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Introduction

Torque is a crucial concept in physics and engineering that helps us understand how objects
move. It causes objects to rotate around an axis and is useful in many fields, including
mechanics, automotive engineering, and robotics.

We can describe torque as the result of a force applied to an object and its distance from the axis
of rotation. Torque is measured in Newton-meters (Nm) and has both magnitude and direction.

Machinery and mechanical systems rely on torque to work properly. For example, a vehicle's
engine produces torque that is transmitted to the wheels, allowing the vehicle to accelerate and
climb slopes. Torque is also important in designing and analyzing mechanical components like
gears, pulleys, and levers.

Engineers and physicists need to understand torque to optimize designs, predict system
performance, and ensure the efficient operation of rotating systems. By studying torque, we can
create powerful engines, efficient machinery, and precise robotic arms.

What is torque?

Torque is a measure of the force that can cause an object to rotate about an axis. Just as force is
what causes an object to accelerate in linear kinematics, torque is what causes an object to
acquire angular acceleration.

Torque is a vector quantity. The direction of the torque vector depends on the direction of the
force on the axis.

Anyone who has ever opened a door has an intuitive understanding of torque. When a person
opens a door, they push on the side of the door farthest from the hinges. Pushing on the
side closest to the hinges requires considerably more force. Although the work done is the same
in both cases (the larger force would be applied over a smaller distance) people generally prefer
to apply less force, hence the usual location of the door handle.
Torque can be either static or dynamic.

A static torque is one which does not produce an angular acceleration. Someone pushing on a
closed door is applying a static torque to the door because the door is not rotating about its
hinges, despite the force applied. Someone pedaling a bicycle at constant speed is also applying a
static torque because they are not accelerating.

The drive shaft in a racing car accelerating from the start line is carrying a dynamic
torque because it must be producing an angular acceleration of the wheels given that the car is
accelerating along the track.

The terminology used when describing torque can be confusing. Engineers sometimes use the
term moment, or moment of force interchangeably with torque. The radius at which the force acts
is sometimes called the moment arm.
How is torque calculated?

The magnitude of the torque vector for a torque produced by a given force is

where is the length of the moment arm and is the angle between the force vector and the
moment arm. In the case of the door shown in Figure 1, the force is at right angles (90 ) to the
moment arm, so the sine term becomes 1 and

The direction of the torque vector is found by convention using the right hand grip rule. If a hand
is curled around the axis of rotation with the fingers pointing in the direction of the force, then
the torque vector points in the direction of the thumb as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Direction of the torque vector found with the right-hand rule.

How is torque measured?

The SI unit for torque is the Newton-meter.

In imperial units, the Foot-pound is often used. This is confusing because colloquially the pound
is sometimes used as a unit of mass and sometimes force. What is meant here is pound-force, the
force due to earth gravity on a one-pound object. The magnitude of these units is often similar
as .

Measuring a static torque in a non-rotating system is usually quite easy, and done by measuring a
force. Given the length of the moment arm, the torque can be found directly. Measuring torque in
a rotating system is considerably more difficult. One method works by measuring strain within
the metal of a drive shaft which is transmitting torque and sending this information wirelessly.

What role does torque play in rotational kinematics?

In rotational kinematics, torque takes the place of force in linear kinematics. There is a direct
equivalent to Newton’s 2ⁿᵈ law of motion ( ),

Here, is the angular acceleration. is the rotational inertia, a property of a rotating system which
depends on the mass distribution of the system. The larger , the harder it is for an object to
acquire angular acceleration. We derive this expression in our article on rotational inertia.

What is rotational equilibrium?

The concept of rotational equilibrium is an equivalent to Newton’s 1ˢᵗ law for a rotational
system. An object which is not rotating remains not rotating unless acted on by an external
torque. Similarly, an object rotating at constant angular velocity remains rotating unless acted on
by an external torque.

The concept of rotational equilibrium is particularly useful in problems involving multiple

torques acting on a rotatable object. In this case it is the net torque which is important. If the net
torque on a rotatable object is zero then it will be in rotational equilibrium and not able to acquire
angular acceleration.

How does torque relate to power and energy?

There is considerable confusion between torque, power and energy. For example, the torque of
an engine is sometimes incorrectly described as its 'turning power'.

Torque and energy have the same dimensions (i.e. they can be written in the same fundamental
units), but they are not a measure of the same thing. They differ in that torque is a vector quantity
defined only for a rotatable system.

Power however, can be calculated from torque if the rotational speed is known. In fact, the
horsepower of an engine is not typically measured directly, but calculated from measured torque
and rotational speed. The relationship is:

Along with horsepower, the peak torque produced by a vehicle engine is an important and
commonly quoted specification. Practically speaking, peak torque is relevant for generally
describing how quickly a vehicle will accelerate and its ability to pull a load. Horsepower
(relative to weight) on the other hand is more relevant to the maximum speed of a vehicle.

It is important to recognize that while maximum torque and horsepower are useful general
specifications, they are of limited use when making calculations involving the overall motion of
a
vehicle. This is because in practice both vary as a function of rotational speed. The general
relationship can be non-linear and differs for different types of motor as shown in Figure 4.

How can we increase or decrease torque?

It is often necessary to increase or decrease the torque produced by a motor to suit different
applications. Recall that the length of a lever can increase or decrease the force on an object at
the expense of the distance through which the lever must be pushed. Similarly, the torque
produced by a motor can be increased or decreased through the use of gearing. An increase in
torque comes with a proportional decrease in rotational speed. The meshing of two gear teeth can
be viewed as equivalent to the interaction of a pair of levers as shown in Figure 5.

The use of adjustable gearing is necessary to obtain good performance in vehicles powered by
combustion engines. These engines produce maximum torque only for a narrow range of high
rotational speeds. Adjustable gearing allows sufficient torque to be delivered to the wheels at any
given rotational speed of the engine.

Bicycles require gearing because of the inability of humans to pedal with a cadence sufficient to
achieve a useful speed when driving a wheel directly (unless one is cycling a penny-farthing).
Adjustable gearing is not typically required in vehicles powered by steam engines or electric
motors. In both cases, high torque is available at low speeds and is relatively constant over a
wide range of speeds.

Torque, as a pivotal concept in physics and engineering, sparks a rich and diverse discussion
across various disciplines. Here are some key aspects and implications of torque that contribute
to its significance:

Rotational Dynamics- Torque is the force that causes objects to rotate. It is important to
understand how torque affects the behavior of machines, vehicles, and other objects. Torque is a
measure of a force's effectiveness in rotating an object around an axis. The larger the torque, the
greater the object's tendency to rotate. The direction of torque is perpendicular to the plane of
rotation, and the magnitude of torque depends on the force's magnitude and the distance between
the force and the axis of rotation.

- In rotational dynamics, torque is similar to force in linear dynamics. It helps predict how an
object will rotate when forces are applied. Rotational dynamics is the study of how objects move
and behave when they rotate. Torque plays a crucial role in predicting an object's motion and
rotation.

Mathematical Formulation- Torque is calculated by multiplying the force by the distance

between the force and the axis of rotation. This formula, τ = r x F, shows that both the magnitude
and direction of torque are important. The magnitude of torque depends on the force's magnitude
and the distance between the force and the axis of rotation. The direction of torque is
perpendicular to the plane of rotation and follows the right-hand rule.

- Engineers use torque equations to design and optimize mechanical systems. The equations help
engineers determine the amount of torque needed for a particular application and how to apply
the torque in the most efficient way possible.

Applications in Engineering- Torque is important in automotive engineering because it affects

how vehicles accelerate, tow, and perform overall. In an automobile, torque is a measure of the
engine's ability to produce rotational force. The higher the engine torque, the greater the vehicle's
ability to accelerate, tow, and perform overall. Engineers use torque specifications to design
engines and other components that can withstand the forces generated by the engine.

- Torque specifications are also important in the design of gears, pulleys, and other machinery
components. Engineers need to consider torque requirements to ensure efficient and durable
systems. In machinery, torque is a measure of how much rotational force is required to move a
particular component. Engineers use torque calculations to design components that can withstand
the forces generated by the machinery.

Mechanical Advantage- Torque helps create mechanical advantage. It allows systems to

increase or redirect force for more effective and efficient outcomes. Mechanical advantage is the
ability of a system to multiply or redirect force to make tasks easier. Torque is an important
factor in creating mechanical advantage because it allows systems to increase or redirect force.
Devices like wrenches and gears use torque to make tasks easier. Engineers use torque
calculations to design tools and machines that provide the necessary mechanical advantage.

Control in Robotics- Robotics require precise control of torque to operate robotic arms and
ensure accurate movements. Understanding and managing torque helps create robots that can
perform delicate tasks or handle heavy loads efficiently. In robotics, torque is a measure of the
force required to rotate a robotic arm around its axis. Precise control of torque is essential for
manipulating robotic arms and ensuring accurate movements. The relationship between torque
and joint angles is critical in creating robotic systems with the flexibility and strength required.

Challenges and Limitations- Predicting and controlling torque in real-world applications can be
challenging due to factors like friction and inertia. In real-world applications, friction and inertia
can create complexities in accurately predicting and controlling torque. Friction can reduce the
effectiveness of torque in rotating an object around an axis, while inertia can create resistance to
changes in an object's rotation. Engineers and physicists work to refine models and control
systems to overcome these challenges, especially in the pursuit of more energy-efficient and
precise machinery. By reducing friction and inertia, engineers can create more efficient and
precise machinery.
Conclusion

Torque is an important quantity for describing the dynamics of a rotating rigid body. We see the
application of torque in many ways in the world, such as when pressing the accelerator in a car,
which causes the engine to apply additional torque on the drivetrain. Here, we define torque and
provide a framework to create an equation to calculate torque for a rigid body with fixed-axis
rotation.

Torque can be considered as the rotational counterpart to force. Since forces change the
translational motion of objects, the rotational counterpart must be related to changing the
rotational motion of an object about an axis. We call this rotational counterpart torque.

In everyday life, we rotate objects about an axis all the time, so intuitively we already know
much about torque. Consider, for example, how we rotate a door to open it.

When we push a door very close to its hinges, the door opens slowly. The most efficient way to
open a door is to push the door far from the hinges. Hence, the effectiveness of the force depends
on how far it is applied from the axis of rotation.
It also depends on the direction from which it is applied. For example, if we push parallel to the
plane of the door, we are not able to rotate it.

The larger the force, the more effective it is in opening the door; the harder you push, the quicker
the door opens.

The first point implies that the farther the force is applied from the axis of rotation, the greater
the angular acceleration; the second implies that the effectiveness depends on the angle at which
the force is applied; the third implies that the magnitude of the force must also be part of the
equation. Note that for rotation in a plane, torque has two possible directions; torque is positive
when the rotation is counterclockwise and negative when the rotation is clockwise.

References:

Cyclist : Hansen, E.A, Smith G. Factors affecting cadence choice during submaximal cycling
and cadence influence on performance. International Journal of Sports Physiology and
Performance. March 2009; 4(1):3-17.

8.1 Torque. https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-physics-flexbook-2.0/section/8.1/primary/

lesson/torque-physics-intermediate/. Accessed 25 jan 2022.

Introduction To Torque And Its Applications. https://byjus.com/physics/torque/. Accessed 25 jan

2022.

Torque Calculation. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/torq2.html. Accessed 25 jan

2022.
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