History of soil fertility and plant nutrition

Criteria of essentiality
Classification of essential nutrients

Dr. R.K. Thakur

Assistant Professor (Soil Science)
College of Agriculture, Balaghat

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.)

History of soil fertility and plant nutrition
 Soil fertility :- “Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to
supply essential plant nutrients during growth period of
the plants, without toxic concentration of any nutrients”.
i.e “the capacity of soil to supply nutrient in available
to crop”.
 Soil productivity :- “Soil productivity is ability of soil to
produce a particular crop or sequence of crops under a
specified mgt system” i.e the crop producing capacity
of soil”.
 All the productive soils are fertile but all the fertile soils
may not be productive.
 Sometimes even if the soil is fertile, they are subjected to
drought or other unsatisfactory growth factors or
management practices.
History of soil fertility and plant nutrition
 Francis Bacon (1591- 1624) suggested that the
principle nourishment of plants was water and the
main purpose of the soil was to keep plants erect
and to protect from heat and cold.
 Jan Baptiste Van Helmont (1577 – 1644) was
reported that water was sole nutrient of plants.
 Robert Boyle (1627 – 1691) an England scientist
confirmed the findings of Van Helmont and proved
that plant synthesis salts, spirits and oil etc from
H2O.
History of soil fertility and plant nutrition
 Anthur Young (1741 – 1820) an English agriculturist
conducted pot experiment using Barley as a test crop
under sand culture condition. He added charcoal, train
oil, poultry dung, spirits of wine, oster shells and
numerous other materials and he conduced that some of
the materials were produced higher plant growth.
 Priestly (1800) established the essentiality of O2 for the
plant growth.
 J.B. Boussingault (1802-1882) French chemist
conducted field experiment and maintained balance
sheet. He was first scientist to conduct field experiment.
He is considered as father of field experiments.
History of soil fertility and plant nutrition
 Justus Von Liebig (1835) suggested that
a. Most of the carbon in plants comes from the CO2 of
the atmosphere.
b. Hydrogen and O2 comes from H2O.
c. Alkaline metals are needed for neutralization of acids
formed by plants as a result of their metabolic
activities.
d. Phosphorus is necessary for seed formation.
e. Plant absorb every thing from the soil but excrete from
their roots those materials that are not essential.
 The growth and
reproduction of
an organism is
dependent on the
nutrient
substance that is
available in
minimum
quantity.
History of soil fertility and plant nutrition
 J.B. Lawes and J. H. Gilbert (1843) : established
PERMANENT MANURIAL EXPERIMENT at Rothemsted
Agricultural experiment station at England. They conducted
field experiments and their findings were :
1. Crop requires both P and K, but the composition of the
plant ash is no measure of the amounts of these
constituents required by the plant.
2. No legume crop require N. without this element, no
growth will be obtained regardless of the quantities of P
and K present. The amount of ammonium contributed by
the atmosphere is insufficient for the needs of the crop.
3. Soil fertility can be maintained for some years by
chemical fertilizers.
History of nutrients
S. Nutrients Essentiality discovered authors Year of
No. discovery
1. Oxygen (O) Carl Whihelm Scheele 1772
2. Hydrogen (H) Robert Boyle 1766
3. Carbon (C) Priestly et al. 1800
4. Nitrogen (N) Theodore De Saussure 1804
5. Phosphorous (P) Carl Sprengel 1839
6. Potassium (K) Carl Sprengel 1839
7. Calcium (Ca) Carl Sprengel 1839
8. Magnesium (Mg) Carl Sprengel 1839
9. Sulphur (S) Sachs and Knop 1860
History of nutrients
S. Nutrients Essentiality discovered authors Year of
No. discovery
10. Zinc (Zn) A.L. Sommer and C.P. Lipman 1926
11. Iron (Fe) E. Gris 1843
12. Manganese (Mn) J.S. McHargue 1922
13. Copper (Cu) A.L. Sommer, C.P. Lipman and G. 1931
McKinney
14. Boron (B) K. Warington 1923
15. Molybdenum (Mo) D.I. Arnon and P.R. Stout 1939
16. Chloride (Cl) T.C. Broyer, A.B. Carlton, C.M. 1954
Johnson and P.R. Stout
17. Nickel (Ni) P.H. Brown, R.M. Welch and E.E. 1987
Cary
Criteria of essentiality
The following is the essentiality criteria
described by D.I. Arnon and P.R. Stout (1939) :-
1. Individuality : The plant cannot complete its life
cycle (seed to new seed) in the absence of the
mineral elements.
2. Specificity : The element’s function is specific and
cannot be replaced by other elements.
3. Direct involvement : The element is directly
involved in the plant’s growth and reproduction.
Essential Nutrients / Elements
 Essential nutrients :- A
mineral element is
considered to be
essential for plant
growth and
development if the
element is involved in
plant metabolic
functions and the plant
cannot complete its life
cycle without the
element.
Position of the essential and beneficial elements
in Periodical Table
Classification of Essential Nutrients
 The 17 elements required by plants are obtained from
the soil, water and air.
 Non-mineral nutrients : Three elements, carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O), are considered to be
non-mineral nutrients because they are derived from air
and water, rather than from soil minerals. Although they
represent approximately 95% of plant biomass, they are
generally given little attention in plant nutrition because
they are always in sufficient supply.
 Mineral nutrients : The 14 mineral nutrients are classified
as either macronutrients or micronutrients based on their
plant requirements.
 There are six macronutrients: Nitrogen (N), phosphorus
(P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and
sulfur (S).
 The macronutrients, N, P, and K, are often classified as
‘primary’ macronutrients, because deficiencies of N, P,
and K are more common than the ‘secondary’
macronutrients, Ca, Mg, and S.
 The micronutrients include boron (B), chlorine (Cl),
copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum
(Mo), nickel (Ni) and zinc (Zn).
 Macronutrients
(needed in relatively large amounts by plants)
Element Symbol Form used Source
Oxygen O H2O Air/Water
Hydrogen H H2O Air/Water
Carbon C CO2 Air/Water
Nitrogen N NO3-, NH4+ Air/Soil
Phosphorus P H2PO4- & HPO42- Soil
Potassium K K+ Soil
Calcium Ca Ca2+ Soil
Magnesium Mg Mg2+ Soil
Sulfur S SO42- Soil
 Micronutrients
(needed in relatively large amounts by plants)

Element Symbol Form used Source

Iron Fe Fe2+, Fe3+ Soil
Manganese Mn Mn2+ Soil
Copper Cu Cu2+ Soil
Zinc Zn Zn2+ Soil
Nickel Ni Ni2+ Soil
Boron B H3BO3, H2BO3- Soil
Molybdenum Mo MoO42- Soil
Chlorine Cl Cl- Soil
Classification based on the role / function of
element in plant system
• Structural Elements : C, H & O
• Energy storage and transfer : N, P & S
• Regulator & Carriers : K, Ca & Mg
• Catalyst & Activators : Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu,
Mo, Cl & B
Classification based on the mobility of nutrients in soil
1. Mobile : Highly soluble and are not adsorbed on
clay complexes i.e. N (Nitrate), S, B, Cl & Mn.
2. Less Mobile : Also soluble but they are adsorbed on
clay complexes so that their mobility is reduced i.e.
N (ammonical), K, Ca, Mg & Cu.
3. Immobile : Highly reactive and get fixed in the soil.
They are H2PO4-, HPO42- & Zn.
Beneficial Nutrients / Elements
 Beneficial elements are the mineral elements that stimulate
the growth and exhibit beneficial effects at very low
concentration or which are essential only for certain plant
species or under specific conditions are called as
“beneficial elements”.
 For example :-
o Silica (Si) : some crops will respond to silica when grown
on highly weathered soils.
o Cobalt (Co) : is required by bacteria responsible for
nitrogen fixation in legumes; therefore, some consider
Co to be essential, while others classify it as ‘beneficial’.
o Sodium (Na) : For C4 plants having dicarboxylic
photosynthetic pathway and
o Vanadium (V) : Essential for green algae
Thanks
 Role / Functions of Essential
Nutrients in Plants

Dr. R.K. Thakur

Assistant Professor (Soil Science)
College of Agriculture, Balaghat

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.)

Role of essential nutrients
S. Essential Role in plants
No. nutrients
1. Cabon (C) Constituent of carbohydrates;
necessary for photosynthesis
2. Hydrogen (H) Maintain osmotic balance ;
important in numerous
biochemical reactions ;
constituents of carbohydrates
3. Oxygen (O) Constituent of carbohydrates;
necessary for respiration
4. Nitrogen (N) Constituents of proteins,
chlorophyll and nucleic acids
(RNA & DNA)
S. Essential Role in plants
No. nutrients
5. Phosphorous (P) Constituent of many proteins,
coenzyme, nucleic acids and
metabolic substrates,
important in energy (ATP)
transfer
6. Potassium (K) Involved with photosynthesis,
carbohydrate translocation,
protein synthesis etc
7. Calcium (Ca) A component of call walls,
plays a role in the structure
and permeability of
membranes
S. Essential Role in plants
No. nutrients
8. Magnesium (Mg) Enzyme activator, component
of chlorophyll
9. Sulphur (S) Important component of plant
proteins
10. Boron (B) Believed to be important in
sugar translocation and
carbohydrate metabolism
11. Chlorine (Cl) Involved with oxygen
production in photosynthesis
12. Molybdenum (Mo) Involved with nitrogen
fixation and transforming
nitrate to ammonium ion
S. Essential Role in plants
No. nutrients
13. Copper (Cu) A catalyst for respiration, a
component of various enzymes
14. Iron (Fe) Involved with chlorophyll synthesis
and in enzymes for electron transfer
15. Manganese (Mn) Controls several oxidation-reduction
systems and photosynthesis
16. Zinc (Zn) Involved with enzyme systems that
regulate various metabolic activities
17. Nickel (Ni) Necessary for proper functioning of
the enzyme, urease and found to be
necessary in seed germination
Nitrogen (N) :-
Nitrogen is absorbed by plant roots as NO3- ion and
in the case of rice as NH4+ ion also. In the N-sufficient
plants, its concentration varies from 1% to 5%.
 It is an essential constituent of all living matter.
 It is constituent of protoplasm.
 It is an integral part of chlorophyll molecule play
important role of photosynthetic activities.
 It is an essential component of amino acids, proteins,
nucleic acids, enzymes, co-enzymes and alkaloids.
 Nitrogen containing chlorophyll in the presence of solar
energy fixes atmospheric CO2 as carbohydrates.
Nitrogen (N) :-
 It helps in cell reproduction and causes good
vegetative growth.
 It improves the quality of leafy vegetables and
fodders.
 It improves the protein quality of the food grains by
enhancing the proportion of glutamic acid, proline,
methionine etc.
 It increase the CEC of plant roots.
 Nitrogen is used as feeds of microorganisms in the
soil.
Phosphorous (P) :-
Phosphorous containing ATP is called the “Energy
Currency of the plants”. P-content varies from 0.1% -
0.4% by weight, which is 1/5th N & 1/10th of K content.
 Phosphorous is the structural component of the
nucleic acids (DNA & RNA).
 It also a constituent of fatty phospholipids, which have
a specific importance in membrane development and
function.
 All energy transfers in the cell are critically dependent
on phosphorous.
 Phosphorous is important for plant growth and
flower/seed formation.
Phosphorous (P) :-
 It plays a vital role in photosynthesis, respiration,
energy storage, transfer, cell division, cell elongation
and several other processes in the living plants.
 It promotes early root formation and growth.
 It is an essential ingredient for Rhizobium bacteria to
convert atmospheric N (N2) into the ammonium form
usable by plant. Being an energy source it also
influences nodule development in plants.
 It improves crop health and reduces the incidence and
severity of many crop diseases.
 It increases water use efficiency and helps crops
achieve optimal performance under limited moisture
conditions.
Potassium (K) :-
 Potassium concentration in health plant tissues varies
from 1% to 5%, which is more or less equal to that of
nitrogen.
 K is a unique element in the sense that plant can
accumulate it in abundant amounts without exhibiting
and toxicity symptoms (Luxury consumption).
 It also play a regulatory role in plant metabolism and
development but is not a structural component of the
plant.
 Potassium activates a large number of enzymes (> 60), by
way of exposing the active reaction sites.
 K is responsible for the activation and synthesis of
protein forming nitrate reductase enzyme.
Potassium (K) :-
 Potassium is utilized by plants in the activation of
enzymes, photosynthesis, protein formation and sugar
transport.
 It regulates the opening and closing of stomata.
 Potassium plays a major role in the transport of water
and nutrients throughout the plant.
 It increase root growth and improves drought
tolerance.
 Potassium plays significant role in enhancing crop
quality (physical quality and disease resistance).
 It reduces lodging of crops and enhances their winter
hardiness.
Calcium (Ca) :-
 It is a constituent of the cell wall (Calcium pectate).
 It maintains the integrity of the cell membranes.
 It promotes the development of the root system the
ripening of fruits and seeds.
 It protects the root cells against ion imbalance, low
pH and toxic ions like Al3+ etc.
 It plays a role in mitosis (cell division) and helps
maintain the chromosome structure.
 It activates phospholipids, amylase and ATP-ase
enzymes.
Magnesium (Mg) :-
 Magnesium is the powerhouse behind photosynthesis
in plants. Without Mg, chlorophyll cannot capture sum
energy that is needed for photosynthesis. In short, Mg
is required to give leaves their green colour.
 It increase the photosynthetic and enzymatic activity
within the plants.
 It promotes uptake and translocation of phosphorous
and movement of sugars within the plants.
 It is required for the synthesis of organic acids.
 It is an essential constituent of poly-ribosomes
(required for protein synthesis).
Sulphur (S) :-
 Sulphur is an essential constituent of S-containing
amino acids, viz. cysteine (C3H7NO2S), cystine
(C6H12N2O4S2) [two molecule of cysteine upon getting
oxidized to yield one molecule of cystine] and
methionine [C5H11NO2S – HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3].
 It is an important constituent of several other biological
active compounds like vitamins, glutathione etc.
 It is involved in the synthesis of glucosides in mustard
oil.
 It plays a major role in improving the oil quality in
oilseed crops.
Chlorine (Cl) :-
 Chlorine plays a major role in osmo-regulation (cell
elongation, stomatal opening).
 It is essential in photosysthesis, where it is involved
in the evolution of oxygen.
 It acts as a cofactor in Mn-containing water splitting
enzyme of photosystem II.
 Chlorine in abundance suppresses the plant disease
like stem rot and sheath blight in rice, hollow heart
and brown centre in potatoes.
 Chlorine supply improves the nutritional quality of
vegetables.
Iron (Fe) :-
 Iron is a constituent of two groups of proteins, viz. (i)
Heme proteins containing Fe porphyrin complex as
prosthetic group (leghemoglobin) and (ii) Fe-S
proteins in which Fe coordinated with the cysteine or
to inorganic S (Ferredoxin).
 It contributes to the formation of some enzymes and
amino acids.
 It plays an essential role in the nucleic acid
metabolism.
 It is necessary for synthesis and maintenance of
chlorophyll in plants.
 It is also plays a key role in N2-fixation.
Zinc (Zn) :-
 Zinc plays an important role in the synthesis of proteins,
enzymes and growth hormones.
 Zinc is a constituents of three enzymes – carbonic anhydrase,
alcoholic dehydrogenase and superoxide dismutase. Function
of these enzymes include :
1. Carbonic anhydrase – Used as an index enzyme for
resolving zinc deficiency. It is localized in the cytoplasm
and chloroplasts and facilitates the transfer of CO2/HCO3-
for photosynthetic CO2 fixation.
2. Alcoholic dehydrogenase – It plays an important role in
anerobic root respiration and catalyses the conversion of
acetaldehyde to ethanol.
3. Superoxide dismutase – The Zn-Cu-superoxide dismutase
detoxifies superoxide redicals and protects the lipids and
proteins of the membranes against oxidation.
Zinc (Zn) :-
 Zn is involved in the synthesis of indole acetic acid,
metabolism of gibberellic acid and synthesis of RNA.
 Zn promotes synthesis of cytochrome C.
 Zn plays an important role in stabilization and
structural orientation of the membrane proteins.
 Zinc influences translocation and tranport of P in
plants. Under Zn-deficiency, excessive translocation
of P results in the P-toxicity.
Manganese (Mn) :-
 Mn promotes seed germination and speeds plants
maturity.
 It plays an important role in photosynthesis by
contributing to chlorophyll production.
 Mn activates a variety of enzymes concerned in
cellular oxidation-reduction (oxido-reductase) and
hydrolysis (hydrolases).
 Being a constituent of nitrate reductase and
hydroxylamine reductase enzymes, Mn is linked with
nitrogen assimilation in the plants.
 It is increase the availability of P and Ca in plants.
Copper (Cu) :-
 It activates various enzymes.
 Cu is also plays a role in chlorophyll production.
 Copper is involved in key oxidation-reduction
reactions in essential metabolic processes such as
mitochondrial respiration, synthesis of melanin and
cross-linking of collagen.
 Copper is important in imparting disease resistance
to the plants.
 It enhances the fertility of male flowers.
Boron (B) :-
 Boron is responsible for the cell wall formation and
stabilization, lignification and xylem differentiation.
 Boron is involved in the movement of Ca into the plant and in
normal Ca nutrition in plants. For example, hallow-heart
disease in groundnut can occur when a shortage of B limits Ca
movement, normal cell wall development and cell division.
 It is essential in the actively growing regions of plants, such as
root tips, and in new leaf and bud development (overall plant
health and tissue growth).
 It increases flower production and retention, pollen tube
elongation and germination and seed and fruit development.
 It imparts drought tolerance to the crops.
 It facilitates transport of K in guard cells as well as stomatal
opening (Promotes the absorption of water).
Molybdenum (Mo) :-
 Molybdenum is the structure component of nitrogenase
enzyme. It is essential of nitrogen assimilation by plant.
 Molybdenum is needed for enzyme activity in the plant and for
biological nitrogen fixation in legumes.
 Molybdenum is involved in protein biosynthesis through its
effect on ribonuclease and alanine aminotransferase activity.
 Molybdenum affects the formation and viability of pollens and
development of anthers.
 Nitrate is reduced by nitrate reductase (NR) enzyme in
cytoplasm by transfer from Mo to NO3-. Nitrate Reductase
Activity (NRA) has been used as an indicator of status of Mo in
plants.
 It is needed for the production of nitrogen based proteins.
Nickel (Ni) :-
 It is a key component of selected enzymes involved
in nitrogen metabolism and biological nitrogen
fixation in legumes and other plants in which ureides
(compounds derived from urea) are important in
metabolism.
 Ni is the metal component in urease, an enzyme that
catalyzes the conversion of urea to ammonium.
 Nickel is required by plants for proper seed
germination, because it facilitates transport of
nutrients to the seeds or grains.
 In free living Rhizobum, adequate Ni supply ensures
optimum hydrogenase activity.
Thanks
 Nutrient Deficiency and
Toxicity in Plants
Dr. R.K. Thakur
Assistant Professor (Soil Science)
College of Agriculture, Balaghat

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.)

Background :-
 Plants require essential nutrients for normal
functioning and growth.
 A plant’s sufficiency range is the range of nutrient
amount necessary to meet the plant’s nutritional
needs and maximize growth.
 The width of this range depends on individual plant
species and the particular nutrient.
 Nutrient levels outside of a plant’s sufficiency range
cause overall crop growth and health to decline due
to either a deficiency or toxicity.
Relationship between plant growth and health and
amount of nutrient available
Background :-
 Nutrient deficiency occurs when an essential nutrient is not
available in sufficient quantity to meet the requirements of a
growing plant.
 Toxicity occurs when a nutrient is in excess of plant needs
and decreases plant growth or quality.
 Nutrient toxicity is less common than deficiency and most
likely occurs as a result of over-application of fertilizer or
manure.
 The three basic tools for diagnosing nutrient deficiencies
and toxicities are
1) Soil testing
2) Plant analysis and
3) Visual observations in the field.
Common Deficiency Symptoms
 Symptom :- It is any perceptible change in known
structure, appearance or function. A first step in
diagnosing nutrient deficiencies is to describe the
symptoms. Each deficiency symptom is related to
some function of the nutrient in the plant. Symptoms
caused by nutrient deficiencies are generally
grouped into five categories :
1. Stunted growth : Decreased growth; shorter
height of the affected plants.
2. Chlorosis : Yellowing of the plant tissue; lack of
chlorophyll.
3. Interveinal chlorosis :
Yellowing in between
leaf veins, yet veins
remain green.
4. Purplish-red coloring :
Plant stems and leaves
are due to above normal
levels of anthocyanin (a
purple colored pigment)
that can accumulate
when plant functions are
disrupted or stressed.

5. Necrosis : Death of plant tissue (browns & dies)

Mobile and Immobile Nutrients in Plants
Mobile : Nutrients that
Mobile Immobile
are able to move out of
older leaves (lower) to Nitrogen (N) Calcium (Ca)
younger plant parts Phosphorous (P) Sulphur (S)
when supplies are
Potassium (K) Boron (B)
inadequate.
Magnesium (Mg) Copper (Cu)
Immobile : Nutrients
cannot move from one Molybdenum (Mo) Iron (Fe)
plant part to another Chloride (Cl) Manganese (Mn)
(Deficiency symptoms
will initially occur in Nickel (Ni)
the younger or upper Calcium (Ca)
leaves).
Zinc (Zn)
 Deficiency
symptoms of
nutrients in
plants
A brief key to nutrient deficiency symptoms
Nutrient Deficiency symptoms
Symptoms appearing first on older (lower) leaves
Nitrogen (N) Chlorosis starting from leaf tips
Phosphorous (P) Reddish colour on green leaves or stem
Potassium (K) Necrosis on leaf margins
Magnesium (Mg) Chlorosis mainly between veins (which remains green)
Manganese (Mn) Brownish, grayish, whitish spots (eg. on cereals)
Symptoms appearing first on younger (upper) leaves
Sulphur (S) Mottled yellow-green leaves with yellowish veins
Iron (Fe) Mottled yellow-green leaves with green veins
Manganese (Mn) Brownish black spots (e.g. on legumes, potatoes)
Copper (Cu) Youngest leaf has white tip
Boron (B) Youngest leaf is brownish or dead (e.g. on beet)
Nitrogen (N) :-
 Nitrogen deficiency shows up in the form of yellowing or
chlorosis of the plant leaves.
 Due to mobility of N in plants, the yellowing starts in the
oldest leaves and then proceeds to develop on younger
leaves under conditions of severe deficiency.
 Reduction in flowering and crop yields.
 It causes death of lateral buds.
 Lower protein content are associated with N -
deficiency.
 Plants mature prematurity.
 Nitrogen deficiency shows up in the form of yellowing or
chlorosis of the plant leaves.
Nitrogen (N) :-
 Due to mobility of N in plants, the yellowing starts in the
oldest leaves and then proceeds to develop on younger
leaves under conditions of severe deficiency.
 Reduction in flowering and crop yields.
 It causes death of lateral buds.
 Lower protein content are associated with N - deficiency.
 Plants mature prematurity.
N
Phosphorous (P) :-
 Plants having < 0.1% or 1000 ppm phosphorous are
designated as P – deficiency.
 Because of being mobile in plants, first signs of P
deficiency appear on the older leaves.
 In maize and some other grass species, purple
discoloration of leaves or leaf edges appears (purple
colour is due to anthocyanin accumulation.
 The leaves turn intense green (Bluish green) because
of excessive accumulation of carbohydrates.
 Under very severe P-deficiency leaves may become
denatured and turn necrotic.
 P-deficient plants are thin, erect and spindly with
restricted foliage.
P
Potassium (K) :-
 Deficiency symptoms of K develop first on the older
(lower) leaves.
 Affected older leaves will show chlorotic areas with
leaf burn at margins.
 K – deficient seeds and fruits are shriveled.
 Leaf margins tanned, scorched, or have necrotic spots
(may be small black spots which later coalesce).
 Margins become brown and cup downward.
 Growth is restricted and die back may occur.
 Mild symptoms appear first on recently matured
leaves.
Calcium (Ca) :-
 Plants having Ca-content < 0.1% (or 1000 ppm) are regarded
as Calcium – deficient.
 Ca – deficiency symptoms first appear on the younger
structure (leaves).
 Under Ca – deficiency, root system is stunted.
 Young leaves are often distorted, small and abnormally
green.
 Leaves become cup shaped and crinkled and the terminal
buds deteriorate with some break down of petioles.
 Growing points usually damaged or dead (die back).
 Margins of leaves developing from the growing point are
first to turn brown
 Blossom end rot in tomatoes and Bitter pit in apples.
Blossom end
rot in tomatoes
Magnesium (Mg) :-
 Plants having Mg-content < 0.1%
(or 1000 ppm) are regarded as
magnesium– deficient.
 Mg – deficiency symptoms first
appear on the lower leaves.
 Interveinal chlorosis (only vein
remains green) and streaked or
patchy effects on older leaves.
 Chlorotic areas may become
necrotic, brittle, and curl upward.
 Rate of photosynthesis is
decreases.
Sulphur (S) :-
 Plants having 0.1 to 0.2% S-content suffer from
S-deficiency.
 Sulphur deficiency first appear on younger
growths as S is immobile in the plants.
 The fading of the normal green colour of the
younger leaves, followed by chlorosis is the most
common deficiency symptoms.
 Uniform chlorosis does not occur.
 Plants deficient in S tend to be spindly and small,
and stems are often thin.
Zinc (Zn) :-
 Zn-sufficient plants contain 25 to 250 mg kg-1.
 Zn deficient leaves display interveinal chlorosis,
especially midway between the margin and midrib,
producing a striping effect; some mottling may
also occur.
 Chlorotic areas can be pale green, yellow, or even
white.
 Severe Zn deficiency causes leaves to turn gray-
white and fall prematurely or die.
 Internodes are shortened (dwarfing of the plants).
 Little leaves get mal formed giving a bushy rosette
appearance.
Zn deficiency in different plants is known as :
 Khaira disease of rice : deriving its origin from dark
reddish brown pigmentation of the leaves of the affected
plants.
 Mottle leaf or frenching of citrus.
 Rosette disease of apple.
 White bud of maize.
 Little leaf of cotton.
Iron (Fe) :-
 Plants having < 50 mg kg-1 are usually classified as
Fe-deficient.
 Deficiency of iron results in interveinal chlorosis,
appearing first on younger leaves with leaf margins
and veins remaining green.
 Under condition of severe deficiency of Fe whole
plants turning necrotic.
 Symptoms are rare on
mature leaves.
 Plant growth is slow.
Copper (Cu) :-
 Plants having < 5 mg Cu kg-1 are
regarded as Cu-deficient.
 Male flowers’ sterility delayed
flowering and senescence are the
most important effects of Cu
deficiency.
 Chlorosis of the younger shoot
tissues, white tips, reclamation
disease, necrosis, leaf distortion
and die-back are the characteristic
Cu-deficiency symptoms.

 Necrosis of the apical meristems results in elongation of the

shoots in cereals and auxilliary shoots in dicotyledonous
plants.
Manganese (Mn) :-
 Mn-deficient plants contain < 25 mg
Mn kg-1 DM.
 Mn-deficiency symptoms are more
severe in middle leaves than on the
younger ones because Mn is
preferentially translocated to the
younger tissues.
 Interveinal chlorosis in
dicotyledonous plants by the
appereance of chlorotic and necrotic
spots in the interveinal areas.
 In monocotyledonous plants like cereals, Mn-deficiency
symptoms appear as greenish grey spots, flecks and stripes
on the more basal leaves (Gray speck).
Manganese (Mn) :-
 Chlorotic leaf areas soon become necrotic and turn red,
reddish-brown or brown.
 Symptoms of Mn-deficiency are popularly known as :
1. Speckled yellow of sugar beat.
2. Gray speck of oats.
3. Marsh spot of peas.
4. Pahala blight of sugarcane.
Boron (B) :-
 Plant having boron concentrations 05 to 30 mg kg-1 are
suspected to be B-deficient .
 Plants suffering from B-deficiency exhibit chlorotic
young leaves and death of the main growing point
(terminal bud).
 Leaves may develop dark brown, irregular lesions that
will progress to leaf necrosis in severe cases.
 Whitish-yellow spots may also form at the base of
leaves.
 Boron deficient plants become brittle and distorted and
leaf tips tend to thicken and curl.
 Shortened internodes (stem segment between points
where leaves are attached).
B deficiency in different plants is known as :

 Heart rot of sugarbeet and marigold.

 Browning or hollow stem of cauliflower.
 Top sickness of tobacco.
 Internal cork of apple.
Molybdenum (Mo) :-
 The critical concentration of Mo-deficiency in plants is
usually < 0.1 mg Mo kg-1.
 Due to this interrelationship, Mo deficiency symptoms
often resemble N deficiency symptoms with stunted
growth and chlorosis occurring in legumes.
 Other symptoms of Mo deficiency include pale leaves
that may be scorched, cupped or rolled.
 Leaves may also appear thick or brittle, and will
eventually wither, leaving only the midrib.
 Mo-deficiency in cauliflower is termed as Whip-tail :
Young plants turn white particularly along the leaf
margins and also become cupped and whiter and die.
Chlorine (Cl) :-
 Plants having < 100 mg Cl kg-1 DM
are usually designated as deficient.
 Deficiency symptoms of chlorine
(that includes wilting of leaves,
curling of leaflets and chlorosis)
are similar to that of Mn-deficiency.
 Plants with insufficient Cl show
chlorotic and necrotic spotting
along leaves with abrupt
boundaries between dead and live
tissue.
 Wilting of leaves at margins and
highly branched root systems are
also typical Cl deficient symptoms,
found mainly in cereal crops.
Nickel (Ni) :-
 Critical level of Ni-deficiency in barley shoots is 0.1
mg Ni kg-1 DM.
 Ni deficiency symptoms are not well documented
and symptoms include chlorosis and interveinal
chlorosis in young leaves that progress to plant
tissue necrosis.
 Other symptoms include poor seed germination
and decreased crop yield.
Toxicity symptoms of nutrients in plants
 Nutrient toxicity is most often the result of over-
application, with symptoms including abnormal
growth (excessive or stunted), chlorosis, leaf
discoloration and necrotic spotting.
 When in excess, many nutrients will inhibit the
uptake of other nutrients, thus potentially causing
deficiency symptoms to occur as well.
 Macronutrient (N, P and K) toxicities most often
occur as a result of the over-application of
fertilizers or manure.
 Secondary macronutrient (Ca, Mg and S) toxicities
are rare and toxic effects on crop health have not
been documented.
Toxicity symptoms of nutrients in plants
 Micronutrient toxicities can occur and are likely
caused by over-application of fertilizer or manure,
using irrigation water high in micronutrients or
salts, or in areas where soil micronutrient
concentrations are abnormally high (i.e. areas
exposed to mining activity or high metal minerals
in subsoil).
 In addition, high amounts of non-essential
elements such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd) and
lead (Pb) can be directly toxic to plants and
livestock or cause a nutrient imbalance in the
plant, in which essential nutrient deficiencies or
toxicities may possibly occur.
Nitrogen (N) :-
 Foliage turns dark green and the succulence of the
plants increases.
 Taller plants and heavier heads cause lodging.
 A nitrogen-rich, luxuriant succulent crop is more
susceptible to insect, pest and disease attacks.
 Delay in maturity and ripening of fruits.
 Excessive vegetative growth and plant lodging with
light wind.
Phosphorous (P) :-
 Profuse root growth.
 It develops normal growth having green leaf colour.
 Excess P indirectly affects plant growth by reducing Fe, Mn and
Zn uptake; thus, potentially causing deficiency symptoms of
these nutrients to occur.
 It may cause trace element deficiency in two ways in some
cases :
Synergetic effect / Interaction :- If increase the supply of one of
the nutrients, it has beneficial effect on the availability and
uptake of other nutrients, this type of interaction or effect is
known as synergetic effect. For example – P & N
Antagonistic effect :- When excess of one of the nutrients in
soil have a harmful effect or negative effect on the availability
effect is known as antagonistic effect. For example – P & Zn
 Zn deficiency is most common under excess P conditions.
Potassium (K) :-
 Due to a cation imbalance, K toxicity can cause
reduced uptake and subsequent deficiencies of Mg,
and in some cases, Ca.

Luxury consumption :- It is the tendency of some crops

to absorb and accumulate nutrients far in excess of
their actual needs if it is present in sufficiently large
quantities in the soil. Potassium is one of the
nutrient elements which is subjected to luxury
consumption.
The absorption pattern of different nutrients by
plants is varies greatly among the plant species and
also their age and growth stages
Calcium (Ca) :-
 High amount of Ca records the susceptibility of plant
for some diseases. If more Ca present in soil, it may
induce antagonistic interaction.
 It will create Ca/lime induced chlorosis.

Sulphur (S) :-
 When sulphur is present in excess in available form
antagonistic interaction can by seen with the
availability of nitrogen and phosphorous.
Micronutrients :-
 Boron toxicity results in chlorosis followed by necrosis.
Symptoms begin at the leaf tip and margins and spread
toward the midrib. As the toxicity progresses, older
leaves will appear scorched and fall prematurely.
 Other micronutrients causing potential toxicity symptoms
include Cu, Mn, Mo, Ni and Zn.
 Excess Cu will displace Fe and other metals from
important areas in the plant, causing chlorosis and other
Fe deficiency symptoms, such as stunted growth, to
appear.
 High Ni concentrations can also cause Fe to be
displaced. Interveinal chlorosis may appear in new leaves
of Ni toxic plants and growth may be stunted.
Micronutrients :-
 Mn toxicity symptoms are generally characterized by
blackish-brown or red spots on older leaves and an
uneven distribution of chlorophyll, causing chlorosis and
necrotic lesions on leaves.
 Mo toxicity does not pose serious crop problems (crops
may appear stunted with yellow-brown leaf
discolorations), excess amounts of Mo in forage have
been found to be toxic to livestock.
 Zn toxicity is not common, but can occur on very saline
soils. Symptoms include leaves turning dark green,
chlorosis, interveinal chlorosis and a reduction in root
growth and leaf expansion.
 Excess Zn may induce Fe deficiency.
Antagonistic elements
Excess elements Nutrient(s) affected
Nitrogen (N) K, Ca
Potassium (K) N, Ca, Mg
Calcium (Ca) P, B, Mg
Magnesium (Mg) Ca, K
Iron (Fe) Mn
Manganese (Mn) Fe, Mo, Mg
Copper (Cu) Mo, Fe, Mn, Zn
Zinc (Zn) Fe, Mn
Molybdenum (Mo) Cu, Fe
Suplhur (S) Mo
Crops Highly Susceptible to Deficiencies

Elements Crops
Mn Soybean, Small Grain & Peanuts
Cu Wheat & Corn
Zn Corn
Mo Soybeans & Cauliflower
B Alfalfa, Apples, Peanuts, Tobacco &
Tomatoes
Fe Ornamentals, Fruit Trees, Soybeans, Grain
Sorghum & Some Grasses
Thanks
 Chemistry of Nitrogen in Soil

Dr. R.K. Thakur

Assistant Professor (Soil Science)
College of Agriculture, Balaghat

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.)

Introduction :-
 Nitrogen is an essential element for plant growth and
development and a key issue of agriculture.
 The Green Revolution was accompanied by an
enormous increase in the application of nitrogen
fertilizer.
 Nitrogen is absorbed by plant roots as NO3- ion and
in the case of rice as NH4+ ion also.
 It is an essential constituent of all living matter.
Form of Nitrogen in Soil :-
 It is present in soil mainly two types :
(1) Organic Nitrogen (98%) :- Protein, Free amino acid etc.
(2) Inorganic Nitrogen (2%) :-
Ionic – NH4+, NO3-, NO2-
Gaseous – N2, N2O, NO, NH3
Nitrogen cycle in soil :-
Transformation of Nitrogen in Soil :-
 Mineralization :-
1. Aminization –
Protein R-NH2+CO2+Energy + other reaction products
2. Ammonification –
R-NH2 + HOH NH3 + R–OH + Energy
Reaction – I : Ammonia react with water
NH3 + HOH NH4OH
NH4OH NH4+ + OH–
Reaction – II : Ammonia react with carbonic & nitric acid
2NH3 + H2CO3 (NH4)2CO3 NH4+ + CO32–
NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3 NH4+ + NO3–
Transformation of Nitrogen in Soil :-
 Mineralization :-
3. Nitrification –
Step I : Nitrosation
2NH4+ + 3O2 2NO2– + 2H2O + 4H+ + Energy
Step II : Nitration
2NO2– + O2 2NO3– + Energy
 Demineralization :-
Factors affecting nitrification :-
 Aeration
 Temperature
 Moisture
 Soil Reaction
 Lime
 Fertilizer
 Carbon : Nitrogen Ratio
Losses of Nitrogen from Soils :-
 Denitrification
 Volatilization
 Leaching
 Crop removal
 Erosion
Thanks
 Soil Fertility Evaluation: Concept,
Diagnostic Techniques and Importance

Dr. R.K. Thakur

Assistant Professor (Soil Science)
College of Agriculture, Balaghat

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.)

Introduction :-
 When crops are grown in a soil continuously without the
addition of nutrients/ fertilizers, there is a constant
removal of nutrients by plants from the soil, i.e. plants
remove or reduces the nutrients from the soil.
 When the soil does not furnish adequate quantities of the
elements which is necessary for normal growth and
development of plant.
 This necessities finding a method that will permit the
determination of those deficient elements.
 Thus, “The diagnosis of the nutrient status of the soil by
using different techniques or methods is known as soil
fertility evaluation”.
 Soil fertility evaluation is a main feature of sustainable
soil fertility management.
Introduction :-
 The basic purpose of soil fertility evaluation is to quantify the ability
of soils to supply nutrients for proper plant growth and development.
 Soil fertility evaluation is the process of estimating the amount of
native and residual nutrient elements which could be available for
use by growing crops in particular soil and the amount of fertilizer to
be supplemented for profitable crop production.
Thus, soil fertility evaluation is an important tool for:
 Evaluating the fertilizer needs of specific crops and soils;
 Achieving reliable and economic fertilizer recommendations, that is,
ensuring that right types and quantities of fertilizers are applied;
 Checking wastage of fertilizers; and
 Minimizing soil and water pollution through the addition of excessive
amounts of chemical fertilizers.
Objectives of Soil Fertility Evaluation :-
 Assess nutrient status of soil-crop system
 Diagnose suspected nutrient imbalances
 Monitor effects of management on crop nutrient
status, soil fertility
 Provide basis for making fertilizer recommendations
for
 Improving yield and quality

 Improving fertilizer use efficiency

 Decreasing impacts on water and air quality

 Assess availability of toxic elements

 Improve soil quality.

Components of Soil Fertility Evaluation :-
Diagnostic techniques of Soil Fertility Evaluation :-
 SFE can be carried out by using a range of laboratory and
field diagnostic techniques and a series of increasingly
sophisticated empirical and/or theoretical models that
quantitatively relate indicators of soil fertility to plant
response.
 The diagnostic techniques include chemical and biological
soil tests, visual observations of plant growth for nutrient
deficiency or toxicity symptoms and chemical analysis of
plant tissue.
 The following techniques are used to assess the fertility
status of soil.
 Soil testing / analysis
 Plant testing / analysis
 Tissue test
 Biological test
Conceptual summary of the process of SFE –
Soil Testing :- Method of Soil Analysis
S. Parameters Extracting Name of Instruments
No. Reagent
1. Soil pH Water pH meter
2. Soil EC Water EC meter
3. Soil Organic Carbon 1 N K2Cr2O7 Volumetrically
Kjeldahl flask or
4. Available Nitrogen 0.32% KMnO4
Nitrogen analyser
5. Available Phosphorous 0.5 M NaHCO3 Spectrophotometer
6. Available Potassium 1 N NH4OAC Flame-photometer
7. Available Sulphur 0.01 M CaCl2.2H2O Spectrophotometer
8. Available Ca & Mg 0.01 N EDTA Volumetrically
Available Micronutrients Atomic Absorption
9. 0.005 M DTPA
(Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu & Ni) Spectrophotometer
10. Available Boron Azomethine-H Spectrophotometer
Ammonium
11. Available Molybdenum Spectrophotometer
oxalate
12. Available Chloride Volumetrically
Thanks
 Critical Levels of Different
Nutrients in Soil

Dr. R.K. Thakur

Assistant Professor (Soil Science)
College of Agriculture, Balaghat

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.)

Soil pH Value
S. pH value Interpretation
No.
1. < 5.0 Strongly acidic
2. 5.1 – 6.5 Slightly Acidic
3. 6.6 – 7.5 Neutral
4. 7.6 – 8.0 Slightly alkaline
5. > 8.0 Strongly alkaline
Soil EC Value

S. No. EC value Interpretation

(dSm-1)
1. < 1.0 No deleterious effect on crops
2. 1.0 – 2.0 Critical for salt sensitive crops
3. 2.0 – 3.0 Critical for salt tolerant crops
4. > 3.0 Injurious to most crops
Soil organic carbon
S. No. Interpretation Soil Organic Carbon
% g kg-1
1. Very low < 0.25 < 2.5
2. Low 0.25 – 0.50 2.50 – 5.00
3. Medium 0.51 – 0.75 5.00 – 7.50
4. High 0.75 – 1.00 7.50 – 10.00
5. Very high > 1.00 > 10.00
Available Major nutrients
S. Interpretation Nutrients (kg ha-1)
No.
N P K
1. Very low < 150 < 05 < 200
2. Low 150 – 250 05 – 10 200 – 250
3. Medium 250 – 400 10 – 20 250 – 400
4. High 400 – 600 20 – 40 400 – 600
5. Very high > 600 > 40 > 600
Available Sulphur
S. No. Interpretation Sulphur (mg kg-1)
1. Very low < 5.0
2. Low 5.0 – 10.0
3. Medium 10.0 – 20.0
4. High 20.0 – 40.0
5. Very high > 40.0
Available Micronutrients
S. Nutrients (mg kg-1)
Interpretation
No. Zn Cu Fe Mn

1. Very low < 0.30 - - < 1.0

2. Low 0.30 – 0.60 < 0.20 < 4.5 1.0 – 2.0

3. Medium 0.60 – 1.20 0.20 – 0.40 4.5 – 9.0 2.0 – 4.0

4. High > 1.20 > 0.40 > 9.0 > 4.0

Critical limits 0.60 0.20 4.50 1.00

Available Micronutrients
S. Nutrients (mg kg-1)
Interpretation
No. B Mo
1. Low < 0.50 0.05
2. Medium 0.50 – 1.00 0.05 – 0.10
3. High > 1.00 > 0.10
Critical limits 0.50 0.05
Thanks
 Plant Analysis/Testing

Dr. R.K. Thakur

Assistant Professor (Soil Science)
College of Agriculture, Balaghat

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.)

Introduction :-
 Soil fertility evaluation can be carried out not only
by soil tests but also by characterization of growth
and nutrient composition of plants.
 Some plant-based soil fertility evaluation techniques
are available i.e. visual symptoms of nutrient
deficiency of the plants at field and plant tissue
analysis by different chemical methods at
laboratory.
Visual Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms :-
 When soil is not able to supply adequate amounts of
one or more plant nutrients, plants start showing
starvation signs called deficiency symptoms.
 These symptoms are nutrients specific and show
different patterns in different plants.
 For example, P deficiency typically causes stunted
growth and N deficiency an overall yellowing of
leaves and stunted growth.
 Potassium deficiency shows as marginal ‘spotting’
that develops into complete necrosis of the leaf
margins.
 It is a good tool to detect deficiencies of nutrients in
the soil.
Some other nutrients deficiency symptoms are shown
by the crop plants are given below :-

 Complete crop failure at the seedling stage

 Severe stunting of plants
 Specific leaf symptoms appearing at varying times
during the season
 International abnormalities such as clogged
conductive tissue
 Delayed crop maturity
 Reduces crop productivity
 Poor quality of crops including difference in protein,
oil or starch
 However, one must develop diagnostic proficiency
through practice and close observation to identify
nutrient deficiencies in different plants.
 The deficiency symptoms in many cases are not
always clearly defined.
Some typical examples are given as under :-
 N deficiency can be confused with S deficiency.
 Ca deficiency can be confused with B deficiency.
 Fe deficiency can be confused with Mn deficiency.
 Effect of virus, little leaf etc. can be confused with
Zn and/or B deficiency.
 Brown streak disease of rice can be confused with
Zn deficiency.
Plant Analysis :-
 The plant root absorbs the nutrient from the soil and
these nutrients are transported to other plant parts where
they are needed.
 The concentration of the nutrients in the cell sap is
usually a good indication of how the plant is supply at
the time of testing.
 It is possible to anticipate certain problems of deficiency
of nutrients.
 Composition of plants or a portion of the plant with
respect to elements essential for growth as worked out
by plant analysis can be interpreted by two widely used
methods:
I. Critical nutrient concentration and
II. Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS)
Critical nutrient range approach for plant
analysis interpretation :-
Plant Analysis :-
 Sampling
 Processing and storage of plant samples
o Washing
o Drying
o Grinding and storage
Methods of digestion or ashing of plant tissues :-
 Different types of acids are required for the estimation of
different nutrient contents in plant samples.
 Phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur,
micronutrients (Zn, Fe, Mn& Cu) etc are estimated by
diacid mixture (1 :2.5 HClO4 : HNO3) solution. While,
Conc. H2SO4 is used for nitrogen estimation in plant
samples.
 The method is unsuited for B determination as the
element is volatilized during wet ashing. While, dry
ashing is done in muffle furnace at temperature varying
from 400 to 500oC for 2-8 hours. The plant sample taken
in platinum or vitreous silica crucible is treated with Mg
(NO3)2 or Na2CO3 prior to placing in a muffle furnace.
Procedure of digestion :-
 Add 5 ml of diacid mixture into the beaker in which
1.0 g plant sample has been transferred in the
beaker and place on a hot plate for brisk heating.
 Keep a portion of the beaker mouth open to permit
the gases to escape.
 Continue heating until evolution of copious dense
white fumes subsides leaving about 3 ml of
colourless solution in the beaker which on cooling
gives a whitish residue.
 If the residue is not white and signs of beginning of
charring are seen, remove the beaker from the hot
plate and let it cool.
 Then add 2 ml of diacid mixture and place the beaker
again on hot plate.
Procedure of digestion :-
 Continue heating until the contents is reduced to
about 2-3 ml of colourless clear solution. In order to
avoid excessive heating, a layer of sand may be
spread over the hot plate.
 If white residue is not obtained, the residue is treated
again with 2ml of the diacid mixture and the heating
be continued till the contents is reduced to about 2-3
ml.
 Thereafter, the beaker to be removed from the hot
plate or sand bath.
 Allow the beaker to cool.
Method of plant analysis :-
S. Parameters Digested by Name of Instruments
No.
1. Nitrogen Conc. H2SO4 Kjeldahl flask or Nitrogen analyser
2. Phosphorous Diacid Mixture Spectrophotometer
3. Potassium Diacid Mixture Flame-photometer
4. Sulphur Diacid Mixture Spectrophotometer
5. Ca & Mg Diacid Mixture Volumetrically
6. Micronutrients Diacid Mixture Atomic Absorption
(Cations) Spectrophotometer
7. Boron Diacid Mixture Spectrophotometer
8. Molybdenum Diacid Mixture Spectrophotometer
Thanks
 Rapid Plant Tissue Tests

Dr. R.K. Thakur

Assistant Professor (Soil Science)
College of Agriculture, Balaghat

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.)

Introduction :-
 It is a qualitative method.
 Fresh plant tissue or sap from ruptured cells is
using for N, P, K and other nutrients testing.
 In the cell sap, added certain reagents to develop
colour.
 Based on intensity of colour low, medium and high
colour is categorized which indicates the deficiency,
adequate and high nutrients in the plants
respectively.
 It is mainly used for predicting deficiencies of
nutrients and it is possible to forecast certain
production problems.
Rapid plant tissue test for NPK :-
 It is performed in the standing crops on above ground
portions to find out deficiency of particular element
before the plant become acute deficient and help to
correct the nutritional level by applying deficient
elements through fertilizers.
 Plants accumulate in their tissues nitrate, phosphate and
potassium (K+) as ions which can be determined by
chemical tests.
 These tests are essentially rapid qualitative tests in
which the nutrients are extracted from leaf parts with the
help of chemical reagents and the concentration of a
particular nutrient is estimated by the difference in
intensity of colour, the results are classified as low,
medium, high and very high.
Nitrate Test (Diphenyl amine test) :-
Reagent -
 Diphenyl amine (1%) : Dissolve 1 g of diphenyl amine in 100 ml
of concentrated sulphuric acid. This solution is very corrosive
hence handle it with care.
Procedure -
 In case of thick stalk plants like maize, sorghum etc. nitrate test
is made at the base of the leaf midrib without destroying the
entire plant. Cut a thin vertical section at the plant node and
add a drop of the diphenyl amine reagent. In about 30 seconds
blue colour develops if plant sap contains nitrate nitrogen.
 In case of thin stalk plants like wheat, barley, pearl millet etc.
Uproot the plant and cut the stem near the lower node in
slanting manner. Add 2-3 drops of diphenyl amine reagent. A
dark blue colour will develop if plant sap contains abundance
of nitrates.
Nitrate Test (Diphenyl amine test) :-
Observation and interpretation -
 No colour - Plant is severely deficient in nitrogen
(urgent need to apply nitrogenous fertilizers).
 Slightly blue colour - Plant is deficient in nitrogen
(need to apply nitrogenous fertilizers).
 Medium blue colour - Plant is slightly deficient in
nitrogen (application of nitrogenous fertilizers will
give a slight increase in crop yield).
 Dark blue colour - Plant is adequately supplied with
nitrogen (no need to apply nitrogen fertilizers).
Phosphate Test :-
Reagents -
 Reagent 1 : Dissolve 8 g of ammonium molybdate in
200 ml of distilled water in a beaker. In another beaker
take 74 ml of distilled water and add 126 ml of
concentrated hydrochloric acid and shake well. Now add
this dilute solution of HCl to the solution of ammonium
molybdate slowly with constant stirring.
The concentrated phosphate reagent 1 should be
diluted four times with distilled water just before use. The
diluted reagent become unsuitable for use after a few
weeks hence fresh working solution should be prepared
while determining phosphate in plant tissue.
 Reagent 2 : Stannous chloride (Dry).
Phosphate Test :-
Procedure -
 Cut leaf into fine pieces after removing thick mid rib.
 Place a tea spoonful of the finely cut tissue in 50 ml
graduated beaker.
 Now, add phosphate reagent 1 up to the 10 ml mark and
shake the contents vigorously.
 After shaking, add a small amount of stannous chloride
(approximately the size of a pin head).
 Mix the contents and observe the colour.
 The amount of inorganic phosphate present in the plant
tissue is indicated by the intensity of blue colour, which
may range from light blue to dark blue.
Phosphate Test :-
Observation and interpretation –
 No colour or yellow colour - Plant is highly deficient in
phosphorus (need to apply phosphatic fertilizers for
increasing crop yield)
 Green or bluish green - Plant is deficient in
phosphorus (need to apply phosphatic fertilizers).
 Light blue colour - Plant has medium phosphorus
supply (Slight increase in yield is expected with
application of phosphatic fertilizer).
 Medium blue colour - Plant is adequately supplied with
phosphorus (no need to apply phosphatic fertilizers).
 Dark blue colour - Plant is abundantly supplied with
phosphorus (no need to apply phosphatic fertilizers).
Potassium Test :-
Reagents -
 Reagent 1 : Dissolve 5.0 g of sodium cobalti-nitrite
(AR grade) and 30 g sodium nitrite in 50 to 70 ml
distilled water, add 5 ml of glacial acetic acid, make it
to 100 ml in a volumetric flask and allow to stand for
several days.
Add 5 ml of this solution to a solution of 15 g of
sodium nitrite in 100 ml of distilled water and adjust
the pH 5.0 with acetic acid. Since the sodium cobalti-
nitrite concentration is an important factor in
determining the sensitivity of the test, use this
chemical in pure form.
 Ethyl alcohol (95%).
Potassium Test :-
Reagents -
 Cut leaf tissue into fine pieces with scissor.
 Place 1/4th tea spoon of the finely cut leaf tissue in a
glass beaker and add 10 ml of potassium reagent 1
at 21oC.
 Maintain the temperature 21oC with the use of ice
water.
 Shake the contents of beaker vigorously for a
minute carefully.
 Then add 5 ml of 95% ethyl alcohol (potassium
reagent) and mix.
 After 2-3 minutes, observe the turbidity formed.
Potassium Test :-
 Observation and interpretation -
 Only a trace of turbidity – Plant is deficient in
potassium supply (need to apply potassic
fertilizers as top dressing or in the form of foliar
spray).
 Medium turbidity - Doubtful potassium supply in
plant (no need to apply potassic fertilizer).
 Very high turbidity - Plant is adequate in
potassium supply (no need to apply potassic
fertilizer).
Precautions :-
 For rapid plant tissue test the stage of growth and
plant part to be taken should be considered first.
 Intensity of turbidity developed by various reagents
for an element in a non deficient plant should be
compared with a deficient plant for comparison.
 The knife and other equipments used for plant
tissue test should be cleaned and washed with
distilled water.
 Do not use reagents which has been kept for longer
period.
Thanks
 Indicator Plants

Dr. R.K. Thakur

Assistant Professor (Soil Science)
College of Agriculture, Balaghat

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.)

Indicator Plants :-
 These are more susceptible to the deficiency of specific nutrients and
develop clear deficiency symptoms if grown in that nutrient deficient soil.
Essential nutrients
Indicator plants
Nitrogen (N) Maize, Sorghum, Pulses, Apple, Lemon, Cabbage,
Cauliflower
Phosphorous (P) Maize, Barley, Rape, Tomato,
Potassium (K) Potato, Bean, Tobacco, Sugar cane, Sugar beet, Cereals
Calcium (Ca) Cabbage, Cauliflower, Barseem, Tomato
Magnesium (Mg) Potato, Cauliflower, Apple
Sulphur (S) Barseem, Barley, Apple, Maize, Soybean, Tobacco
Zinc (Zn) Maize, Paddy (Kaira disease), Citrus, Beans
Boron (B) Barseem, Cabbage, Apple, Sugar beet
Copper Cu) Wheat, Barley, Maize, Onion, Tomato, Tobacco, Lemon
Iron (Fe) Sugarcane, Sorghum, Cauliflower, Lemon, Banana,
cabbage, potato, oats
Manganese (Mn) Sunflower, Apple, Cherry, Lemon, Sugar beet, Oats, Potato
Molybdenum (Mo) Tomato, Sugar beet, Cauliflower, Lemon, Grasses
Chlorine (Cl) Tomato, Sugar beet, Carrot, Maize, Wheat, Barseem
Critical levels and foliar concentration of nutrients in
plants :-
Element General range Critical level Concentration for
Foliar Spray
Nitrogen (N) 2.0 - 4.0 % <2 % 1.0 – 3.0 %
Phosphorous (P) 0.2 - 0.5 % <0.1 % 0.05 – 1.0 %
Potassium (K) 1.5 - 3.0 % <1.0 % 0.8 – 1.2 %
Calcium (Ca) 0.5 - 3.0 % <0.1 % 0.3 – 0.6 %
Magnesium (Mg) 0.2 - 0.5 % <0.2 % 0.2 – 0.4 %
Sulphur (S) 0.2 - 0.5 % <0.15 % 0.2 – 0.3 %
Iron (Fe) 50 – 150 ppm <5.0 ppm 20 – 400 ppm
Copper (Cu) 5 – 20 ppm <4.0 ppm 10 – 20 ppm
Zinc (Zn) 20 – 100 ppm <15.0 ppm 15 – 50 ppm
Manganese (Mn) 20 – 500 ppm <20.0 ppm 2.0 – 10 ppm
Nickel (Ni) 0.05 to 5 ppm < 10.0 ppm 0.03 – 0.06 ppm
Boron (B) 2 – 100 ppm <20.0 ppm 5.0 15 ppm
Molybdenum (Mo) 1. – 2.0 ppm <0.1 ppm 0.5 – 5.0 ppm
Chloride (Cl) 0.2 - 2.0 ppm - -
Thanks
 Methods of Fertilizer
Recommendations to Crops

Dr. R.K. Thakur

Assistant Professor (Soil Science)
College of Agriculture, Balaghat

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.)

Introduction :-
 The objective of fertilizer recommendation is to
ensure the supply of nutrients in optimum quantity
and right proportions to meet the crop requirement.
 Soil testing interpretation involves economics
because it is used to make a fertilizer
recommendation for an economic goal i.e. usually
for maximum profit per hectare of land.
 Including the soil test values the most economic
rate of fertilizer will depends upon many factors
whose interpretation mainly depend upon personal
judgments.
Factors:-
 For recommending fertilizer dose, the following
points should be considered:
 Initial fertility status of soil
 Additional produce and the price of the additional
produce
 Cost of fertilizer
 Farm management quality
 Productive potentiality of the land
 Possibility of risk involved
 Availability of the fertilizer
 Crops to be grown
Factors:-
 For selection of the fertilizer, the following points
should be taken into consideration:
 Soil characteristics
 Crops to be grown

 For methods of fertilizer application, the points to be

considered are:
 Soil characteristics
 Other factors, like crops, type of fertilizers etc.

 For time of fertilizer application, the following points

are to be considered:
 Soil texture.
 Other factor, like crops, kind of fertilizers.
Approaches for Fertilizer Recommendations :-
Based on the soil test and crop response
studies, various approaches have been suggested and
used for fertilizer recommendations
 Soil analysis and correlation
 Critical soil test level approach
 Agronomic approach
 Soil fertility cum soil survey
 Soil test and crop response correlation
 Targeted yield concept approach
Methods for Fertilizer Recommendations :-
 General / Blanket Recommendation
 Fertilizer recommendations based on fertility rating
 Fertilizer recommendations based on Soil Nutrient
Index
(X x 1) + (Y x 2) + (Z x 3)
Nutrient Index (NI) =
100
Category of nutrient index –
< 1.5 = Low
1.5 – 2.5 = Medium
> 2.5 = High
Methods for Fertilizer Recommendations :-
 Fertilizer recommendations based on Soil Test Crop
Response (STCR)
 Fertilizer recommendations based on Target Yield
Concept
Methods for Fertilizer Recommendations :-
 Fertilizer dose requirement for specific yield target
is derived given below :-
N = (NR/CF) 100 x T – CS/CF x SN
P2O5 = (NR/CF) 100 x T – CS/CF x (SP x 2.29)
K2O = (NR/CF) 100 x T – CS/CF x (SK x 1.21)
Thanks
 JAWAHERLAL NEHRU KRISHI VISHWAVIDHYALAYA, JABALPUR
Mid-Term Examination2022-23
B. Se. (Ag.)III" Year, " Semester
Subjcct: Manures, Fertilizcrs and Soil Fertility Management
Name of the student: Enrollment No.:
Time: 1HourMax. Marks:30
Q.1 (A) Choosc the correct option: 15(15x1)
i. Critcria of essentiality of an clement is proposcd by Arnon in the ycar:
(a) 191| (b) 1939 (c) 1954 (d) 1975
Availability of which nmieronutricnt incrcases with increases in soilpll?
(a) Zinc (b) Coppcr (c) Nickle (d) Molybdenum
iii. The law of minimum/restitution is proposcd by:
(a) Licbig (b) Spillman's (c) Mitscherlich's (d) Darcy
iv. Which of the following mincral source of manganese in soil is?
(a)Bormite (b) Pyrolusite (c) Dolomite (d) Apatite
Which clement is considered as cncrgy currency for the plants?
(a) Carbon (b) Sulphur (c) Phosphorus (d)Iron
Vi. Soil fertility is cvaluated by:
(a) Water testing (b) Plant testing (c) Soil testing (d) Soil & Plant testing
Vii. Presently nitrogen use cfficiency in plants is:
(a) 5-10% (b) 15-20% (c) 20-50% (d) 70-80%
Vili. Bchaviour of calcium in plants is:
(a) Less mobile (b) Moderately mobile (c) Highly mobile (d) Immobile
ix. Which of the following recommended to crop by Soil Test Crop Response (STCR) approach?
(a) Fertilizers (b) Seed (c) Pesticides (d) Water
X Application of fertilizer at standing crop is known as:
(a) Basal application (b) Top dressing (c) Split application (d) Band placement
X1 Rape seed is used as an indicator plant for the deficiency of which element?
(a) Boron (b)Sulphur (c) Manganese (d) Phosphorus
Xii. Which of the following element first appear deficiency symptoms of old and new leaves of plants?
(a) Potassium (b)Calcium (c) Zinc (d) Molybdenum
Xiii. Which of the following micronutrient is the metal component of urease enzyme?
(a) Nickle (b) Copper (c) Boron (d) Manganese
xiv. Movement of potassium ion from soil to plant roots by:
(a) Mass flow (b) Diffusion (c) Root interception (d) Substitution
XV. Soil with high pH is generally deficient in:
(a) Molybdenum (b) Calcium (c) Manganese (d) Potassium
Q.1 (B) Describe the following in brief: 15 (Sx3)
1. Write the eriteria of essentiality of plant nutrients and classify essential plant nutrients.
Whyevaluation of soil fertility is essential? Enlist concepts and approaches of soil fertility evaluation.
ii.
iv. Write the procedure of di-acid digestion of plant samples. Discuss rapid plant tissue tests.
V. What do youmean by NUE. How will youto improve phosphorus use efliciency?
Deseribe mechanis1ms of nutricnt uptake by plant roots. Enlist methodsof fertilizer reconmmendations to
crops.