said

that it was a silent Cultural Revolution, which was possible as many new artistes

dedicated themselves irrespective of caste or rank. They viewed the former devadasis as

the symbol of this Cultural Revolution. When these high caste women and men joined

the centres of these arts, it ushered in an era of new energy and passion. When the

hegemonic and elite section took over the art, it was thought that the stain that was

attached to sa dr atal was washed away. Even the newborn babies resorted to

Bharatanatyam and Carnatic music.

Cultural Contributors

E.Krishna Iyer : E.Krishna Iyer did very much for the evolution of

Bharatanatyam. Bharatanatyam would not have found a place in history in the

K.A. Chidambaram, Bharatanatyam Retrospect and Prospect, Shri.Shanmugha Fine Arts.

A Sangeetha Sabha Dance Recital, October, 1959-June, 1962, p.55.
GO. No.2161, Home, June 25, 1928, Government of India, See also Stri Dharma, April,
1936, p.74.
185
absence of E.Krishna Iyer. He fought for the revival of Bharathanatyam. As an

amateur artist of Sugunavilas sabha, he learned dance from Melattur Natesha Iyer and

Madurantagam Jegadambal, a devadasi. He himself performed and propagated the

beauty of this art. From 1926 to 1932, he struggled hard to get social acceptance from the

enlightened public^. Anti-nautch movers, particularly the crusader of devadasi abolition,

Dr.Mrs.S.MuthuIakshmi Reddi, vehemently criticised his activities and support to the

davadasis for the sake of music and dance. During December 1932, an exciting

confroversy raged in the Madras press, notably The Madras Mail and The Hindu

regarding the nautch- girls reception to the then Chief Minister of Madras Presidency, the

Raja of Bobbili^. Arguments and counter-arguments between the two stalwarts indirectly

created a cultural literacy among the intellectual communities. 'Baby (Bharatanatyam)

should not be thrown out with the bath water' was the slogan raised by E.Krishna Iyer

and other favourites. Ananda Coomaraswamy's writings on dance, Rabindranath

Tagore's guidance, the establishment of the Music Academy in Madras, India's

independence movement all encouraged the E.Krishna Iyer's resurrection of dance art.

Though the legal battle against the devadasi system was active from 1926, E.Krishna

Iyer, a singular force created a conducive atmosphere to learn the art in the Madras

Presidency. New dancers from other communities and other parts, joining the traditional

dancers and nattuvanars have been in the vanguard of the cultural renaissance sweeping

across the country. This could not have been possible without political and cultural

freedom in the Presidency. Political leaders like Gandhi, E.V.R.Periar, Thiru.Vi.Ka.,

Satyamurti, Dr.Mrs.S.MuthuIakshmi Reddi, Dr.Annie Besant and Arundale fought

* Grigalakshmi, October,01, 1937, Vol-I, No.lOp.676.

^ Interview with V.A.K.Ranga Rao on May, 26, 2003. He is a grandson of the Raja of
Bobbin and an Art Critic. See also Attendance (Art Journal), 2000, p.42.
186
not only for the political liberation but also for the social and cultural liberation.

E.Krishna Iyer, tried not only to save the classical art but also liberate it from the

devadasi monopoly.

Abolition changed the dance scenario. The koil (temple) art became global art,

dance activities moved from South to the North; from villages to cities or metropolis;

from traditional communities to the non- traditional communities; from sacrilegious to the

secular stage. Devadasis slowly disappeared from the cultural scene and others in the

upper sfrata quickly took their place and remuneration. The vacuum that appeared in the

dance and music fields was immediately filled-up by the girls of the elite upper and

middle classes. Girls from respectable families started learning the arts. On the

introduction of English education the people of the higher strata began to enjoy the finit

of it. Similarly, art and culture also found their way through the girls of higher strata. For

instance, Bharati, one Mudaliar girl and Kalanidhi, a Brahmin girl learned dance and

performed it*. B.M.Sundaram says that "the earliest traceable name of a Brahmin lady,

who danced in public, was that of Kaankaanhally Pappamma of Mysore, followed by

Kalanidhi Narayanan, Rukmini Devi of Kalakshetra and then others. Besides, the two

other girls of a similar background who danced in the 1930's were Balachandra and

Lakshmi Sastri^. But we could not get any more information about them. Though dance

Interview with Kalanidhi Narayanan on November 29, 2001. She learned the art of
Abhinaya from Mylapore Gowri and she is still a sincere and devoted dancer. She is
actively engaging herself as an exponent of Abhinaya Sastra, participating in Sabha
festivals, Natya Kala Conferences, eliciting questions, giving constructive criticisms and
suggestions to the young-ones.
E.Krishna Iyer Centenary Issue, August 09, 1997, Music Academy, Madras.
187
was considered infra-dig,'° the mothers who belonged to the caste Hindus did not Hke

their girls meant for dance purposes, though these girls were motivated by E.Krishna Iyer.

The old and rich tradition of dance and music is kept up in families where there is talent.

Thus "the arts of dance and music passed from the illegal off-springs of the Brahmins to

those of their legal progeny"."

Contribution from hereditary zone

In the 1930s and 1940s dance was considered pagan and vulgar. It stirred up a

hornets' nest. The dancers of the pre/^ti-nautch ftU had suffered sociological injustice.

Psychologically, these mothers (former devadasis) did not want their daughters to

continue their traditional learning. However, few families liked to continue their

hereditary avocation. Much to the chagrin of the purists, dances have attracted much

attention from the connoisseurs of art. The purists, however, were not against the art as

such, but against the artistes who performed it in the name of God. The Self-respect and

Anti-nautch movements spearheaded 'no temple dance' propaganda, while another

movement projected revival and reconstruction.

10 Shakuntala Ramani (ed.), Rukmini Devi Arundale Birth Centenary Commemorative

Volume, Kalashetra Foundation, 2003, p. 38.
Dance was considered infra dig in those days. It would be sacrilege to teach a high caste
Brahmin girl to perform sadir. Rukmini Devi started taking lessons from Mylapore
Gowri Amma. "I used to have her brought home to learn the dance - it was secretly. We
used to close all the doors and windows and Padmasini used to stand guard outside on
the verandah!," Reminisces Rukmini Devi. At a time, society was caste ridden and
everyone was controlled by social taboos, there was so much prejudice against the dance.
II
M.Sundara Raj, p. 133.
12
Sadanand Menon, Online edition of India's National Newspaper, January 11, 2003,
Hindu Website, Hinduonet.com
188
 In 1925, T. Balasaraswathi presented her debut recital (arangetrum) at

Kanchipuram. Under E.Krishna Iyer's relentless efforts'^ Thiruvalaputhur Kalyani's

daughters (Plate 20) Jivaratnam and Rajalakshmi presented their first dance recital at the

Madras Music Academy on 15 March 1931. Following this, other devadasis from

Pandanallur, Kumbakonam, Thanjavur and Tirunelveli joined the venture. On 1932

Mylapore Gouri and during 1933 Kumbakonam Varalakshmi and K.Saranayaki danced.

On 31 December 1934 and again on 27 December 1936 K.Varalakshmi (Plate 21)

danced with her cousin, K.Bhanumati. These three girls had three other cousins who

were also devadasis. They were K. Gouri, K. Pattu and K. Sulochana. After the demise

of K. Varalakshmi in 1937, K. Bhanumati was invited to perform alone in 1940. On June

first 1935, like KalyaniA daughters, Pandanallur Nagamma daughters of P.N.

Sabharanjitam and P.N. Nagarathnam gave dance recitals. On 29 December 1936, P.N.

Sabharanjitam alone gave a dance recital. Tirunelveli N. Muthuratnambal performed at

the Academy on 27 December 1937. Besides, Pandanallur Jeyalakshmi (later became

queen of Ramnad) and Swama Saraswati (later settled at Delhi) were the other traditional

dancers who gave performances at the Music Academy until 1943. Their dance was

13
The Hindu, Friday, August 22, 1997. Seminar on E. Krishna Iyer and the Renaissance
of Bharatanatyam; See also to E. Krishna Iyer, "A Brief Historical Survey of
Bharatanatyam classical and folk dances of India", Marg Publications, Bombay, 1963,
pp.8-10. Interview with Meena, daughter of Krishna Iyer on February02, 2001,
Sitaraman, son ofE. Krishna Iyer on February 03, 2001 at Chempur in Mumbai.
Celebrating the 70th birthday, when the investigator went to her house, Meena and
her brother gave a warm welcome with sweets. They shared their experiences gained in
those days. Meena herself learned Natyamfrom Mylapore Gowri. Her father asked her
to exhibit the padams and abhinaya to the foreigners, when and where discussing with
her father. "All dancers from Kumbakonam were encouraged by my father," said
Meena.
189
aesthetically satisfying the elite public. Thus, the last generation dancing-girls with the

inspiration of E.Krishna Iyer and the Music Academy as their platform helped in the

continuance of the pristine glory of dance.

Contribution of Non-devadasi Community

Traditional dance teachers (Nattuvanars) thought that "except the usual class of

people (devadasis) no one else would be able to dance."''* It was broken by the non-

traditional art lovers. Those days one could see a large number of girls from good

families as excellent dancers. For instance, Rukmini Devi (Plate 22) a highly orthodox

family woman (as told earlier) was inspired to learn dance by the art lovers particularly

E.Krishna Iyer. Her Theosophical background, liberal-minded parents and motivation

from Anna Pavlova, (the Russian ballot dancer) and her own personal aesthetic taste were

the reasons that made her embrace the art of dance. She was not in small measure

responsible for making the art respectable. Moreover, E. Krishna Iyer, the Knight in

Shining Armour, brought down Rukmini Devi to the Music Academy for the

presentation of Kalyani daughters P.K. Jeevaratnam and P.K. Rajakakshmi in December

1932. Rukmini Devi reminisced that "it was Krishna Iyer who invited me to this

programme When I saw this programme I was so captivated that I wanted to learn it

myself properly"'^ Rukmini Devi's entry into the dance profession stimulated many

higher caste and orthodox girls to follow her suit. "Social taboo was removed and the art

gained a respectable status,"'^ says Kamala.Rani, a close associate of Rukmini Devi.

'^ Shakuntala Ramani (ed.), op.ciL, (2003), pp.38-47.

" Ibid., p. 36.
'" Kamala Rani, Dinamani, July 19, 2001, p. 12.
190
 However, one should not forget the impact of the Self-respect movement on the

privileges until then enjoyed by the high castes., particularly the Brahmins. The

movement limited the importance of orthodox castes, who had enjoyed primacy within

the temples," the private company of the dasis, and the benefits of English education and

got employment for their wards in Government services and private offices. In fact, it

was the Justice Party that passed the Communal Government Order and placed the

hegemonic elite in the doldrums. The Government Order severely affected the

educational and employment opportunities for their male and female members in

particular . Once the gates of educational institutions were opened and their employment

opportunities rationalized, they let their women to take up the arts as their next avocation.

The author of this Ph.D., thesis considers that this was the most important reason why

these high caste women were permitted to take up an art that was closely associated with

the dasis.

Moreover, the Justice Party regulated the temple administration by creating the

Temple Endowment and passed some acts that curtailed the privileges and prerogatives

enjoyed by the Brahmin priests and devadasis. Brahmadeya lands were subject to

question, the orthodox Vedic Brahmins and the priestly Brahmins found other ways to

influence secular decisions. They thus allowed their beautiful girls to pursue the arts of

T.K.Mahalingam Pillai settled at Mumbai says, "It is also not correct to say that girls
from respectable families did not learn sadir during this period. The taboo was only for
performing and not for learning. Quite a number of girls from Naidu, Iyengar, Telugu
Brahmin communities, one of them reported to be a descendant of St.Tyagaraja, learnt
under my father (T.Kuppiah Pillai). T.K. Vallabai, a Naidu girl from Trichy and
Balachandra who was an Iyengar girl even gave recitals before the public", he
remembers. (Sruti, 1985, pp.22-31).
'^ Navasakti, Vol. VI pt.XIl January 08, 1926, p. 10.
191
singing and dancing to keep some reformers under check. Their beauty, their company,

their talents, in fact, made a few staunch supporters of the arts to come to their rescue, hi

the name of serving the art, these girls broke the traditional caste barriers and entered

wedlocks with men of other communifies or men of other countries.'*

In addition, many young girls from good middle class families undertook dance

training. Thus, "when a Rukmini Devi from Brahmin community and a Balasaraswati

from devadasi stock came on the stage, for performance, the dust had been removed

from the mirror and all were ready to respond to the original luminosity of image sadir,

which, renamed as Bharatanatyam, was given a fresh look."'^ By 1937, not only

Rukmini Devi but also another respectable Brahmin girl Kalanidhi of Mylapore came out

boldly^^ and received abhinaya sastra from the exponent Gowri Ammal. Likewise,

Madras Kadirvelu Saroja and her sister Selvamani both girls belonging to a Mudaliar

community received fraining from Kattumannarkoil Muthukumara Pillai. The sisters had

their debut in 1938. In the 1940's, M.K.Saroja was one of the leading exponents of

Bharatanatyam in Madras^'. While appreciating the dance of Saroja, Nala Najan of

18
Thiru.Vi.Ka. Valkaikurippukal. op.cit, (1982), pp.736-737. See also. Navasakti, Vol.VI,
pt.XI, January 1, 1926, p. 10.
19
Kapila Vatsyan, op.cit, p.294.
20
Interview with Kalanidihi Narayanan "When I started dancing, my mother had to face a
lot of humiliation. The people of Mylapore told her she was going to make her daughter
a prostitute, but today every house in Mylapore has a dancer, " says Kalanidihi.
21 Sruti, February, 2001, p.6.
Both Kalanidhi and Saroja received the E.Krishna Iyer medal from the Sruti
Foundation. M.K Saroja married a Punjabi artist Mohan Kohar, who headed the dance
department of M.S.Uuniversity, Baroda. Mohan Kohar has a plenty of source material
collected from the forerunners ofyesteryear dancers and dance-masters. He holds many
192
USA says, "Her performance on the stage transmutes the theatre into a temple where the

divinities reveal their awesome powers."^^ The early period of revival between 1930 and

1936 was mostly dominated by the traditional community dancers (devadasi stock) in the

public and court halls. Along with them, many middle class family girls, inspired by the

enlightened attitudes of the freedom movement, struggled hard to show society that they

wanted to be professional and respectable performers. Many spent their life solely for

dance. The non-traditional dancers (non-devadasis) who learned the technical aspects

from tradionalists, brought it to the public platform.

New, talented and charming artistes like Kumari Kamala, Kumari Kausalya,

Thiruvithankur sisters Lalita, Padmini and Ragini, T.K.Susila of Thanavur,

Padmasubrahmanyam, daughter of the celluloid celebrity K.Subrahmanyam, Vyjantimala

Bali, Hemamalini, Chi.ta Visweswaran, Alarmelvalli, Sudharani Raghupathi,

Swamamuki, Meenakshi Sabhanayakam, Radha, daughter of 'Kalki' Sadasivam and

Anandhi, daughter of 'Kalki' Krishnamurti, Anita Ratnam are all known for their

excellence and expertise in various styles of art forms of Bharatanatyam. Among these

outstanding Bharatanatyam dancers, "Kamala (nicknamed as baby Kamala) has the

distinction of being the first classical dancer to receive mass acclaim".^'' Her dance in

the Tamil hit movie namely, Naam Iruvar (1947) (AVM production) ushered in a

cultural revolution in the Tamil country. Randor Guy, the cine critic narrates, "Every

mother saw a 'Baby' 'Kamala' in her daughter and wanted her to learn Bharatanatyam.

Dance scholars sprouted all over and Bharatanatyam had acquired respectability,

high positions at national level Art Academies. His son Ashish Kohar is a renowned art
critic and an editor ofAttendance a dance annual publishedfrom Bangalore.
" Nala Najan, Sruti, 195. December, 2000, p.3.
^^ Attendance. Annual, published from Bangalore, 2000, p.46.
193
cultural value and honour".^'* Vyjantimala, Hemamalini, Lalitha, Padmini and Ragini are

the talented and charming screenplay performers of yesterday celluloid box office hits.

Besides, Kalaskhetra also produced illustrious alumni including Mrinalini Sarabhai,

Sanjukta Panigrahi, Yamini Krishnamurti, Sarada Hoffinan, Leela Samson, Krishnaveni

Lakshman, the V.P.Dhanajayan and Shanta, Adayar Lakshmanan, C.V.Chandrasekar and

Radha Bumier^^. The newcomers of the dance scenario marked the democratization and

secularization of the art which had hitherto remained a monopoly of the devadasis.

These artistes had received training from the gifted devadasis and brilliant old

nattuvanars who were unemployed because of the Abolition Act and Anti-nautch

movement.

Once the social taboo or apathy to learn dance was removed, some girls from the

Isai Vellalar community were also inspired to learn it from the legendary nattuvanars.

Jeevaratnamala^^, Kusala Kumari, Sayee sisters (Sayee and Subbulakshmi of

T.A.Periyanayaki family girls)^' and E.V.Saroja^* learned the art and shined like stars.

24
Randor Guy, "Baby Kamala, " Madras Musings, December, 16-31, 2001, p. 5.
25
Attendance, 2000, p.45.
26
The Hindu, Friday, June 29, 2001, p. 3. Jeevaratnamala was a promising star in the
firmament of Bharatanatyam between 1950 and 1965.
27
Kurtalam M.Selvam, Interview with SUN TV April 19, 2000. One more interview with
Sayee at Chennai on December 03, 2001.
Interview with Kuttalam M.Selvam on 02 December 2001 at Chennai. Kuttalam
M.Selvam is a son of the veteran dance-master Vaitheesvarankoil Muthusamy Pillai. He
is presently working in the Tamil Culture Department. Among the informants, Selvam is
the only person from Isai Vellalar community who openly accepts the caste background,
dance scenes, devadasi mural and other things without any hesitation.
28 E.V.Saroja, former devadasi, Enkann Janaki's daughter. She was the wife of the film
producer T.R.Ramanna and T.R.Rajakumari 's cousin.
194
Sayee-Subbulakshmi known as "Top Sisters" (Pampara Sakodarikal) availed their

opportunity through the film Malaikallan and other celluloid hits and earned name and

fame for themselves and their art. Kusalakumari's classical dance performance in the

film Parasakti a box office hit still echoes in the heart of several connoisseurs of the

Tamil Country. Thus, cinema gave a new asylum (as told in the fourth chapter) to the

dancing community, and a boost to express their calibre and talents to the public once

again. This entertainment industry was an alternate platform for them, not only to exhibit

their beauty and talent but also revive the aesthetic taste and desire of the Tamil Country.

As a result, more family girlsfi"omvarious backgrounds aspired to learn the art.

Another important landmark in the early history of the revival of Bharatanatyam

was the role of dance-masters (nattuvanars), the custodians of the cultural heritage.

They voluntarily or non-voluntarily came forward to impart the art to the aspiring girls of

the non-dancing convmunities. Hitherto, they taught it to their kith and kin. The demise

and disappearance of their talented girls caused them a great deal of difficulty and they

sought new opportunities not only to win their daily bread but also to save an age-long

ancestral tradition of professional love for dance and music. Moreover, revivalists and

dance enthusiasts from the non-dancing-girl communities also motivated the

nattuvachariars for the fiirtherance of the art. Their adamant and convergent mental

attitude to teach the art only to the artistes of the ti-aditional communities were

challenged^^. This new cultural transmission took place quietiy and steadily. Centuries

29 Shakuntala Ramani (ed.), op.cit., (2003), p.38 Rukmini Devi reminisced, "I went to
Pandanallur to request Meenatchi Sundaram Pillai to teach me. He was totally against
my learning the dance. In those days caste was paramount in everything and he thought
it would be sacrilege to teach me. a high caste Brahmin lady to perform Sadir, it was very
difficult to break down his resistance ".
195
old temple and courtly culture of Thanjavur and Thamiraparani river belts was replaced

by the popular metropolitan culture of the new cities like Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkatta,

Bangalore and Delhi. Nattuvanars from the Madras Presidency were sought after and

were having a busy time in training the interested scholars. Nattuvan Gardens of the

villages were placed on the dance map of the world. Once a village culture, it now

became an urban culture. The metropolitan cities became fast emerging hub of culture.

These commercial based cultural centers accommodate the dance gurus to provide

training to the young enthusiasts. As the repositories of centuries of accumulated

knowledge and experience, the nattuvanars were greatly sought after during the

renascent phase of Bharatanatyam. They became indispensable guides to the women of

the so-called "good families", who took up this art for the first time, without any

background or exposure to it. Though the dance-masters moved from their traditional

temple farms to the open platforms, they had maintained an uninterrupted artistic tradition

and passed it to the new generation.

Many distinguished traditional preceptors of the South Indian Temple precincts

helped to stabilize, retain and revive the age-old art. Notable among them were

Pandanallur Meenatchi Sundaram Filial, his nephew Chokalingam Pillai, and his son

Subbaraya Pillai, Kattumannarkoil Muthukumara Pillai, Vaitheesvarankoil Muthuswamy

Pillai, Thiruvidaimarudur Govindaraja Pillai, Kuppaiah Pillai, Mahalingam Pillai,

Vazhuvur Ramaiah Pillai, Karaikal K.N.Dhandayuthapani Pillai, Dhakshinamurthi Pillai,

Pakkirisami Pillai, Kanchipuram Kandappa Pillai, EUappa Nattuvanar and Baroda

Kubemath Tanjorekare, to name but a few. Meenatchi Sundaram Pillai moved in 1934 to

Madras for sometime to teach the art in Kalakshetra, the first dance asylum to the dance-

hungers. His nephew Chokalingam Pillai also came to Kalakshetra. His son Subbaraya

196
Pillai continued the profession outside the Kalakshetra premises i.e. at Indian Fine Arts

Society, Madras. His son Muthiah Pillai went to Bangalore to teach Bharatanatyam.

Some teachers came to Madras 'in search of worthy students'^\ For instance,

M.K.Saroja and M.K.Selvamani with the influence of Prof.Sambhamoorthy learned the

dance from Kattumannarkoil Muthukumara Pillai. He also trained film hit darling girl

Baby Kamala (later settled at USA) and Nala Nanjan from USA. Kandappa Pillai was

another praiseworthy nattuvanar, who trained legendary Balasaraswati.

Thiruvidaimarudur Govindaraja Pillai established the Raja-rajeswari

Natyakalamandir , one of the foremost dance academies in Mumbai. Govindaraja

Pillai's father-in-law Kuppaiah Pillai, his sons T.K.Mahalingam Pillai and T.K.Kalyana

Sundaram Pillai also followed the footsteps of Govindaraja Pillai. These masters trained

charming girls of rich and philanthropic industrialists of Mumbai. Swaminatha Pillai of

Pandanallur lineage migrated to Trivandrum, trained Tara Thambi^^ of Trivandrum palace

and then moved to Delhi.

Another stalwart in the field of dance was Guru Ramaiah Pillai. His "move to

Madras in 1938 was the right time to force the pace of the renaissance ofdance."'^ His

appearance as dance-master became indispensable for the entertainment industry. Film

producers like A.V.Meiyappa Chettiar used his valuable services by adding classical

dance items. "By composing items extolling national pride even implying a celebration

50 Interview with Pandanallur Subbharayalu, son of Chokkalingam Pillai nattuvanar.

Chennai on December 14, 2001.
31
Attendance, 2000. p.61.
32
Interview with Guru T.K.Mahalingam Pillai and T.K.Kalyana Sundaram Pillai in
Mumbai on February 01, 2001.
33
Interview with Swaminatha Pillai ofPandanallur on May 26. 2002.
34
The Hindu. June 06. 1997.
197
of freedom with the poetry of Bharati"^^ was how they could reveal their ability. For

instance, Naam Iruvar (1947) a Tamil hit movie was a run away success; more

significantly, (Baby) Kamala's dances trained by Ramiah Pillai ushered in a real

revolution, a cultural revolution in the Tamil Country. Randor Guy says, "Nattuvanars

were now welcome in the drawing and sitting rooms of 'respectable' homes and treated to

'Kaapi' and 'tiffin'! A new era was bom"^^.

In 1950, K.N.Dandayuthapani Pillai founded the Southern Bharatanatyam

Kalalayam, an institution to foster the dance art^^. K.P.Kittappa Pillai, a direct

descendant of the illustrious codifiers of Bharatanatyam ('Tanjore Quartet') was another

well-known nattuvanar of the Cauvery River belt. Kannappa Mudaliar (brother-in-law

of Ellappa Pillai) of Kanchipuram taught lessons to Kalanidhi Narayanan (Ganapathi

Engineer's daughter) of Mylapore. Sunil Kothari, a veteran dance historian asserts, "she

was the first girl from a Brahmin caste"^*. Besides, more number of dancing-girls were in

great demand due to the social acceptability and respectable status from the connoisseurs

of the art. Bharatanatyam aroused a cultural consciousness and got wide appreciation

both at home and abroad. "With the helpless devadasi sinking into oblivion the hitherto

guarded privacy of tradition nurtured by the Nattuva melam (the other name of

sadir)was transferred to Non-traditional backgrounds." ^^ Sadana Bose, Shanta Rao,

Indrani Rahman and others took interest in it. They carried its message to distant comers

S5
Ibid. See also Kalaimakal Natyamalar, April, 1972, p.399 andKalki, August 4-11, 1946,
p. 15.
36
Randor Guy, op.cit,p.5.
37
Kalaimakal, April, 1972, p.408.
38
Sunil Kothari, op.cit,p.l49.
39
The Hindu, October 28, 2001, p. 5.
198
of the world. Thus, a regional art has attained international status. This recognition gave

employment to the old nattuvanars and thereby contributing themselves to the revival

and re-discovery of cultural identity of the Tamil Country.

The dance revival could happen because of the strong support extended to it by

national personalities, who were loved and respected by all. The most outstanding

celebrities who stirred and ushered in the revival and reconstruction of Bharatanatyam

and similar dance traditions in India were Rabindranath Tagore and Udayshankar in the

North, Vallathol Narayana M'enon in the Southwest, E.Krishna Iyer in the Southeast.

They have worked 'valiantly for the cultural permanency of the dance''^°. A highly

commendable world respect and admiration to Bharatanatyam came with the

contribution of Udayshankar, Ram Gopal, Gopinath, Menaka, Ragini Devi (Non-Indian

Resident of U.S.A), Indrani Rahman (daughter of Ragini Devi), Enakshi Bhavnani to

name a few. Sunil Kothari and Venkatachalam the art critics spoke on the immense

services of the above said dancers. While remembering them, it is said, "they have paved

the way for the rebirth of a precious art which might otherwise have died of neglect and

forgetfulness or remained unknown to the rest of the world"'*^ Again, Sunil Kothari says,

"both Uday Shankar and Ram Gopal placed Indian dance on the world map"'*^. Their

personal interest to learn the art from indigenous dance gurus made the art attractive to

others from home and abroad.

^^ Enakshi Bhavnani, The Dance in India, Taraporevala 's Treasure House of Books,
Bombay, 1965, p. 226.
'" Sunil Kothari, op.cit., pp. 147-156. See also G.Venkatachalam, Dance in India, Nalanda
Publication, Bombay, p. 18.
•'^ Sunil Kothari, "A Few Personal Reminiscences, " Sruti, 230, November 02, 2003, p. 29.
199
 A most interesting development during the period of revival, the 1930s, was the

way in which the art of dance was preserved and handed over to posterity. The

distinguished dancers of India and abroad travelled to Thanjavur to learn the dance art

from the torchbearers of sadir, Meenatchi Sundaram Pillai, Chokalingam Pillai,

Kattumannarkoil Muthukumara Pillai, Mylapore Gowri Ammal and some other teachers

came forward to hand over the age-long cultural heritage to the newcomers. For instance,

in 1942, Ram Gopal went to Pandanallur. Following his footsteps, many dance

enthusiasts like U.S.Krishna Rao, Shanta Rao and others invaded Pandanallur to equip

themselves with the beauty of the art. These non-traditional artistes or newcomers not

only availed themselves of the fortunes that the art offered, it also helped them to project

themselves as the sole repositories and depositors of the country's cultural heritage.

Respecting the mantle laid by their guru Meenatchi Sundaram Pillai, U.S.Krishna Rao

and his wife Chandrabhaga Devi reminisce, "people like you must work for this art and

propagate it . . I have not taught you what I would teach the devadasis. This

Bharatanatyam must spread all over and bring glory to our mother land" '*^.

In addition to this, art lovers and intellectuals of India also contributed to the

renaissance of the art. Scholars like Ananda Coomaraswamy, Bhaskar Roy Chowdhury,

Prof P.Sambamoorthy, E.Krishna Iyer and dancers like Ruth St.Denis and Anna Pavlova,

created a psychological climate for acceptance of this type of art. E.Krishna Iyer, the

protagonist of dance, wrote articles on Dance and Health. This encouraged a Mudaliar

girl namely Bharathi from Tamil Nadu to dedicate herself to dance-art. Probably she was

the first girl who came out boldly to be initiated in dance'*'*. Ananda Coomaraswamy, the

^^ Sruti, 248, May 2005. p. 14.

•'•' Karthika Ganeshar, Op.citp.24.
200
pioneer in the art history, revealed his thought of the arts of India through articles and

books. During 1917, he translated Nandikeswara's, Abhinaya Darpanam ("Mirror of

Gesture") into English. He condemned the Anti-nautch movement in India. Lakshmi

Viswanathan, celebrated dancer and researcher, while appreciating the services of Ananda

Coomaraswamy to art history writes, "the art of India had to be explained to the world

and none did it better than Ananda Coomaraswamy for he went to the authentic sources

for textual and philosophical concepts."''^ Moreover, the cultural tours of Uday Shankar,

Bhaskar Roy Chowdhury, Ram Gopal and Ragini Devi's lecture cum demonstrations in

India and abroad popularized Bharatanatyam. They inspired and made the art

celebrated in the West. Besides, the Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova and Ruth St.Denis a

young American woman and the American dancer La Meri influenced by the Indian

culture were initiated to propagate the Indian dance-art and encouraged the natives to feel

proud of it. Vincent Warren says "Ruth St.Denis was the first western dancer to approach

Indian culture in this manner and her attempts mark an important milestone in relations

between West and East.'*^ In 1926, Ruth St.Denis and Ted Shawn came to India with

their Denishawn dancers. St.Denis and her troupe visited the cultural centres of India and

performed dance items there. Their encounter with poet Tagore inspired more on the

popularisation of dance forms in India. Like Ruth St.Denis, Anna Pavlova, the Russian

ballet dancer also came to India in 1929, when the Anti-nautch movement was at its peak.

Anna Pavlova's visit to this country according to E.Krishna Iyer, "appears to have created

45 Lakshmi Viswanathan, The Cosmic Dance of Siva, Dance folio. The Hindu, December
1997, p. 114. See also Karthika Ganeshar, India Natyathin Dravida Marapu (Tl), May
1984, pp.90-94.
46 Sruti, 195, December 2000, p.44. See also Karthika Ganeshar, op.cit, p.90.
201
a stir in a few urban areas in North India."'*^ Inspired by her methods, Uday Shankar

from Kolkatta, Menaka from Mumbai and Rukmini Devi Arundale from Tamil Nadu took

up dance. Following their role models many middle and upper middle class family

aspirants came up in the field. This opened a new chapter in the history of the

renaissance of the art.

Furthermore, it can be said that the cultural co-incidence that took place between

Russia and hidia created a favourable response to the development of dance. The

Bolshevic revolution (1917) of Russia caused the migration of many ballet'*^ groups in

search of their fortunes in Europe. Similarly, in India, particularly in Tamil Nadu, the

Anti-nautch movement ushered in a silent cultural revolution. Due to this, the declining

dancing-girls and dance masters migrated to other places in search of their new avenues

to win their bread. This indirectly helped to revive and enlarge the scope of the age-long

art.

The Fourth Estate, the print media,- and cinema worked in favour of and against

the art. Some press was in favour of revival of the art. They carried out a systematic

propaganda for the revival and reconstruction of the dance art. For instance, Ananda

Vikatan, Kuntuci''^ (a cine magazine), Stri Dharma, Grihalakshmi, The Hindu,

Madras Mail, Times of India, KaUki, to name a few and also innumerable tiny

magazines of the 1930s and the 1940s, played vital roles in popularizing the dance and

47 E.Krishna Iyer, "A Brief Historical Survey of Bharatanatyam Classical and Folk Dances
of India," Marg Publications, Bombay' 1963, p.8
48
Decan Herald, December 10, 2000.
49
Kuntuci is like the present day cine magazine. It was published from Madras between the
1940s and 1950s. It concentrated not only on cine news but also paid special attention
on the dance, dancers and other related arts.
~ 202
music arts among the masses. 'Kalki' Krishnamurthy, the celebrated writer's Aadalum

Paadalum in the Kalki and Karnatakam a'special feature in the Vikatan propagated the

art so as to enable the artistes to move forward. 'Kalki' Krishnamurthy's historical

novels like Sivagamiyin Sabhadam made a splendid impression on the readers. Further,

Thiru.V.Ka. 'Rasikamani' T.K.Chidambaranatha Mudaliar, 'Kalki' Sadasivam and other

leading philanthropic personalities not only appreciated the beauty of the art but also

invited the legendary Balasaraswati^*^ and other gifted dancers to their home feasts and

public halls. They made use of the then available talented devadasis to popularize the

art. Sometimes they presented their concerts in festivals and art conferences. It was

interesting to note here that the tussle and puzzle between E.Krishna Iyer, the pro-art

advocate and Dr.Mrs.S.Muthulakshmi Reddi, the strong supporter of Anti-nautch

movement, as told earlier, appeared on the Madras Mail and The Hindu regarding

Bobbili Raja's reception of nautch party (with feast) which made the public so curious

about the dance and gave a new outlook to the art.

Another milestone in the history of the contribution of the press to the revival and

reconstruction of the dance art was the introduction of a dance journal. Ranjan the

Veteran actor of the celluloid hit classical film Chandralekha started a magazine namely

Natyam in Tamil in January 1949. The aim of this magazine was to create cultural

awareness among the public in order to preserve the age-old art from its extinction. He

^° Nellai Sangeeth Sabha Special Issue, Tirunelveli, p.972. Interview with

L.Shanmugasundaram a close associate of Rasikamani T.K.C. at Tenkasi, on May 02,
2008.
203
published the Natyam in EngUsh also^\ This was the first time that a cine actor

individually took interest in popularizing, and preserving Bharatanatyam.

Today, the press has responded by introducing yet another new column, the

'dance critique'. Almost all the leading journals and dailies have the dance and music

column to review the day today development of the art activities. Separate journals for

music and dance also appeared for the purpose of creating a positive response among the

public. For instance, Sruti, Sarigama Padani and Attendance pay full attention on and

give coverage to the dance and music concerts. Kutcheri Buzze, a firee issue fi-om

Madras is published during the December season for the welfare of the connoisseurs of

art.

Like the press, cinema is also a powerful medium by which one can reach the

heart of the masses. It also served two purposes in favour of and against; some among

them boost the morale of renaissance in the art. The migration of nattuvanars and young

devadasis ft-om the Cauvery and the Tamiraparani belts to the commercial belts turned

out to be propitious for films. The film studios of Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkatta were

full of the disappointed devadasis and nattuvanars of those times. Moreover, many

disposed dancers of that time were well-versed in music, dance, drama and other related

arts. This made them easier to appear on the screen. Few films were entirely meant for

popularizing the dance culture. For instance, Jalaja^^, a film was produced in association

with the Kumbhakonam duo Varalakshmi and Bhanumati in order to propagate the dance

^' Dinamani Kadir, Music and Dance Special, December 14, 1997, p.16.
" Kalaimakal, 1938, p.602. See also Sruti, 99/100, December. 1992, p.27. G.K.Seshagiri. a
keen observer of the arts, made plans to produce a film called Jalaja. But the film was
not success. No print of thefilmis now available.
- 204
art among those who disliked. Likewise, E. Krishna Iyer himself acted as Brihannala in

the picture Sairandhri in 1939 and presented successfully for the first time in the films

the classical Bharatanatyam". Besides, Naam Iruvar (1947), an AVM production,

Parasakthi, Karunanithi-Sivaji's hit film, Ratthakkannir, M.R.Radha's hit,

Malaikallan, M.G.Ramachandran's hit, Thillana Mohanambal, Siviaji-Padmini duo's

hit and later day Salangai Oli, Kaadal Ovium, and some other hit films propagated and

popularized nuances of classical dance. A great landmark in the history of celluloid that

popularized the dance culture was the Uday Shankar's Kalpana (1948). Uday Shankar,

the 'father of Indian dance' produced this feature film, which was the only record of those

times. Satyajit Ray, the legendary cine Director says, "I had seen it 16 times" and that it

made him wonder about Uday Shankar's fine grasp of the film medium even so long

ago^"*. Though it was not a box office hit, it won a prestigious award at the Brussels film

festival in 1949. Through this film, he tried to reveal the cultural heritage of dance to the

world.

Film is a powerfiil medium used as a vehicle of propaganda criticizing as well as

appreciating the beauty of dance. Talented devadasi dancers turned heroines added

glamour and gesture to the screen. Realizing the fiiiit of film industry, both Tamil and

Hindi movie makers like S.S.Vasan, A.V.Meiyappa Chettiyar, and K.Subrahmanyam and

other producers introduced charming as well as trained dancers as new arrivals to their

industry to attract thousands to see films. Lalitha, Padmini, Ragini, the Travancore

sisters, Vyijayanthimala, Hemamalini, Kamala, and artistes fi-om the devadasi families

T.R.Rajakumari, Kusala Kumari, Sai-Subbulakshmi ('top sisters'), E.V.Saroja managed

^^ E. Krishna Iyer Shashtiaptapurthi Celebrations Commemoration Volume, p.22.

^^ Sunil Kothari, 'Udaya Shankar's Kalpana,' Sruti, 195, December 2000, pp.42-46.
205
to sustain the field by displaying their dancing talents. Guru Kittappa Pillai,

Kattumannarkoil Muthukumara Pillai, Vazhuvur Ramiah Pillai. Guru K.J.Sarasa,

Vempatti Chinnasatyam of those days were involved in training the movie girls for taking

part in classical items. It can be said that their choreography in films (editing culture)

indirectly helped the reconstruction of the present day concert of Bharatanatyam. Silver

screen star dancers (1940-60) like Kamala, Padmini and Ratna Kumari after learning

popularity went to America and established dance schools to feed the aspiring scholars.

Thus, cinema fostered and popularized the age-old culture of the former devadasis. As

an entertainment media, it educates the non-professionals to realize its aesthetic beauty

and appreciate its performers. This is how the art that was in the closed doors of the

temples now came to the open. An art enjoyed by a few in the closed circle has become

the product of the aesthetic enjoyment of many.

Revival of the similar art forms

The first half of the twentieth century witnessed an unprecedented awakening in

Indian culture. Nationalism fired pride in Indian culture. The country's cultural

consciousness and political independence spotlighted many performing arts until then

unknown to the general public. Many variations of national and regional arts ixnknown

until then, restricted only to small areas, have been presented on the national network and

were popularised in the international level. Moreover, the Anti-nautch controversy and its

aftermath spearheaded an urge for rediscovering national and regional identities also.

Other than Bharatanatyam, parallel developments have also taken place in other forms

like Manipuri of Manipur, Odissi of Orissa, Kutchipudi of Andhra, Kathakali and

Mohiniyattam of Kerala. Though these are regional variations they became national and

international. Along with this, Bhagavatamelas, Kuravanchi Natakas and folk arts
. 206
have also gained momentum. At one time, these arts were unfamiHar to the pubHc. The

renaissance that took place during the first half of the 20* century generated a great deal

of excitement among the lovers of art.

Besides, linguistic reorganization of the country echoed the feelings of linguistic

and regional chauvinism^^ This motivated the art and cultural protagonists to identify and

encourage their own regional cultural heritage and thereby pave the way for the cultural

integration of the country. The Saviours of Art played a key role in protecting the

traditional arts fi-om the threat of extinction due to the withdrawal of royal and feudal

patronage and Anti-nautch movement. Like E.Krishna Iyer who saved the sadir adal

fi-om extinction in the Tamil Country, Vallathol Narayana Menon and his companion

Mukunda Raja saved the Kathakali and Mohiniyattain from their decay. The revival of

Kathakali began as early as 1922 with the untiring efforts of Vallathol^^. In 1927,

Kerala Kalamandalam (art farm) an institution for arts was registered. On 9*

November 1930, Kerala Kalamandalam was inaugurated at Kunnamkulam, that being a

great landmark in the art history of Kerala. Kerala style of classical performing arts like

Mohiniyattam, Kathakali and Koodiyattam grew beyond the man-made boundaries of

language, religion and region.

Dance treatises that emanated from the Andhra region included Kuchipudi

Bhagavata Mela and Vilasini Natyam or Alaya Sampradaya (Temple Ritual Dance).

55 Leela Samson, 'The evolving dance idiom', The Hindu, dance folio, December, 1997,
pp.7-9.
56
G.S Paul, Kerala Kalamandalam, The Hindu, Sunday Magazine, November 06, 2005,
p.5. 1927 the year of the registration of the Kerala Kalamandalam is also the present
investigator's beginning period of study. The problems and processes of abolition of
devadasi system were also initiated during this period in the Madras Presidency.
207
The cultural wealth lies both in the Kutchipudi Bhagavata Mela Brahmins male

dominated dance drama and the Kalavantulu (artistes of Andhra) or dasi tradition of

Andhra Natyam. Pappa Venugopala Rao describes this as, "An ascetic, Siddhendra yogi

refined and redefined Kuchipudi form of art" " . Around the 1930's Kutchipudi as a solo

presentation began to take shape through the efforts of Vedantham Lakshmi Narayana

Sastri^^ Andhra Natyam also got their rejuvenation with the efforts of scholars like

Nataraj Ramakrishna and well-known Kutchipudi dancer and researcher, Swapna

Sundari (settled at Delhi) and others. On 8* April 1995, at the residence of Smt. Kotipalli

Haimavati at Muramanda in Mandapeta Taluk of East Godavari District, many

descendants of the devadasi families' unanimously resolved and declared the Andhra

Bharatanatyam as Vilasini Natyam^^. With their sincere and well-intended efforts, the

Government of Andhra also prepared to introduce the Vilasini Natyam along with other

disciplines^ in colleges and universities.

The revival and reconstruction of the Tamil classical arts, Andhra's classical arts

and Kerala style classical arts inspired the revival of the dance idioms of Odissi of Orissa.

The modem day Odissi is a culmination of a process of reconstruction fi-om various

dance traditions of Orissa like the Maharis, the Gotipuas and the Bhandahritya (all

dancers of the earlier timing). It has elements of the sculpted figures of Konark, the Gita

57
Pappu Venugopala Rao, "Down the Corridors of Time", The Hindu, Dance folio,
December 1998, p.45.
58
Swapna Sundari, "Reviving a lost tradition, " The Hindu, Music & Dance, December 05,
J999, See also The Hindu.com, http:/www.thehinduonet.com
59
Nataraj Ramakrishna, Fifty Years of Asia Satabti Andhra Natyam, Hyderabad, 1995,
p. 170.
60
GO. No. 7, Tourism, Culture, Sports and Youth Services (CAII) Department, Government
ofAndhrapradesh, January 23, 1995.
- 208
Govind and its ragas and even tantric elements from local beliefs and practices.

Maharis were the devadasis, of the Puri Jagannath Temple. Gotipuas were men dancers

dressed like the female Maharis.^' During the late nineteen fifties and sixties, the then

Orissa Chief Minister H.K.Mahtab and P.V.Krishnamoorthy, the then Station Director of

all India Radio, Cuttack, and Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra played a vital role in reviving

Odissi dance style. Besides Indrani Rahman (daughter of Ragini Devi), Priyambada

Mohanty, Sanjukta Panigrahi, Madhavi Mudyal, Sonal Mansingh and other modem day

dancers brought the Odissi dance to the notice of national and international audience.

Their performances in home and abroad put-Odissi on the world dance map.

Coincidentally, another important development in the world of dance took place in

the Northeast India. It was the revival of Manipuri dance. It is said, "By the 1940's the

three main gurus of Manipuri emerged." They were Guru Amobi Singh, Guru Atombapu

Sharma and Guru Amudon Singh.^^ Guru Amobi Singh became a pioneer in bringing the

style onto the stage. Guru Amudon Sharma's student Guru Bipin Singh did tremendous

work for the growth of Manipuri. Already Guru Rabindranath Tagore through his

Vishvabharati did yeoman service to the popularity of the art. Further, in the North,

Kathak and other substreams emerged with the influence of major art forms. Veteran

artistes Birju Maharaj, Damayanti Joshi, Rani Kama, Rohini Bhate and Kumudini Lakhia

learned it and resurrected it with their innovations and creativity for the adaptability and

acceptability of the connoisseurs.

Yet another significant cultural and religious impact of the abolition of Sadir was

the spread of the popular Bhagavatamela (Plate 23) dance tradition. It is a male

^' Leela Samson, op.cit.,p.8. See also Sruti, 237, June 2004, p.l9.
"^ Leela Samson, Op.ciL, p.8.
209
dominated art form, closely related to the Narasimha cult glorifying the devotion of

Prahlada and conducted every year during May/Jnne on the Narashimha Jayanti.^^ A

product of many art forms, it was performed in six villages of Thanjavur region namely,

Melattur, Oothukadu, Saliamangalam, Tepperiimanallur, Nallur and

Soolamangalam. Bharatanatyam, the classic style, continued as a part and parcel of the

Bhagavatamela tradition in these villages. This unique legacy of the Nayak age vanished

due to the royal and feudal withdrawal. However, like sadir, revival of the art took place

due to the efforts of Balu Bhagavatar, Bharatam Nallur Narayanaswamy Iyer, Natesa Iyer

(Guru of E.Krishna Iyer), Subbier and Swaminatha Iyer. Other personalities associated at

different times with the revival include V.D.Swamy, T.L.Venkatarama Iyer,

Dr.V.Raghavan and E. Krishna lyer.^'* Herambanathan a Thanjavur "J^iattuvanar and

Bharatam Mali a Bhagavatmela artiste said that "Once there was a reciprocal between

the sadir dancers and the Bhagavatars regarding the art training and discussion." This

proved the dissemination of the age-long arts cultural mix. Melattur, Saliamangalam and

Teppermanallur still preserve the religio-cultural tradition. Inspired by the Bhagavata

mela tradition, Rukmini Devi produced many dance-dramas and even revitalized many

Kuravanji dance-dramas. When the devadasi abolition Act banned the dance art, rich

art varieties, particularly Kuravanji dance-dramas were ruined and these vanished

without due care and concern. Like Bhagavata mela theatre tradition that was fostered

on the banks of the Cauvery belt, Kaisiki Natakam (Plate 24, 25 & 26), a dance-drama

of religio-cultural art form, was preserved by the traditional communities of

"^ S.Natarajan (NRI, Dubai), Melattur, Vanakkam Tamilakam, SUN TV, 14.06.2000. Also
interview with Bharatam Mahalingam on June 02, 2001 at Melattur.
*•' Sruti. 228, September 2003, p.37.
"•^ Interview with Herambanathan and Bharatam Mali on June 02, 2001 at Melattur.
• 210
Thirukkurungudi of Tirunelveli District on the banks of the Tamiraparani river belt. This

three hundred year old drama was revived and reconstructed with the strenuous efforts of

the theatre consultant Prof S.Ramanujam^^ and veteran dancer Anita Ratnam on 19

November 1999.

Rasikamani T.K.Chidambaranatha Mudaliar, Syamala Balakrishnan^^ (cousin of

Padma Subramanyam) Rukmini Devi, Premalatha, P.R.Thilagam,^* Kamala Lakshmanan

and some others tried to retain some of the old Kuravanjis to the notice of the public.

66
Interview with Prof S.Ramanujam, Anita Ratnam, Thirunarayanan Iyengar, Sankara
Kambar, Ramanujitammal, Kurungudiammal and dance master Herambanathan on 20
November 2000 and the subsequent years. Kaisiki - a theatre genre was introduced in the
Thirukurungudi village during thirteenth century. Today the performance rite survives
due to the indefatigable efforts taken by the TVS Anita Ratnam. With the investigator's
repeated request to the director Ramanujam and the Arangam Trust director-danseuse
Anita Ratnam of TVS, Kaisiki Natakam is performed at the Perumal Temple of
Srivaikuntam on November 2004 and subsequently at Perungulam, Alwar Tirunagari and
Tenthiruperai. Moreover, for the past five years, the investigator having constant contact
with Prof. S.Ramanujam, Anita Ratnam, Prof. Vaithialingam (nephew of Kudanthai
Sundaresanar), T^attuvanars, Herambanathan and Sankarakambar, traditional dancers
Revathi @ Doraikannu Ammal, Ramanujithammal and Kurungudiammal, Thirunarayan,
the Mutt Manager and other dance troupe persons.
67
Smt. Syamala Balakrishnan, cousin of Padmasubrahamanyam researched the Viralimalai
Kuravanji. With the help of Tamil Nadu state Sangeet Natak Academy, she presented
the Kuravanji in association with the former devadasis of Viralimalai at Chennai and
other places on 28 December 1958. She presented at Tamilisai Sangam, Chennai.
(Tamilisai Sangam Silver Jubilee Issue, December 21,1967).
68
Interview with P.R. Thilagam, the Konti pedigree of Thiruvarur on May 26, 2001 at
Thanjavur. She explained the Theagesar Kuravanji and its presentation first at
Chidambaram Natyanjali during the 1980's and subsequently with the help of Kamala at
Pondicherry and then with Nandini Ramani at Chennai. Premalatha, the then principal of
Sathguru Sangeetha Vidyalayam of Madurai, published the Theagesar Kuravanji with
the help ofP.R.Thilagam.
211
Chennai Tamilisai Sangam played a pivotal role in exhibiting it. Also Chennai Sangeet

Natak Academy contributed, by extending monitary help to the researchers of this

ancient art. These dance dramas, having their educative, entertainment and evangelic

values, helped the people achieve social and communal harmony and thereby pave the

way for national integration as the need of the hour. Thus, the revival of Bharatanatyam,

Kathakali, Mohiniyattam, Odissi, Kutchipudi, Manipuri, Kathak and other

innumerable substreams of regional arts of India regained their social, political,

economic, religious and cultural recognition. The revival process of these arts helped the

revelation of the Truth, Beauty and Goodness of Indian philosophy and culture. Vincent

Warren aptly remarks, "the powerftil attraction of this ageless culture has had an impact

on western dance and finally foreign dance artistes are seeking inspiration at the true

source, approaching it not from the exotic outside in, but from the spiritual inside out." ^^

Again, there has been a much deserved recognition in recent times of the contribution

being made to Indian classical dance by the Indian Diaspora. The cultural revolution and

renaissance initiated by E.Krishna Iyer, traditional dancers and their masters, later day

legendary dancers like Rukmini Devi, Ragini Devi, Balasaraswati, Anna Pavlova, Uday

Sankar, Padma Subrahmanyam, the Madras Music Academy, the press, the film stardom

and others found its ultimate flowering in the second half of the twentieth century. What

has been in the religious garb and performed in the precincts of temples by the so-called

devadasis has become more secular and performed in the public places by the danseuses

irrespective of caste and commxmity. From privacy it has become public, from private

property to a public property. By secularizing the art, the less impressive so called ills

that afflicted it have been eliminated. Having become a national property, the art slowly

^^ Vincent Warren, "Yearningfor the spiritual ideal," Sruti, 195, December, 2000, p.45.
• 212
crossed its bounds and became an international property with its admirers and performers.

Since it has attained world recognition, the art is flourishing. Scholars like Saskia

C.Kersenboom-Story'° from the Netherlands and her teacher Prof. Kamil V Zvelebil from

Czechoslovakia have studied the philosophical and spiritual background of this art form.

impact on Music
Music without dance is like a lifeless body without a soul. If dance is the physical

expression of outward vibration, music is the soul-stirring expression of the vibration of

the mind and emotions. Music and dance are twin arts and therefore inseparable. Like

the classical dance of Bharatanatyam, the Carnatic music was also nurtured and

fostered on the fertile banks of the rivers Cauvery and the Tamiraparani. Music^' played

a significant role in temple worship and rituals. Music is the medium to express the

fiilfiUment of adoring the Lord. The Agamas'^ and the Bhakti literatures^^ have laid

down the guidelines for performing that kind of music and dance in ritual worship. They

are part of the Sodacopachara (sixteen fold ritual treatment) which come towards the end

of the Deepa Aradhana. Dancers and musicians both vocal and instrumental were

appointed for this purpose.^'* There is an old saying, "Nadamum Vedamum."^^ Veda for

Brahmins Nada is meant for the non- Brahmins (Isai Vellalar) and denotes the

70
Saskia- C.Kersenboom-Story Nityasumangali, /Devadasi Tradition in India, Motilal
Banasidass, Delhi, 1957.
71
Kutta Nul of Sattanar (ed.), M.V.Venugopala Pillai, (S.D.S.Yogiar's Commentary),
Madras, 1968. See also to Mahabharata Soodamani, U.Ve.Sa. Library Publication,
Chennai, 1955, p. 9.
72
Kamikagama (Uttarapakam), 11, Patalam, 73.
73
Sambandhar, Tevaram, 130 : 6.
74
SSI Vol 11, Pt. Ill, No. 68.
75
Interview with the Sembaranarkoil lineage, Sembaranarkoil and another one with
Sowmiya-Narayana Perumal of Thirukostiyur on May 22, 2002.
213
importance of music. Nada in Sanskrit, OH in Tamil i.e. osai the primal sound serves as

the basis for the word structure says Ganapati Sthapati.^^ He again aptly states "Music is

capable of rendering the ineffable bliss has been kept in standard growth by the

temples."^^ God is in the form of music (Nada Brahmam). Due to the affinity between

God and music, the art of music is called the divine art. In South hidia, almost all

temples irrespective of their religious sectors have the Nadaswara (music), (Chinna

melam - 'small ensemble', Periya melam - 'big ensemble'). Oduvar's music, Alwars'

and Nayanmars' hymns and also some specific musical instruments like parinayanam

and panchamukha-vadyam are known in the South.

Further, festivals and ceremonies of religious and secular occasions round the year

contributed to the growth of classical music. Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer, the grand old

man of Carnatic music, once said, "At temple festivals, in those days there used to be

Nagaswaram recitals from 9 PM to 7 AM, with importance given to elaborate raga

alapana. I can say with certainty that it is the Nagaswaram which promoted the growth

and development of raga music"'^. Moreover, dancing-girls danced while the

76
V.Ganapati Sthapati, "Who created God"? Dakshina Publishing House, Chennai
September, 2001, pp.60'100. Interview with him on December 13, 2001.
'^ Ibid.p.72.
'* Kudavayil Balasubramaniam, Kudamuzha (Tl), Anjana Publishers, Thanjavur, 1997,
p. 130. See also K.Sadasivan, op.cit, (1993). pp. 157-174. At Thirukurungudi, Nambia
pillai chanting a Chanku with high pitch sound, which none other could do, such type of
sound Horn Chanku in Tamil Nadu Temples. Another important thing here is the
Chinnamelam still going on without any interruption.
^' P.P. Ramachandran, "Semmangudi Srinivas Iyer - A Tribute" - Shanmuga, Quarterly
January-March 2004, Sri Shanmugananda Sabha, Mumbai, p. 12. See also, M.
Arunachalam, op.cit., p.95.
- 214
instruments like Kulal, Mulavu and Veena were played*^. Musical instruments were

played to attract more devotees to the temple from the faroff places. Musical pillars and

laya sculptures/' of the temples also attract pilgrims. Devadasis performed the art of

music with devotion and dedication. Their songs evoked feelings of praise. But in course

of time, their attention to praise the God diverted into narastudi, which means, they fell

in love with their human counterparts. This led to the decay and degeneration (discussed

in detail in the first chapter) of the system. K.Sadasivan criticizes these developments:

"When the system degenerated, their songs and music carried double meaning, which was

mostly vulgar."*^ The padams of Kshetrajna and Ghanam Krishna Iyer of the later day

lyrics were fit only for the devadasis, to expose their caliber, and to avail them of

fortunes by satisfying the wishes of their paramours. Devadasis had earned appreciation

of their strict adherence to auspiciousness, and code of conduct. They were depreciated

by the society due to their moral slip and indecorous attitude. Their songs and singing no

doubt, aroused emotional and spiritual feelings. Their songs had double and even triple

meanings and sexual implications. In theory, they were singing in praise of their divine

husbands, but in practice they aimed at their paramours. Also, the rhythmic movements

of their bodies to the pacchai sringara padas (lyrics on romantic or sexual longingness)

naturally invited the men of loose character to corrupt the devadasi system. Decay and

degeneracy demanded its abolition. The Anti-nautch movement came up during the first

quarter of the twentieth century. This invariably condemned their music and dance,

particularly their vulgar appeal. Abolition banned only dance but not music. In the

*" St. Sundarar, Tevaram, 42:4. See also Koyil Olugu, p. 96.
^' Music Pillars of Nellaiappar koil at Timnelveli and the Thanumalaya-perumalkoil at
Suchindrum and the sweetness of laya sculptures at Krishnapuram reveal the fact.
^^ K. Sadasivan, op.cit, p.164, See also the Abbe J.A.Dubois, op.cit, pp.294-295.
215
meantime, many devadasis, realizing that in their future careers they would have to

switch over from dancing to music, Harikatha, (story-telling), stage play and other allied

arts. For instance, Kamakshi Ammal," granddaughter of the famous court dancer

Pappammal of the 18* century learnt music from the Syama Sastri, one of the great

musical Trinity, the others being St.Tyagaraja and Muthuswami Dikzhitar. Thiruvarur

Rajayee^"* switched over to vocal music and jalatarangam (water-instrumental music).

The Sarva-Deva-Vilasa, an 18* century palmleaf record surveys the pioneer

women musicians like Narayani of Kumbakonam, Manga of Thanjavur and Vira,

Minakshi and Nacchyar*^. Apart from these, the other renowned lady musicians of the

late 19* and early 20* century were the Coimbatore Thayi, Salem Thayammal, Veena

Dhanammal, Veenai Shanmugavadivu (mother of M.S.Subbulakshmi), Thiruchendur

Shanmugavadivu, Oorkadu (near Kallidaikurichi) Sharmiugavadivu, Dhanammal's four

daughters (Rajalakshmi, Lakshmiratnam, Jeyammal and Kamakshi), Dhanammal's grand

children T.Brinda, T.Muktha, T.Abhirama Sundari, T.Balasaraswati (dance-music),

Dhanammal's sister Rupavati, the Yenadi sisters from Andhra, Kanchipuram Dhanakoti-

Kamakshi duo. Bangalore Thayi, Kolar Nagarathnam, Bangalore Nagarathnam,

Thiruvidaimarudur Bhavani, Salem Godavari, Pazhani Anjugatammal, M.S.Subbulakshi

and many more. While appreciating their service to the cultural efflorescence of the

Tamil Country, Gowri Ramnarayan, the art critic, says, "In the mike-less days, sisters and

*^ Interview with Viswanathan, Telugu Pandit, Saraswati Mahal Library, Thanjavur, on

May 26, 2000.
*^ Interview with B.M. Sundaram on February 19, 2001, at Pondicherry.
8S V.Raghavan (ed.), Sarvadeva Vilasa, Chennai,1958, pp.49-50.
216
cousins sang as duos, an advantage for the softer, high-pitched female voice."*^ For

instance, Veena Dhanamal's daughters, Kanchipuram Dhanakoti sisters and the Enadi

sisters sang as trios or duos in the pubHc concerts.

When critics earlier targeted the devadasis, they turned their attention to music to

compensate for earlier perjury. Bangalore Nagarathnammal branched out into Harikatha

and vocal concert. She was an ardent devotee of St.Tyagaraja. Being a wealthy and tax

paying devadasi of the 1930's, she surrendered her movable and immovable properties*'

to the Thiruvaiyyaru Shri Tyaga Brahamma Mahotsava Shabha. An empowered

woman of the devadasi pedigree, she settled the groupism of two parties in the Sangeeta

Utsava. A clever lady, she fought against the gender discrimination in the Aradhana

concerts. From the 1940's all women singers, irrespective of their category entered into

the Aradhana. Manna Srinivasan, the Delhi-based cultural consultant and Shriram, the

contributing editor of the Sruti wrote "the denial of opportunity to women by the

musicians broke out with a clause of will of Bangalore Nagarathnammal". A noticeable

clause of the will was, "permission to use the site might be refiised if the individual or the

institution should try to debar lady artists and singers including devadasis from giving

performances on the dais". This brave and bold step marked an important milestone in

the cultural history of Tamil Nadu. It offers an equal opportunity to Isai Velalar

86
Gowri Ramnarayan, "Storming male bastions" article, The Hindu Music Folio
December, 1996, p.36.
87 She wrote a will in favour of the Tyaga Brahma Sabha containing her all properties and
clauses related to the aradhana.
A similar settlement deed (a clause of will) was (D.No.541/1917) entered office of the
Joint Sub-Registrar-III, Tirunelveli-3, April 02, 1917, stating that, Gomati Ammal Dasi
(36 Years of age) had willingly and forward to endow the land which she owned to
Chinduboondurai, Murugan Temple, Tirunelveli. (See Annexure VII).
217
participation. Her contribution to the construction of the Tyagaraja Samadhi, the

agreement between two Aradhana groups, and women singers' participation in concerts

had tremendous impact not only on her Ufe but on Tamil culture. A low esteem

background woman of the debased institution, she challenged creating new history,

thereby retaining her old status. Moreover, the male dominated Aradhana tradition

opened its doors to the female upcoming singers particularly for the devadasi

community. According to Manna Srinivasan, "Thiruvaiyaru Aradhana can still serve as

an indication of the state of the art and a testing ground for future players."*^ For the

young aspirants, it is an exposure. For instance, the genius of Balamuralikrishna was

revealed here to the world at the age ten."^°

Moreover, this Tyagaraja Aradhana has a positive spiritual and aesthetic impact

on the global audience in a far greater measure. Even today Tyagaraja Aradhana is

observed all over the world. It is conducted in the same manner in numerous other

places, not only in India but in a few other countries abroad. Music world personalities

Sruti, 235, April 2004, pp.I9-35.See also Madras Musings, December 1-15,2002, pp.4-5.
Nagaratnammal, a Bangalore-based dancer and musician, played a vital role in the
Madras Devadasigal Association. As a leading personality of this Association, she
struggled hard to revive and revitalise the devadasi tradition in the name of God and to
save thefineperforming arts of the Tamils. Failed in her efforts, she, after the 1930's
became more or less like a sanyasini, served to the cause of sainthood Tyagaraja. She
felt proud of calling herself as Devidyal 'servant of the Rama Bhaktar Saint Tyagaraja'.
Her devotees built a Samadhi, opposite to Saint Tyagaraja for Nagaratnammal. This
proved the social significance and status retained by the devadasi pedigrees from time
immemorial to the present day.
89
Sruti, 201, June 2001, p.29.
90
Sruti, 235, April 2004, pp. 19-35.
218
pay rich tributes to Saint Tyagaraja during the January pagula panchami day every year

that reveals the musical legacy left behind by the Tyagaraja.

Like Nagarathnammal, there were some other stalwarts hailing from the

hereditary devadasi tradition, who brightened their future by taking up classical music.

Srivaikuntam Duraisamy Subbulakshmi^', G.Subbulakshmi, M.S.Subbulakshmi, Mayilam

Kanthimati, Thirugokamam Manickattammal, Sattiakudi Meenakshi Ammal, Cheiyyur

Sarada, made imperishable imprints in the music tradition.

It has been said that the 1930's and 1940's were the golden age of Carnatic

music. Former devadasis and other prospective girls from high castes chose to learn the

nuances of music, rhythm, notation, swara, raga and tala by vocal performances to the

accompaniment of instruments. It is said, "with a sweet high-pitched voice and a

permanent group of accompanists, women singers specialised in a wide repertoire of

classical compositions. Free from flamboyance, the music was generally pleasant and

enjoyable"^^. Their songs after the 1940s were more devotional and emotional than with

the pinch of sexuality and vulgarity. The period before the 1930s witnessed the

monopoly of devadasi singers. But, after the 1930's both male and female artistes

entered the field of classical music. Many of them left their villages in search of new

avenues in cities. Many left Thanjavur, Tirunelveli and Kanchipuram and settled at

Mylapore in Chennai. Even some deposed devadasis left Madurai in search of new

pastures, preferably centres of music. For instance, we may cite the case of

M.S.Subbulakshmi, who turned to be a towering singer in Carnatic music. Her

" These three Subbulakshmis were celluloid box office hit heroines of the 1930's and the
1940's.
^^ Indira Menon, op. cit., p. 102.
219
association with the Chennai circle, particularly with the high caste, made her learn more

and perform in novel ways^''. Their music conveyed love and devotion. Apart from her,

the names of D.K.Pattammal, Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar, Maharajapuram Viswanatha

Iyer, Musiri Subramania Iyer, Chembai Vaidyanatha Bhagavathar, Harikesanallur

Muthiah Bhagavatar were legendary in the music world. During their generation they

dominated that world. M.S.Subbulakshmi's feminine charm, husky voice and meaningful

rendering of Kritis left an indelible impress on the audience. Her bhajans were a

combination of sweet melody and vibrancy at its peak^'*. The humming of the queen of

music was soul-stirring.

Sirnilarly, Dhanm's granddaughters Brinda and Mukta also made wonderful

contributions to popularize the padams and javalis of (dance music). For more than

seven decades, they received warm welcome from the connoisseurs of music. These are

some of the positive aspects of the abolition.

93
Shanmukha, April-June 2005, p. 7.
94
If Mylapore is considered the Agraharam, the George Town is regarded as a dancing-
girls residence. One such anecdotes reveals the fact: T.V. Subramania Iyer, a drama
artistes and an admirer ofVeena Dhanam wanted his two daughters to learn music from
the latter and Jayammal. When they introduced the girls to other artistes, they said,
"Today you are going to hear my Brahmin girls sing" They collected a sum ofRs.lOO/-
a month as remuneration (as against the usual fee of Rs.10-15) (Madras Musings,
October 16-31, 2005. p.3)
When Madurai Shanmugavadivu introduced her daughter to Veena Dhanam, she blessed
her with her own words, "She has a bright future". Similarly, Madurai Ponnuswamy
Pillai, (the grandpa of M.S.Subbulakshmi and M.P.N.Nagaswaram players) also blessed
her with his words like Veena Dhanam. (Interview with M.P.N.Ponnuswamy) at Madurai
on May 20, 2002.
- 220
 Abolition of the devadasi system assured the process of secularization and

democratization of music. Indian independence gave more opportunities to young talents

to take up the arts and secularize them. By this time, except the instrumental performers

from the traditional community, almost all the vocalists came up from the non- traditional

background. A few artistes like Pudukottai Ranganayaki (mridangam), her sister

Subbulakshmi (flute), brother T.S.Ulaganatha Pillai^^ (violin), Tirukolakudi Rukmini^^

(nagaswaram), Madurai Ponnuthai^' (nagaswaram), Madurai Vasavambal^*

(harmonium), T.R.Navaneetham (flute) earned enduring fame in the concert field.^^

Thus, when many girls from upper castes took up the profession of dancing and

singing, a trend of healthy competition came up, sometimes painfully by too. Healthy

competitions led them to invent new swara, raga, and tala or notations. New

compositions emerged; new instruments pressed into service; new techniques adopted to

attract audience, new schools of music arose (sabhas); new krities (Music slogans) came

under melody; and finally music has become a household word of everyone, connoisseurs

of art, politicians and admirers. To quote the words of Shakespeare, "If music be the food

of love, play on". Music is not only sweet to the ears, but sweet to the heart. It

harmonizes and integrates. It is a noteworthy aspect of the renaissance in the arts which

emerged in India as an unanticipated benefit of the abolition of devadasi dedication.

95
Interview with Ulaganatha Pillai, Pudukottai, December 09, 2001.
96
Interview with Rukmini, Tirukolakudi, June 08, 2001.
91
Interview with Ponnuthai, Madurai, June 09, 2001.
98
Interview with Srinivasan, Harikatha exponent, Thanjavur, May 22, 2001.
99
Interview with Selva Ganapati, Principal (traditionalist). Government Arts College,
Tiruvaiyyaru, May 26, 2001.
221