1. Phonetics as a science and its branches. Phonetics at the intersection of linguistic studies.

Phonetics and English language teaching. Theoretical and practical importance of research
in the field of phonetics.
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics, which studies the sound means of the language as
articulatory and acoustic meaning.
Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received.
It is a subject that requires as its source of data a human being with an intact auditory
mechanism and a functioning set of vocal organs.
The study of the sound phenomena of language, in all their aspects and varieties,
constitutes the subject of the phonetics science.
Phonetics studies
the sound system of the language
word stress - a greater pronunciation effort as compared with that of the other syllable or
syllables in a word, achieved by a greater degree of loudness, greater length of the stressed
syllable or modifications in its pitch and quality.
syllabic structure
intonation - a term used to refer to the complex unity of speech melody, sentence stress,
rhythm, tempo, pausation, loudness and voice timbreˈtæmbə, which enables the speaker to
express his thoughts, emotions and attitudes towards the content of the utterance and the
hearer.
expression level + content level
The central concerns of phonetics are the discovery of
how speech sounds are produced (articulatory aspect of speech sounds; articulatory and
kinaesthetic observation),
how we hear and recognize different sounds (the auditory aspect of speech),
how the sounds are transmitted from the speaker's mouth to the listener's ear (the acoustic
aspect of speech sounds),
how speech sounds are used in spoken language (functional aspect of speech sounds;
linguistic phonetics),
how we can record speech sounds with written symbols (the International Phonetic
Association (the IPA) has played a very important role in this).
Articulatory phonetics is the branch of phonetics, which studies the way in which speech
sounds are articulated by the speech organs.
Auditory (perceptual) phonetics is the branch of phonetics concerned with the study of man's
perception of segmental sounds, pitch variations, loudness, tempo, rhythm, pauses and
timbre. It focuses on the ways in which sound perception is determined by the phonetic
system of a language.
Acoustic phonetics deals with the acoustic aspect of speech sounds.
experimental, or instrumental methods
experimental phonetic research, aimed at the development and scientific testing of
hypotheses, and being quantitative it is based on numerical measurement

Phonology, or functional phonetics is a linguistic branch of phonetics.

It studies sounds as units, which serve people for communicative purposes, the way they
function in the speech continuum.
Phonology discovers those segmental and prosodic features that have a differential value as
well as establishes the system of phonemes and prosodemes.(prosody - refers to the non-
segmental phenomena, or to the “vocal effects constituted by variations along the
parameters of pitch, loudness, duration and silence”, which do not belong to the system of
segmental phonemes although in speech they can be added to the speech sounds)
The primary aim of phonology is to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are
organised in languages.
The basis of phonology is the phoneme theory, created by I.Baudouin de Courtenay, later
developed by L.Shcherba, N.Krushevsky and others. Phonology as a linguistic discipline
was founded in Prague by N.Trubetzkoy.

Phonetics at the Intersection of Linguistic Studies: Phonetics plays a crucial role in the field
of linguistics as it intersects with various sub-disciplines:
a. Phonology: Phonetics provides the empirical foundation for phonological theories. It helps
in identifying and categorizing speech sounds, determining their distinctive features, and
analyzing their distribution and patterns within a language.
b. Sociolinguistics: Phonetics contributes to the study of language variation and social
factors that influence speech sounds, such as regional accents, social dialects, and stylistic
variation.
c. Psycholinguistics: Phonetics is essential for understanding the cognitive processes
involved in speech perception and production. It helps in investigating how listeners perceive
and categorize speech sounds and how speakers plan and produce them.
d. Neurolinguistics: Phonetics plays a role in studying the neural mechanisms underlying
speech processing and speech disorders, providing insights into the brain's organization for
language.
Phonetics and English Language Teaching: Phonetics has practical implications for teaching
and learning English as a second or foreign language:
a. Pronunciation Instruction: Phonetics helps teachers and learners develop accurate
pronunciation skills by focusing on the production and perception of English speech sounds,
including segmental features (consonants and vowels) and suprasegmental features (stress,
intonation, rhythm).
b. Listening Skills: Understanding phonetics assists learners in improving their listening
comprehension by recognizing and distinguishing different sounds, stress patterns, and
connected speech phenomena in spoken English.
c. Accent Reduction: Phonetics provides tools for learners to identify and address specific
pronunciation challenges influenced by their native language. It helps them reduce
interference and develop a more intelligible and native-like accent.
Theoretical and Practical Importance of Research in Phonetics: Research in phonetics holds
both theoretical and practical significance:
a. Theoretical Importance: Phonetics research contributes to our understanding of the
physical properties and mechanisms of speech production and perception. It investigates the
universality and variability of speech sounds across languages, providing insights into the
nature of human language and its biological foundations.
b. Practical Importance: Phonetics research has practical applications in several domains:
Language Teaching: It informs the development of effective pronunciation teaching
methodologies and materials, helping learners improve their spoken language skills.
Speech Pathology: Phonetics research contributes to the diagnosis and treatment of speech
disorders, providing insights into the underlying phonetic and phonological aspects of
speech production difficulties.
Speech Technology: Phonetics research is crucial for developing speech recognition and
synthesis systems, improving the accuracy and naturalness of automated speech
processing technologies.
2. Phonological system of English. The hierarchy ˈhaɪrɑːki of phonological units. Phoneme
as the smallest discrete phonological unit and its functions.
Phonology fəˈnɒlədʒi as a linguistic branch of phonetics, studies sounds as units, which
serve people for communicative purposes,the way they function in the speech continuum.
The primary aim of phonology is to discover the principles that govern organized in
languages.
Phonetics studies the range and variety of all possible speech sounds used in languages of
the world.
Phonology focuses on
the way in which speakers of a certain language systemically use a selection of these
sounds in order to express meaning;
establishing order within the apparent chaos of speech sounds.
• Phonetics deals with speech in its purely physical aspects - the way sounds are articulated
by sound waves, and the effects that there have on the ear of the hearer.
with the way speech sounds are organised into a system, the sound system of a specific
language.
• Phonology relates the physical facts of speech to other linguistic knowledge which
speakers possess, knowledge of vocabulary and grammar.
The most basic activity in phonology is phonemic analysis, in which the objective is
to establish what the phonemes are
to arrive at the phonemic inventory of the language.
Phonological analysis:
AIM - (1) to determine the distinctive features of sounds (or their phonemic status)
(2) to create the inventory of the phonemes of a language (the phonemic system of a
language)
Stages (1) to identify the minimal segments of speech continuum and to record them
graphically by means of allophonic transcription (Istik] - [staek]; [stik] -[spik], [tik] - [tak], [sik] -
[sak])
• (2) to arrange the sounds into functionally similar groups in order to find contrastive sounds
and allophones of the same sounds

Methods of phonological analysis

The formally distributional method - different phonemes can freely occur in one and the
same position, while allophones of one and the same phoneme occur in differênt positions
( let-pet-bet) (take-let)
The semantically distributional method - a phoneme can distinguish words when opposed to
another phoneme in identical phonetic context (pin: bin, sin, din, tin)
A minimal pair
• The pair of words, which differs in one sound only, /bit/ - /sit/
A minimal pair test
• A technique used to find out which sound substitutions cause differences in meaning that
leads in English to the identification of over 40 important units called phonemes
The commutation test
•The procedure of finding minimal pairs which consists in replacing of one speech sound by
another in the same position in order to see whether that substitution will produce a minimal
pair or not (pen - ben; ten - den)
The phonetic system of any language- is a systemic combination of four components of the
sound matter of language which constitute the material, or phonic, forms of morphemes,
words, phrases and sentences in the language
serve a speaker to adequately express his/her thoughts, ideas, volition, feelings, emotions
and attitudes towards his/her interlocutor, reality, the contents of his/her utterance, etc.
Phonetic system
the system of segmental phonemes -
various classifications of phonemes
combinations of their systemic in character allophones of a phoneme, the occurrence of
which in different positions in a word is called their distribution
the methods of joining sounds together within words and at their junction
the syllabic structure of words - • syllable formation + (2) syllable division = syllabification, or
syllabication
the accentual structure -
(1) the physical (acoustic) nature of word accent;
(2) the position of the accent in disyllabic and polysyllabic words;
(3) the degrees of word accent
the intonational structure -
Pitch - the term used to refer to a subjective psychological sensation, or auditory property
that enables the listener to place it on a scale going from low to high, without considering its
acoustic properties.
Stress - a greater pronunciation effort as compared with that of the other syllable or syllables
in a word, achieved by a greater degree of loudness, greater length of the stressed syllable
or modifications in its pitch and quality.
Tempo - the term used to refer to (1) an individual person’s speaking rate since people vary
in their average tempo. (2) In phonetics variations of tempo are used contrastively to help
the speaker convey something about his/her attitudes and emotions as well as to
communicate meaning, for instance, extra rapid tempo is associated with urgency.
Pauses (pausation - the term refers to the act of delimiting an utterance into pauses)
Timbre - is a component of intonation which denotes the peculiarities of the speaker's voice
or its variations for particular purposes, some variations being linguistically relevant.
Rhythm - is the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables.
The hierarchy of discrete and non-discrete units
phoneme, a discrete isolated unit constituting in speech other larger linguistic units;
Syllable, made up of phonemes in certain arrangement;
rhythmic group consisting of a sequence of syllables;
intonation group; intonation pattern consisting of a sequence of rhythmic groups;
utterance consists of a sequence of intonation groups;
text / discourse. - text or discourse refers to extended spoken or written communication that
goes beyond individual utterances. It involves the organization and coherence of language at
a higher level, including the structure, flow, and cohesive connections between sentences
and ideas.
Feature -> phoneme -> mora ->syllable -> rhythmic group -> intonation group / intonation
pattern-> utterance -> discourse.
Phoneme and its functions
Phoneme is the smallest indivisible language unit capable of distinguishing one word from
another word of the same language or one grammatical form of the same word, and which
exists in the speech of all the members of a definite language community.
Functions of phonemes:
- constitutive - constitute the material form of morphemes,
- distinctive - distinguish one morpheme from another, one word from another or one
utterance from another, sleeper - sleepy; bath - path, light - like; He was heard badly - He
was hurt badly.
- Identificatory- serve to distinguish and understand the meaning, because the use of the
right allophone in the certain phonetic context helps the listener to understand the message
and thus facilitates normal recognition, take it - tape it
Allophones are speech sounds which are realizations of one and the same phoneme and
which cannot distinguish words or change their meanings, and occur in phonetic contexts
different from one another.
Allophones of a phoneme never occur in identical positions and are said to be in
complementary distribution.
Allophones :
Principal : /d/ door, darn, down
Subsidiary: (combinatory, positional)
[d]+ front vowels and (j]: deal, day [d]+ plosive: bad time
[d]+ [m], [n]: sudden
[d+ [ L]: middle
[d]+ (r]: dry
[d+ [th],: lead the way
[d]+ [w]: dweller
The principal function of the phoneme is the distinctive one. It is subdivided into the
morpheme -distinctive function, e.g. dreamer - dreamy
the word-distinctive,e.g. pen - ten - Ben - men - den - hen
the sentence distinctive,e.g. It was gold. It was cold. It was bold. It was told. It was sold.
It depends on which hierarchically higher language units are differentiated (morphemes,
words, units).
The constitutive function is inseparable from the distinctive one. This function is performed
not by phonemes as such, but by actual realizations of the phonemes or allophones, which
constitute morphemes, words and utterances.
The third function of the phoneme can be called recognitive or identificatory. It consists in
making words and whole sentences easily recognized or identified. Strictly speaking, this is
the function of allophones but not the phonemes as such: the use of the right allophone in
the right places.
The functions of phonemes are as follows:

Phonemes serve as distinctive units in a language, allowing minimal pairs or sets of words
that differ by only one sound to have different meanings. For example, in English, the
phonemes /p/ and /b/ are distinctive as seen in the words "pat" and "bat."
Phonemes create contrasts between words. They enable speakers to differentiate between
words that may have similar sounds but differ in meaning. For instance, the words "pin" and
"bin" differ only in the phoneme /p/ versus /b/, and this contrast conveys different meanings.
Phonemes constitute the inventory of sounds in a particular language. Each language has its
own set of phonemes, and the specific phonemic inventory varies from language to
language. The inventory of phonemes in a language reflects the distinct sound patterns and
contrasts present in that language.
Phonemes are used in phonemic analysis to determine the underlying sound structure of
words. Linguists analyze the phonemic representations of words to identify and describe the
phonological patterns and rules that govern the pronunciation of those words.
Phonemes are governed by phonological rules, which specify how phonemes are
pronounced in different phonetic contexts. These rules account for variations in
pronunciation, such as allophones, which are different phonetic realizations of a phoneme.
Phonological rules dictate which allophone is used in specific phonetic environments.
Phonemes play a crucial role in language acquisition. Infants learn to differentiate and
produce the phonemes of their native language through exposure to the speech sounds in
their environment. Developing an understanding of phonemes allows children to acquire the
phonological system of their language and produce and recognize words accurately.
Phonemes are essential for effective communication and comprehension. They enable
speakers to convey meaning and listeners to understand words and sentences. Native
speakers recognize and interpret phonemes rapidly and unconsciously during speech
perception.

3. Basic methods of phonological analysis. Phonological rules. The system of phonological

oppositions in English.
Phonological analysis:
AIM - (1) to determine the distinctive features of sounds (or their phonemic status)
(2) to create the inventory of the phonemes of a language (the phonemic system of a
language)
Stages (1) to identify the minimal segments of speech continuum and to record them
graphically by means of allophonic transcription (Istik] - [staek]; [stik] -[spik], [tik] - [tak], [sik] -
[sak])
• (2) to arrange the sounds into functionally similar groups in order to find contrastive sounds
and allophones of the same sounds
Methods of phonological analysis
The formally distributional method - different phonemes can freely occur in one and the
same position, while allophones of one and the same phoneme occur in differênt positions
( let-pet-bet) (take-let)
The semantically distributional method - a phoneme can distinguish words when opposed to
another phoneme in identical phonetic context (pin: bin, sin, din, tin)
1) The distributional method is based on the phonological rule that different phonemes can
freely occur in one and the same position, while allophones of one and the same phoneme
occur in different positions. E.g. /pi:/ - /bi:/, p and b are in the same position. That's why the
distributional method of analysis is a purely formal method of identifying the phonemes of a
language. This method works even if a linguist doesn't know the language he analysis.
2) The semantic method is based on the phonological rule that a phoneme can distinguish
words when opposed to one another or to a zero phoneme in an identical phonetic position.
The oppositions when a phoneme is opposed to a phoneme is called a phonological
opposition, e.g. sees – seat. When a phoneme is opposed to a zero phoneme is called zero
opposition, e.g. sea – seas. The pairs of words which differ only in one speech sound are
called minimal pairs. The semantic method attaches great significant to meaning. The
investigator studies the function of sounds by collecting minimal pairs of words in the
language. If 2 speech sounds distinguish words with different meanings they form a
phonological opposition and are realizations of 2 different phonemes. If not they are
allophones of one and the same phoneme. The method was used to study the phonetic
structure of the small nations of the former soviet union and it helped to create written forms
of these languages.
Phonological rules are systematic patterns that describe how phonemes and allophones
behave in a language. They specify the transformations that occur to sounds under specific
conditions. Here are some types of phonological rules:

Assimilation: A sound becomes more similar to a neighboring sound. For example, in

English, the final /n/ in "ten books" is assimilated to the place of articulation of the
following /b/ sound, becoming [m].
Dissimilation: Two neighboring sounds become less similar to each other. For instance, in
English, the word "athlete" can be pronounced as [æθˈlit] due to dissimilation of the /θ/ and
/l/ sounds.
Deletion: A sound is omitted or deleted in certain phonetic contexts. For example, in English,
the /t/ sound in "postman" can be deleted in rapid speech, resulting in [poʊs.mən].
Insertion: A sound is added in specific phonetic environments. For instance, in some English
dialects, an extra /r/ sound is inserted after vowels in words like "idea" ([aɪˈdɪər]).
Metathesis: The order of sounds is changed in a word. A common example is the metathesis
of the /ks/ cluster in "ask" to become [æks] or "aks."
Feature theory
Features play a central role as the ultimate constitutive elements of phonological
representation:
Features are universal
Features are distinctive
Features delimit the number of theoretically possible speech sound contrasts
Features are economical
Features define natural classes of sounds

Feature theory. The system of phonological oppositions

• Every sound is characterised by a number phonologically relevant distinctive within the so
called Feature theory.
• Distinctive features make up a small set of important differences (or contrasting
components, or archi-units or archi-segments according to Noam Chomsky and Morris
Halle) between certain phonemes: vowels and some consonants, plosives and affricates,
nasal and oral consonants, and so on.
Feature theory. The system of phonological oppositions
• These differences are identified by phonologists, and are known as distinctive features.
The English phoneme /p/, for example,is a combination of the following distinctive features
"voicelessness", "plosiveness" and "bilabiality
• The features are generally shown in the form of a binary opposition, that is the feature is
either present [+] or absent [-].
Transcription
A term used to refer to the representation of speech sounds by means of a special set of
phonetic symbols indicating an approximate specification of the articulations involved.
The term phonemic or broad transcription (or phonological) is used to designate a
transcription that uses a simple set of phonemes representing one of the phonemes of the
language without any of the details of the pronunciation that are predictable by phonological
rule thus giving a limited amount of phonetic information. In phonemic transcription we use
the slant brackets to indicate phonemic symbols /r/.
Transcription
A phonetic transcription (ôr allophonic, or narrow) presents the full range of phonetic
symbols if these are required, which carry a lot of fine detail about the precise phonetic
quality of sounds.
The use of diacritics, small marks that can be added to a symbol to modify its value, is a
means of increasing precision, a small circle lo) placed under a symbol represents a
voiceless sound like /1/ in the word play [pler];
diacritic mark [.] beneath a consonant stands for its dental allophone as in eight [erte].
The square brackets [] indicate phonetic symbols.
A transcription that shows all the rule-governed alternation of the sounds is called a
completely systematic phonetic transcription.
The system of phonological oppositions refers to the contrasts between phonemes in a
language. In English, these oppositions are characterized by several features:

Place of Articulation: English has phonological oppositions based on the place of articulation,
such as /p/ versus /b/ (bilabial), /t/ versus /d/ (alveolar), and /k/ versus /g/ (velar).
Manner of Articulation: There are phonological oppositions based on the manner of
articulation, like /p/ versus /f/ (plosive versus fricative) and /t/ versus /ʃ/ (plosive versus
affricate).
Voicing: English exhibits phonological oppositions based on voicing, such as /s/ versus /z/
(voiceless versus voiced) and /p/ versus /b/ (voiceless versus voiced).
Vowel Contrasts: English has a system of phonological oppositions among its vowel sounds,
such as /i/ versus /ɪ/ (long versus short) and /æ/ versus /ɑ:/ (short versus long).
4. The distinctive features theory. The system of phonological oppositions. From the history
of phoneme theory. Schools of Phonology.
Every sound is characterised by a number of phonologically relevant distinctive features
studied
within the so-called Feature theory.
• Distinctive features make up a small set of important differences (or contrasting
components, or archi-units or archi-segments according to Noam Chomsky and Morris
Halle) between certain phonemes: vowels and some consonants, plosives and affricates,
nasal consonants, and so on.
.These differences are identified by phonologists, and are known as distinctive features.
example,
is
The English phoneme /p/, for combination of the following distinctive features
"voicelessness", "plosiveness" and"billability".
• The features are generally shown in the form of a binary opposition, that is the feature is
either present [+] or absent [-]

From the history of phoneme theory. Schools of phonology

The Kazan Linguistic School - Prof. 1.O. Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929)
(1) the morphological approach to the phoneme theory: the phonemes analysis according to
their functions in morphemes
(2) the psychological or mentalistic approach: the phoneme as an ideal psychical or mental
image or model of a sound the speaker seeks to reproduce.
From the history of phoneme theory. Schools of phonology
The St. Petersburg Phonological School - Prof. L.V. Scherba (1880-1944)
The phoneme is a real, independent, distinctive unit, which manifests itself in the form of its
actual realisations - allophones (variants).
The principal points of L.V. Scherba's phoneme theory are: which
(1) the theory of phonemic variants, represent phonemes in actual speech;
(2) the theory of phonemic independence, under which he meant the capability of phonemes
to express meaning of their own or to express different emotions.

From the history of phoneme theory. Schools of phonology

The Moscow Phonological School Prof. G.P.Torsuyev, V.A. Vassilyev developed
L.V.Scherba's theory and held the view that the phoneme is represented by a whole number
of its alternating features. They defined the phoneme as:
a) material, real, and objective;
b) abstractional and generalised;
c) functional.
R.I.Avanesov, A.A.Reformatsky, P.S.Kuznetsov, V.N.Sidorov, N.F.Yakovlev - the phonemic
variations viewed as a concrete representations of phonemes in "weak" position which are
distinguished from the phonemes in "strong" position.

From the history of phoneme theory. Schools of phonology

The Swiss Linguistic School - Ferdinand de Saussure
used the term "phoneme" in the meaning of speech sound: "the phoneme is the sum of
acoustic impressions and of articulatory movements . both mutually independent".

From the history of phoneme theory. Schools of phonology

The London Phonological School - Prof. D.Jones (1881-1967)
The physical view on the phoneme as a family or set of similar sounds.
• Take [theik] • Steak [sterk]
It/ • Shutthedoor[SAtdada:] • Twice [t"wars]
...

From the history of phoneme theory. Schools of phonology

The American Phonological School - Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield
The phoneme is defined as a minimum unit of distinctive sound-features.

The Copenhagen Linguistic Circle - Prof. L.Hjelmslev, H.J.Uldall

The abstract view on a phoneme as essentially independent of the acoustic and
physiological properties of speech sounds.

From the history of phoneme theory. Schools of phonology

The Prague Phonological School N.S.Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) R.Jakobson (1896-1982)
The functional view on the phoneme
The main points of N.S.Trubetzkoy's theory are:
(1) the separation of phonology from phonetics;
(2) the theory of phonological oppositions;
(3) the theory of archiphoneme, which is defined as a unity of relevant features common to
two phonemes.

5. Modifications of phonemes in the speech continuum. Classification of allophones.

Assimilation
• A term refers to a modification in the articulation of а consonant under the influence of a
neighbouring consonant.
Assimilation may affect all the features of the articulation of a consonant or only some of
them:
1) assimilation affecting the place of articulation;
2) assimilation affecting the place of articulation and the active organ of speech;
3) assimilation affecting the manner of noise production;
4) assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords;
5) assimilation affecting the lip position;
6) assimilation affecting the position of the soft palate.

Epenthesis- The term used phonetics to refer to the insertion of an extra sound at the
juncture of words.
The intrusive "r" of non-rhythmic varieties of English in India and Asia /'Indɪǝr and 'eɪʃǝ/,
In the middle of a word in Ukrainian pronunciation, depending on the degree of interference,
for example: table 'teɪbɪl/ instead of 'teɪbl/.
An inserted sound (consonant or vowel) is called an epenthetic.

Liaisonliˈeɪzən, or linking - A term used to describe how the end of one word is joined to the
beginning of the next word (e.g., the joining of /r/ or /ŋ/ when preceded by a vowel, as in
there is /ðeər ɪz/, looking at /lʊkɪŋ æt/).
-Shifting one consonant at the end of an unstressed word to the beginning of the next word if
it is heavily stressed, e.g. not at all, where for many speakers the /t/ of at becomes initial and
thus heavily aspirated in the last syllable of all.

Modifications of vowels in speech continuum

I. Quantitative reduction results in the change of the length (quantity) of a vowel in an

unstressed syllable. It affects long vowels and diphthongs which become half-long or short,
e. g.
We have done it. /wi:/-long
We have done it. /wi’/ - half-long
We did it. /wi/ - short
Diphthongs become half-long when followed by an unstressed syllable, or short, when
followed by a stressed one, but it is not reflected in transcription, e. g.
I’ve done it.
I have done it.
I did it.
II. Qualitative reduction is connected with the change of the quality of a vowel. There are two
types of it.
1. Qualitative soft reduction, resulting in the /ɪ/ phoneme. The letters “e, i, y” correspond to it
in spelling: expect, cinema, city, service.
2. Qualitative hard reduction, resulting in the neutral vowel /ə/ . The letters “a, o, u” and the
suffixes –er, -ar, -or, -ous correspond to it in spelling: famous, pilot, melody, actor, polar

Elision-A term used to refer to a modification in the articulation of a consonant under the
influence of a neighboring consonant.
Loss of the weak vowel after [p], [t], [k]: /p'teitau, t'ma:tǝʊ, p'hæps, t'dei/
Loss of [h] in nominative and possessive pronouns and forms of the auxiliary verb have.
[l] tends to be lost when preceded by [ɔː]: always, already, all right
In consonant clusters: next day, just one, mashed potatoes

Nasalization
is a co-articulatory phenomenon caused by the nasalisation of consonants, e.g. thank
you /'θæŋk ju/, think /θɪŋk/, pink /pink/, etc:
/n/+/k/=/ŋk/
overlapping of articulatory movements of neighbouring sounds: nasalisation of /e/ in the
words "men", "ten"

Allophones are speech sounds which are realizations of one and the same phoneme and
which cannot distinguish words or change their meanings, and occur in phonetic contexts
different from one another.
Allophones of a phoneme never occur in identical positions and are said to be in
complementary distribution.

Principle allophone is that variant of a phoneme which is considered to be free from the
influence of the neighboring sounds.
Subsidiary allophones are variants of phonemes that appear under the influence of the
neighboring phonemes with which they are in complementary distribution. They are
subdivided into combinatory and positional.
Combinatory allophone A term refers to the allophones of a phoneme which appear as a
result of assimilation, or adaptation. e.g. dental variants of the alveolar phonemes /t, d, s, z,
1, n/ are due to the influence of the following interdental sounds [θ], [ð]; the mid-open [e]
becomes more open when followed by the dark [ł]: tell - hell - sell vs. bet - let - set
Positional allophone A term is used to refer to the allophones which occur in definite
positions traditionally, rather than because of the influence of neighboring sounds, e.g., clear
and dark, positional allophones of vowels, when they occur in final position or when they are
followed by voiced or voiceless consonants: bee – bead – beat.

6. The articulation basis of English and that of the student’s mother tongue. Articulatory
distinction of typologically identical sounds in the student’s mother tongue.

Articulation basis A term refers to the articulatory habits characteristic of all the native
speakers of a language. The peculiarities of the articulation basis of English determine the
specific articulatory characteristics of its sound system, the character of sound modifications
in connected speech and the physiological mechanism of syllable formation.
The articulation basis of English and Ukrainian differ in several ways. Here are some key
differences:
Phonetics and Phonology:
English has a complex phonetic system with approximately 44 phonemes, including vowel
sounds, consonant sounds, and diphthongs. Ukrainian, on the other hand, has a phonetic
system with around 38 phonemes. Both languages have some common sounds, such as
/m/, /n/, /p/, /t/, /s/, but they also have distinct sounds that are unique to each language.
Vowels:
English has a larger vowel inventory compared to Ukrainian. English has 20 vowel sounds,
including both short and long vowels, while Ukrainian has fewer vowel sounds, with around 6
to 8 vowel phonemes.
The exact number and quality of vowel sounds can vary depending on the dialect of English.
English has a wide range of vowel sounds, including monophthongs (pure vowel sounds)
and diphthongs (gliding vowel sounds).
Monophthongs: English has around 12 to 15 monophthongs, including the short vowels /ɪ/
as in "kit," /ʌ/ as in "cup," and /æ/ as in "cat," and the long vowels /iː/ as in "feet," /uː/ as in
"boot," and /ɑː/ as in "car."
Diphthongs: English has about 8 diphthongs, including /eɪ/ as in "day," /aɪ/ as in "time,"
and /ɔɪ/ as in "boy."
Ukrainian also has nasal vowels and diphthongs, similar to English. Ukrainian has a smaller
vowel inventory compared to English.
Monophthongs: Ukrainian typically has 6 to 8 monophthongs, including /i/ as in "ви" [vi], /u/
as in "гуся" [husya], and /a/ as in "тато" [tato].
Diphthongs: Ukrainian has fewer diphthongs compared to English. Some examples include
/i̯ a/ as in "я" [ya], /u̯ o/ as in "гора" [hora], and /e̯ i/ as in "мій" [mii].
Vowel Length:
Ukrainian distinguishes between short and long vowels. While the basic vowel qualities are
the same, vowel length can change the meaning of a word. Long vowels are typically held
for a longer duration compared to short vowels. For example:
English has a distinction between short and long vowels, such as the /i/ in "bit" and the /i:/ in
"beat." Ukrainian, on the other hand, does not have a length distinction for vowels.
The short vowel /i/ in Ukrainian is pronounced as [ɪ], as in the word "місто" (city).
The long vowel /iː/ in Ukrainian is pronounced as [i:], as in the word "місто" (bridge).
English has a central vowel known as the schwa /ə/, which is commonly found in unstressed
syllables. Ukrainian does not have this sound.
Additionally, stress plays an important role in Ukrainian, as it can change the meaning of
words, as in English too.
Consonants:
English and Ukrainian share some consonant sounds, but there are also differences
between the two languages.
English has a relatively large number of consonant sounds. These include both voiced and
voiceless sounds, such as /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/, etc. English also
has consonant clusters like /st/, /pl/, /sp/, etc., which can occur at the beginning or end of
words.
Ukrainian has a similar set of consonant sounds to English, including both voiced and
voiceless sounds. However, there are some distinctions in pronunciation. For example,
Ukrainian has a softer pronunciation of some consonants, and it also includes sounds like /ʎ/
(similar to the "lli" sound in "million") and /x/ (as in the Scottish pronunciation of "loch").
English has some consonant sounds that are not present in Ukrainian, such as /θ/ (as in
"think") and /ð/ (as in "this"). Ukrainian, on the other hand, has consonant sounds like /ʒ/ (as
in "життя" [zhittya]) and /x/ (as in "хліб" [khlib]) that are not found in English.
English and Ukrainian have some shared consonant sounds such as /m/, /n/, /p/, /t/, and /s/.
However, they also have distinct consonant sounds that are unique to each language.
Palatalization:
Ukrainian has a distinctive feature of palatalization, where certain consonants become
palatalized (pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate) before front vowels.
Ukrainian has a feature of "soft" or palatalized consonants, where certain consonants
become palatalized before front vowels (/i/ and /e/). This palatalization affects the
pronunciation of consonants such as /t/, /d/, /n/, /l/, and /s/. English does not have a similar
systematic palatalization rule.
For instance, "ти" [ty] (you), "де" [de] (where), and "ніс" [nis] (carried).
English has voiced and voiceless pairs of consonants, such as /b/ and /p/. Ukrainian also
has voiced and voiceless pairs, but it additionally has a third category of consonants known
as "soft" consonants, which are palatalized versions of the regular consonants.
English has the /w/ sound, which is not present in Ukrainian. Ukrainian, on the other hand,
has the sound /ʋ/ as a consonantal variant of the vowel /u/.
Stress Patterns:
In English, stress placement is often unpredictable and can vary depending on the word.
Stress placement can change the meaning of words, such as in "record" (noun) versus
"record" (verb). In Ukrainian, stress is generally placed on the penultimate syllable of a word,
with some exceptions.
English has a stress-timed rhythm, where stressed syllables occur at regular intervals, while
unstressed syllables can be reduced. Ukrainian has a syllable-timed rhythm, where each
syllable is given relatively equal stress and duration.
Stress placement in English can vary and often has unpredictable patterns, whereas in
Ukrainian, stress is generally placed on the penultimate syllable of a word, with some
exceptions.
Intonation:
English has a wider range of intonation patterns, including rising and falling intonations for
questions and statements. Ukrainian intonation tends to be more melodic and is
characterized by pitch variations within words and phrases.
English: English has a wide range of intonation patterns, including rising intonation for
questions ("Do you like it?") and falling intonation for statements ("I like it.").
Ukrainian: Ukrainian intonation is generally more melodic and characterized by pitch
variations within words and phrases.
Syllable Structure:
English allows complex syllable structures with consonant clusters, such as in words like
"strength" or "twelfth." Ukrainian syllable structure is generally simpler, with fewer consonant
clusters.
Nasalization:
English has nasalized vowels, such as in words like "man" or "sing." Ukrainian does not
have nasalized vowels.
Ukrainian includes nasal vowels, which are produced with the lowering of the soft palate to
allow air to escape through the nose. Nasalization can occur in certain contexts, such as
when a vowel is followed by a nasal consonant. For example:
The vowel /a/ in Ukrainian is pronounced as [ã] when followed by a nasal consonant. So, the
word "ранок" (morning) is pronounced as [rãnok].
An articulatory distinction of typologically identical sounds in Ukrainian:
In Ukrainian, one notable articulatory distinction involves the consonant pairs /s/ and /z/, as
well as /t/ and /d/. These pairs of sounds are typologically identical in terms of their place
and manner of articulation. However, in Ukrainian, they also have a secondary distinction in
terms of voiceless and voiced variants.
The voiceless counterparts /s/ and /t/ are pronounced with a strong aspiration or puff of air,
while the voiced counterparts /z/ and /d/ lack this aspiration. This distinction is phonemic in
Ukrainian, meaning it can change the meaning of words. For example, the word "сон" /son/
means "dream," while "зон" /zon/ means "zone." Similarly, "танок" /ta.nok/ means "dance,"
while "данок" /da.nok/ means "tax."
It's important to note that while these articulatory distinctions exist in Ukrainian, the exact
realizations of sounds can vary among speakers and dialects. The description provided here
represents a general overview.