Vector Space

3.1. Field of real numbers.

The set of all real numbers forms a particular type of algebraic structure
called 'Field' with respect to the arithmetical addition '+' an? arithmetical
multiplication '.'. Because of this, the set of all real numbers 1s also known
as "Field of real numbers" or, "Real-Field".
Note : The structure, 'Field' is discussed in Abstract Algebra. For detailed study,
readers are refered to any book on abstract Algebra.
3.2. Ordered n-tuples of real numbers.
A set (a 1, a 2 , • • ·, a11 ) of n of real numbers -arranged in the order, is
called an ordered n-tuple of re~ls (or simply n-tuple).
For Example, (1) In two dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry, any point,
say, (2, 5) is nothing but an ordered 2-tuple.
(2) (-1, 0, 5, 6) is 4-tuple.

(3) Each row of the

matrix, A= ( ~ ~ 1s an 1~. ~)
ordered 5-tuple. Each column of the matrix A is an ordered 2-tuple.

Equality of two n-tuples : For two n-tuples ( x1, x 2 , .. •, xn) and

(Yi, Y2, ···, Yn) wesay(-x1, X2, ···, xn)=(yi, Y2, ···, Yn) if
X1 = Y1' X2 = Y2 , ... and xn = Yn ·
Sum of two n-tuples.
Let, a= (a1, a2, · .. ,an) and ~ = (b1, b2 , .. ·, bn) be two ordered n-
tuples. Then their sum is a+ t-'A = (a 1 + bJ, ,,a 2 + b2, .. . , an + b11 ) •
e.g. (2,3,6,1)+(1, -2, 3,0)=(3, 1, 9,1)
Multiplication of an ordered n-tuple by a real number.
Let a= (a1, a2, · .. ,an) be an ordered n-tuple and c be a real number.
Then, the product a by c is c .a= (ca J'. ca 2' . . . 'can ) .
(i) 5 ·(2,4,-9,0)=(1 0,20,-45,0). .
(ii) o. (3, 3, s) = (o, o, o)
Difference of two n-tuples.
Difference of two n-tuples A
a - B=a+ (- l).B. a and .., 1s a - ~ and is defined as
 ve:c roR SPACES 97

i.e. a - ~=(a, - b, ,a2 -- b2 ,• .. a

' n
-- b)11

where a = (a1, a 2, ···,·· ·a,t ) and A - (b 1 b2,''',"' bII )

JJ - 1

e.g. (i) (2, 5, 6) - (1, 8, 0) == (1, - 3, 6)

(ii) ( 6, 6, 6, 6, 6) - (o, o,o, o, o) = (6, 6, 6, 6, 6)

roustration (i). If a= (3, 6, 1) and P= (2, 1, 2), then compute 3a -- 2~ .

3a- 2~ = 3 (3, 6, 1)- 2 (2, 1, 2) = (9, 18, 3) - (4, 2, 4)
=(9-4, 18-2, 3-4) = (5, 16,-1)
(U) If (2x, 0, 5- Y) = (6, 0, 9), then find the values of x and y.
·Since, (2x , 0, 5- y) = ( 6, 0, 9)
SO, 2x = 6 ⇒ X = 3
and 5 - y = 9 ⇒ y = -4
(iii) Can the two n-tuples (x, 6,4, 0, 1) and (5, y, z, 1, t) be equal?
· If (x, 6,4, 0, 1) = (5, y, z, 1, t), then we have 0=1, which is absurd. So,
the ,given two n-tuples can not be equal.
Note : (1) From the definition of sum of two n-tuples, we see, the addition '+~ .
is a composition defined between two n-tuples.
(2) From the definition of product of a number with an n-tuple, we
see, their multiplication '.' is a composition defined between a real
number and an n-tuple.
3.3. Vector space over the field of Real numbers.
Let V be a non-null set and R be the field of real numbers. Let we have
two compositions, one is '+' between two members of V and another is '.'
between a member of V and a member of R. Vis said to be a vector space
(or, line_ar space) if the following axioms hold :
I. (i) a+~ EV for all a and ~ in V. [Closure property under •+']
(ii) a+(~+ y) = (a+~)+ y for all a,~ and Y in V.
[Associative property under '+' ]
!.
(iii) V contains a member, say e, such that a+ 0 = a for all a
in V.
(iv) Corresponding to each elemeqt a in V, there exists an
element, say ' - a ' in V, such that a+ (- a) = 0 . .
(v) a+~=~+ a for all a, ~ in V [commutative property under
'+']
E.M.II-7
98 ENGINEERING MATHEMATics
·II

II. (i) a.a e v for all a in Rand for all a in V.

(ii) l.a = a for all a in V.
(iii) (nb) .a = a .(b.a) for all a,b in Rand for all a in V.
• (iv) a. (a+P) = a.a+a .P forallain Randfor all a,p inV.
(v) (a+b).a =a.a+b.a foralla,b inRandf orall a inV.
Vectors and scalars.
· The elements of a vector space are called vectors and the elements of
Real field are called scalars.
Null vector and Additive inverse of a vector.
In a vector space V, we get a vector 0 having the property a+ O= a
for all a in V. This vector 0 is called the null vector of V.
The vector -a having prope1ty a+ (-a) = 0 in a vector space, is called
additive inverse of a .
Illustration. Prove that the set of all ordered 11-tuples of real numbers is
a vector space over the field of Real numbers. (w.r.t '+' and '•' defined
earlier)

Let V,, (or R11 ) be the set of all ordered n-tuplcs of real numbers. Let
us verify, the axioms of vector space.
Let a, ~, y e V,, So, a = (a1, a2 , .. • , a,, ) , ~ = (b1, b2 , • .. , b,, ) and
Y= (c1, c2 , · · ·, c,,), where Cl,, b1 & C; are all real numbers.

I. Then, a+P =(a, +b1,a2 +b2 , .. ·,a,, +b,,)

(i)
:. a+ Pe V,, since, (a, + b1, a 2 + b2 , ... , a,, + b,,) is nlso an ordered
numbers.
(ii) Now, a+ (P +y) c:: (a 1,a 2 ,, .. ,a )+ 11

{(b1 ,b2 ,· .. ,b,,) +(c1 ,c2 ,· .. ,c,,)}

=(a,,a 2 ,···,a,,)+ (h1 +c: 1,b,., +c') ... b •+·t)
., .. 1 /I II

= (a 1 + b1 + c1, o 2 + b,, + c2
., • 1 .. • "
' II
+ /J + ('II )
II

= {(a,, <1 2, • .. ,a,,) +(b 1 , h2 , • •,, b,,)} + (c , c , , .. , c,,)

1 2
=(a+P)+y.
(iii) Since O is a real number, so, t.h ~ 11 -tup lt· {-) -- (0, 0. · · · , 0) EV,,·
 •
VECTOR SPACES 99

Moreover, we see
a+ 8 = (a 1 , a 2 , ···,a,,)+ (0, 0, ... , 0) = (a 1, a2 , ... , a,,)= a.
:. V, contains null vector, 8 = (0, 0, ... , 0).
1

(iv) Since, -a 1, - a 2 , .. • are also real numbers so,

-a= (-a 1 , - a 2 , • • • -a,,) EV,, . Moreover, we see
CX +(-a)= (al, a2, ···,a,,) + (-a 1, - a 2, .. ·, - a,,)

= (a 1 - a 1 , a 2 - a2 • • •, a 11
- a,,)
=(0, 0~ .. <0) =8
:. V, contains additive inverse of each element.
1

(v) a+~= (a 1 , a 2 , ···,a,,)+ (b1, b2 , ... ,b,,)

=(a 1 +b1 ,a 2 +b2 , .. ,a,, +b 11
)

= (b1 + a 1 , b2 + a 2 ,· · ·,b,, + a 11 )

= (b1, b2 , • .., b + (a 1, a 2 , • .. , a = ~ + a
11
)
11
)

:. Commutative property holds in V, 1 •

II. Let a,b, ER be real numbers.

(i) Then, a •a =a· (a 1, a 2 , .. ·,a,,) = (aa 1 , aa 2 , .. ·, aa 11 ) EV,,

since aa; are all real.

(ii) l.a = 1.(a1 , a 2 , .. ·,a,,)= (a 1, a 2 , .. ·, a11 ) = a
(iii) (ab) .a= (ab) .(a 1 , a 2 , .. ·,a,,) = (aba 1, aba 2 , .. ·,aba 11 )
= a .(ba 1, ba 2 , .. • ,ba,,) =a. {b .(a 1, a 2 , .. • ,a 11 )}

=a.(b.a).
(iv) a .(a + ~) = a .{(a 1, a2 , · · · , an) + (bi , bz , · · · , bn ) }
= a . (a 1 + b1, a2 + b2 · · · , a11 +b 11 )

=(a(a1 +bi),a(a 2 +b2 ),, .. a(a,, +b,,))

= (aa1 + obi, al½+ ah2, ... ' aa11 +ab,,)

= (aa 1, aa 2 · · · aa,,) + (ab 1, ab2 · · · ab11 )
=a .(ai,a 2 .. ,a11 )+a.(b1,b2 .. ,b11 ) =a.a+a.~.
(v) (a+b).a=(a+b).(a 1,a2 , .. ·,a 11 )
 100 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS-II

= ((a + b )a 1, ( a + b )a 2 , • • • , ( a + b )an )
= (aa 1 + ba 1, aa 2 + ba 2 , • • • , aa,, + ba,,)
= (aa 1, aa 2 , .. · , aa,,) +(ba 1, ba , .. • , ba,,)
2
=a. (a 1, a 2 , .. ·, a,i) + b .(a 1, a 2 , .. •,a,,)
=a.a+ b.a.
Thus, all the axioms of vector space are satisfied. Therefore V is a
n
vector space over the field of real numbers.
Note: (1) Thus an n-tuple is a vector. e.g. a= (-2, 5, 4, 1) is a vector belonging
to -V4 •
8 = ( 0, 0, 0) is null vector belonging to V3 .
(2)
lliustration. Prove that the set of all real valued continuous functions is
a vector space over the field of real, numbers.
Let C = set of all continuous functions. Let us verify the axioms of vector ·
space.
Let a, ~' y E C . So, a , ~ and y are continuous functions.
I. (i) Since sum of two continuous functions is continuous, so
a+ ~ is a continuous function. :. a+ ~EC.
(ii) a +(~+y) =(a+~ )+y is well known.
(iii) O is a constant. Since constant function is continuous, so
OE C . Moreover we see a+ 0 = a .
(iv) Since a is continuous function so, -a is also continuous.
More·over we see a + (-a) = 0 .
(v) a + ~ = ~ + a is well known.
II. Let a , b be two real numbers.
(i) Then, aa is a continuous function also. :. a .a EC

(ii) l .a= a is well known. .

(iii) For any two real number a, b, (ab) .a= a .(b .a) is well
kno(vn.
(iv) a.( a+ P) =a.a+ a .p is well known.
(v) (a+ b) .a= a .a+ b .a is well known, where a,b are real
numbers and a is a function.
.
Thus C satisfies all the axioms of vector space. So c ts· a vector space.
Theorem s:
In a vector space V over real field R,
VECTOR SPACES 101

(1) O .a= 8 (null vector ) for all a in v

(2) c _.e = 8 for all c in R
(3) -1.a = -a

(4) C ·a = 8 => C = 0 Or CX. =8.

Proof. (1) Let c be a real numb er. We know c + O= c
:. (c + 0) .a = c . a or, c .a.+ O.a = c . a

or, -( c . a) + c . a + 0 .a = -( c . a) + c . a

or, 8+O. a.=8 [ ·: - (c .a) is additiv e inverse of c. a]

or, 0 .a= 8.
(2) Let a and c E R
EV
we know' a + e = a
:. c.(a+ S)=c .a
or, c .a+ c .8 = c .a by an axiom of by vector space.

or, -(c .a)+ (c .a+ c .0) = -c .a+ c .a (wher e -c .a is additiv e

invers e of c .a)
or, {-(c. a)+{c .a)}+ c.0= 0
Or, 0 + C .0 = 0
or, C .0 = 0 [ ·: e is null vector]
(3) Wes·e e a+(- 1.a)= {l.a)+ (-1.a ) [·: 1.a= a by an axiom of
vector space ]
=(1+ {-1)). a =O.a .=8 byTh. l.
Thus a+ {-I.a )= 0.
So, -1.a is additi ve invers e of a, i.e. -1.a =-a.

(4) Let c . a = 0 ... (1)

1
hold but c i= o. Then - is a real numbe r. So from ( 1) we get

-} .(c .a)= -J.0

C (} )
or, -c .a= 0 by Th. 2
C C C

or, l .a= 0 or, a= 0 by an axiom of vector space.

Thus, if c i= 0 then a =0 .
 f
102 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS-JI

Again let (1) hold but a-# 0. We have to show c =?.

Let, if P?ssible,
c -:I:- 0 , then by above process we can show a= 0 , which contradicts our
hypothesis a -# 8 . So, c = 0 .
3.4. Sub space.
Let V be a vector space over the real field. A subset S of Vis called sub
space of V if S itself is a vector space over real field under the same
composition of V.
Theorem 5. (A criterion for sub-space)
A subset Sofa vector space Vis subspace, if and only if
(i) a+ f3 E S for all a, f3 in S
(ii) c · a E S for c in R, a in S.
(where '+' and '•' are the same composition under which Vis vector
space)
Proof. Let S be a subspace of V. Then S itself is a vector· space. So from
the axioms of vector space, conditions (i) and (ii) follow :
Conversely, let conditions (i) and (ii) hold.
Let us verify all the axioms of vector space for S :

I. (i) Let a, f3 ES . So a+ f3 E S by condition (i)

(ii) Let a, f3, y ES . So, they E V as S c V .

a+ (f3 + Y) = (a+ f3) + y by axiom of vector ·space
:. Associative law is valid in S.

(iii) Let a ES . By condition (ii) we have O.a ES as O is a real

number. :. eEs .
So, S contains the null vector .0 .
(iv) Let a ES . As -1 is real number, -1 · a Es by condition (ii)
i.e. -a ES (': -1.a =-a).
Thus S contains additive inverse of every element of it.
(v) Let a, f3 ES :. a, f3 EV as Sc V.
Since V is a vector space, a+ t-'A = t-'A + a . So, commutative
.
pro perty is
valid in S.
 VECTOR SPA CES 103

II. (i) L et a ES and c be any real number. Then.by condition

(ii) We hav e c · a Es .
(ii) L et a E S ··. a EV . Since Vis a vector space so I . a = a .
. So, a EV . Sin ce
(iii) Let a,b be any two real numbers and a Es
Vis a vec tor spa ce therefore (ab) .a= a .(b .a).
(iv) Let a, f3 E S. :. a, f3 EV . For any real a,
a.( a+ f3) =a .a+ a .f3 (·:V is a vector space)
(v) Let a ES . For any two real a,b we have
(a+ b). a
= a .a + b .a ·. · a E V and Vis a vector space.
S. So S itself is a vec tor
Thus all the axio ms of vec tor space are valid in
space. So S is a sub spa ce of the vector space V.
: x,y are real } is a
Illustration. Pro ve tha t the set .S = {( x, y,O)
subspace of V3 the vector space of all 3-tuples)

Since eve ry elem ent of S is a 3-tuple so S c V3

•

Let a,f3 ES . So, a= (a 1,b1 ,0) and f3=(a 2 2

,b ,0) where a;,b; are
cau sea 1 +a 2 , b1 +b2 are
real s.Th en a+ f3= (a 1 +a 2 , b1 +b2 ,0) ES ,be
also reals.

Again for any real num ber c, c .ct= (ca 1 , cb 1 ,

0) ES , because ca 1 , cb1
are reals.
Hence S is a sub spa ce of
Thu s S sati sfie s the two criteria of subspace.
V3.
vector space is a subspace.
Theorem 6. Inte rsec tion of two subspaces of a
sub spac es of V. We shall
Proof. Let V be a vec tor space, S and T be two
show that Sn T is a sub spa ce of V.
s rsection Sn Tc V . Let
Since and Tar e sub sets of V, so their inte
a, f3 E Sn T . So, a, f3 E S and a, ~ E T .

:. a+ f3 ES and a+ f3 ET , sinc e San d Tar

e subspaces.

So,· a+ f3 ES n T.
 104 ENGINE ERING MA THEM ATICS-II ·

Let a ES n T and a be any real number.

:. a E S and a E T . Since S and T are subspace so a . a.ES and
a . a E T . Hence a . a. E S n T .
So, S n T is a subspace.
Remark. Union of two subspaces may not be a subspace. For example
S = { (0,x): x is real } and T ={ (x, 0): x is real } are two subspaces of .
the vector space V2 • We see ·a.= (0, 3) ES u T (·:a.ES ) and
,. f3=(3, 0)ESU T (·: f3ET). But a.+f3= (0,3)+ (3,0)= (3,3)e SuT '
because it neither belongs to S nor to T.
:. Closure propert y does not hold in Su T. So,- Su T is not a
subspace.
3.5. Linear combination of vectors.
Let a. 1 , a. 2 , • • · , a. r be r number of vectors in a vector space V. Then
r
Ci . a.l + C2 . 0.2 + ... +Cr . ar =LC; . a;
i=l
is called a linear combination of the vectors a , a. , • · • , a r ; wp.ere
1 2
c 1 ,c2 , • • • ,cr are r real numbers.
e.g. Let a 1 = (2, 0), a 2 = (1, 5), a 3 = (3, - 2) be three vectors of R 2 . •
Then 5 a. 1 - 7 a 2 + 0 a 3 is a linear combination of a , a and a. •
1 2 3
Note: Clearly, by the axioms of vector space, a linear combination of some vectors
. in a vector space V again belongs to the same vector space.
lliustration. Let a and f3 be two vectors of a vector space V. Prove
that the set of all linear combina tions of a and f3 is a subspac e of V.
Let S = {x .a+ y .f3: x and y are any real number } . ·
Since a and f3 EV and x, y are real, so by axiom of vector space
x.a EV and y .f3 EV. Hence by closure axiom x .a+ y .f3 EV.
Therefore S c V .
Now let a 1, a 2 ES. So we can express a 1 = x .a.+ y .f3 ;
1 1
a. 2 = x2 .a.+ y 2 .f3 where xi, Yi are real. So,
a1 +a2 =xi.a.+ Y1-f3+x2.a+ Y2-f3
or, a 1 + a 2 = x 1.a+ x 2 .a+ y 1.f3 + y 2 .f3 (by commutative property)
= (x 1 + xi) .a.+ (y 1 + y 2 ) .f3 by axiom of .vector space
VECTOR SPACES
105

So, ~ 1.+ a 2 ES since Xi+ x 2 a nd Yi + Y2 are also real number.

Agrun 1f a be any real number then

a.al =a.(x1.a+Y1-~)=(ax1)·a+(ay1)·~
, since ax 1 and ay 1 are real.
:. a .a 1 E · S
Hence S is a subspace of V.
Theorem 7. If a 1, a 2, · · · , a r be r number o· f vectors m
· a vector space
v, then prove that the set of all linear combinations of a 1, a 2, . . . ,ar ·
Isa
subspace ofv .
Proof. Hints : As the previous example. . ·

Illustration. Express the vector (2, 5) as linear combination-of (1, 1) and

(1, o).
Let (2, 5) =Ci· (1, 1) + c2 • (1, 0), Ci, c2 are real.
or, (2,5)=(c1 +c2 , ci)
So, c1 + c2 = 2 and c 1 = 5. This implies c2 = -3.
So, (2,5)=5·(1,1)+(-3)·(1,0).

3.6. Generator or spanning vectors.

Let V be a vector space. Also let a 1 , a 2 , • • · , a r be r number of vectors
of Vand S be a subspace of V (Smay be equal to V). If every element of S
can be expressed as a linear combination of a., a 2 , .. · ,ar then we say,
a 1, a 2 , .. • ,ar generate or span the subspace S.
Illustrations.
(1) Consider S = {(x, y, 0) : x, y are any real numbers} which is a
subspace of. V3 • [See the Illustration in Art 3.4]

We see (x, y, O) = x .(1, 0, 0) + y .(0, 1, 0), i.e. every element of S can

be expressed as linear combination of the two vectors _a, = (1, 0, 0) and
a2 =(0, 1, O). Hence the two vectors (1, 0, 0) and (0, 1, 0) generate S.
(2) a 1 = (1, o, o, o), a 2 = (0, 1, 0, O),_a 3 = (?, 0, 1, 0) and
a= (0, O, O, 1) are generator of the entire vector space V4 •
4
For any element of v4 , say ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 ) can be expressed as
(x 1, x2 , x3 , x4 ) = Xi .(1, 0, 0, 0) + X2 .(0, 1, 0, 0) + X3,(0, 0, 1, 0)
+x4 .(0, 0, 0, 1)
 106 ENGINEERIN G MATHEMATICS-II

(3) Show that the n number of n-tuple vectors a 1 = (1, 0, •··, O),
a 2 = (o, 1, 0, •· •, o) •••a 11 = (o, 0, ···, 0, 1) generate the vector space R".

Let a be an arbitrary element of R" . So a is a vector like

a = (x1 , x 2 , • • • , x 11 ) where every X; is a real. We can express
a= x 1( 1, •••, 0, 0) + x2 ( 0, 1, 0, · · ·, 0) + · · · + x11 ( 0, 0, · ··, 0, 1)
= X 1. al + X2 . a 2 + .. . + Xn . an .
This shows that every element of R 11 can be expressed as linear
combinatio n of the vectors a 1,a 2, ···,an . So, a 1,a 2 , · ··, a 11 form a
generator of Rn .
3.7. Linear dependent and independent vectors.
Let Vbe a vector space and a 1,a 2, · ··, ar EV. They are called linearly
dependent (or, simply dependent), if it is possible to get r number of real
numbers c1,c2, · ··, cr, at least on~ non-zero, such that
c1 .a 1 + c2 .a 2 +···+Cr .ar = 0
If a 1,a 2 , · ··, ar are not linearly dependent then they are called linearly
independent (or, simply independent) ; that is, a 1,a 2, · ··, ar are linearly
independent if c1 · a 1 + c2 · a 2 + · · · + cr · ar = 0 implies
C1 = C2 = C3 = ... =Cr = 0 only.
Illustrations.
(1) The vectors a 1 = (1, 2, 3), a 2 = (3, -1, 4) and a = (4, 1, 7) are
3
linearly dependent because we get 3 numbers 1, 1 and -1 such that
l.a 1 +l.a 2 +(-l).a 3 =(0,0,0)= 0.
(2) The vector (3, 2), (6, 4), (9, 15) are dependent because we get 3
1 .
numbers 1, - and 0 for which
2
, 1.(3, 2)+(- ~}(6, 4) + o.(9, 1s) = (o, o) = e.
(3) The vectors a 1 = (1, 0, 0), a 2 = (0, 1, 0) and a = (0, 0, 1) are
3
linearly independent bacause
c,.a1 + C2. a 2 + C3.a3 = 0 ⇒ C1.(l, 0, 0) + C2.(0, 1, 0) + C3.(0, 0, 1) = (0,0, 0)
⇒ (cl ' C2' cJ) = (0, 0, 0) ⇒ cl = 0, C2 = 0, C3 = 0.
(4) Prove that the n-tuple vectors
a1 = (1, 0, · · · , 0) a ?- =(0, 1, 0, •••, 0) · .. a = (0
II ,
0 , ... , 0, 1) are linearly
independent.
VECTOR SPACES 107

c1• Cl 1 + C2 · a2 + . ' . + CII' a - 0

11 -

⇒ Cr .(1, 0,. ··, 0) + C2 .(0, 1, . .. , 0) + ... + c,, .(0, 0,. ··, 1) = (0, 0,. ··, 0)
⇒ (C1, C2, · · · , c,,) = ( 0, 0, ... , 0)

⇒ C1 = 0, C2 = 0, · · · , c,, = 0
So, a 1, a 2, ·· ·, a are independent.
11

ly
Theorem 8. A colle ction of vectors containing null vector is linear
dependent.
Proof. Let a 1 , a2 , · · · , a r, 8 be a collection of vectors. We can write
0.a 1 +0.a 2 +···+ 0.ar +1.8 =8+ 8+·· ·+8= 8
(·: Q.a = 0 etc) We see among the numbers o, o, ... , 1 a t 1eas t one,
namely 1 is non-zero.
So, al, a2, · · ·, ar, 0 are linearly dependent.
Illustration : The vectors a 1 = (2, 3, 5, 1), a 2 = (9, 6, 12, 5) and
a 3 = (0, 0, 0, o.,) of R 4 are linearly dependent.
ly
Theorem 9. A collection of vectors which contains a collection of linear
dependent vectors is linearly dependent.
,
Proof. Let a 1, a 2 , · .. , a P, a p+I, .. ar be a collection of vectors of which
reals
the collection a 1, a 2 , .. • ,a P are linearly dependent. So, we get the
C1,c2,· .. ,cP at least one non-zero, s.t. c1a1 +c2a 2 +···+ cPaP =8.T his
least
implies c 1a 1 + c2 a 2 + .. · + c Pa P + 0.a p+l + .. · + 0.ar = 8. Since at
· .. , 0
one of c 1, c2 ,. .. , c P, is non-zero so at least one of c1, C2, .. , c P, 0, 0,
is non zero. So, a 1, a 2, •••, ~ P, ~p+I ~ • • ·, ar are linearly dependent.
Illustration. Prove that the vectors (1, 2, 3), (2, 4,6), (5, 9, 1),
( - 6, 7 , 8), ( 1 1, 2, 5) are linearly dependent.
are
We see 2.(1, 2,3)+ (-1). (2,4, 6)=( 0,0,0 ) .·So, (1,2, 3),(2 ,4,6)
dent.
dependent. So, by above theorem, the given five vectors are also depen
is
Theorem 10. Any part of a collection of linearly independent vectors
independent.
rs.
Proof. Let a 1, a 2 , a P, ···,a, . be a collection of independent vecto
the
Let, if possi ble, the part a1, a2, · .. , a p be depen dent. Then from
t,
previ ous theor em a 1, a 2 , ···,a ,,,· ··,a,. woul d also be depe nden
contradicting our hypothesis. So a,, a 2, · · · , a P are independent.
0),
Illustration. Any part of the collection of 4-tup le vectors (1, 0, 0,
 ENGIN EERING MATHEMATICS-II
108

(o, 1, o, o), (o, o, 1, o) and (0, 0, 0, 1) is independent since these four vectors
are independent.
Theorem 11. If a1, a2, ... , aP' ·· ·, ar be some depend ent vectors,
where a 1, a 2 , • • • , a P are the maxim um numbe r of indepe ndent vectors
among these, then both the co1lection genera te the same s_ubspace.
Proof. Beyond the scope of the book.
Remark. The following example will be used as a tool for finding the
. character o( dependence and indepe ndence of any vectors.
Example. Show that the vectors
a1 =(au, a12, a13, a14)
a2 = (0, a22' a23, a24)
a 3 = (0, 0, G33, G34)

are linearly independent, where all '# 0, a22 '# 0, G33 '# 0 .
Let C1.a1 + C2.a2 + C3.a3 = 0
Then (c 1a 11 ,cI a 12 ,cI a 13 , c1a 14 ) + (0, c 2a 22 , c 2a 23 , c2a 24 ) .

+(0, 0,c3a 33 ,c3a 34 ) = (0, 0, 0, 0)

i.e., (c1a11, C1a12 + c2a22,c1a13 + c2a23 + C3a33, C1a14 + C2a24

⇒ c1 a11 =0,
C1a12 + C2a22 = 0'
C1a13 + C2a23 + C3a33 =0
⇒ c1 =0, c2 ~ 0, c3 =0
:. a 1 , a 2 , a 3 are independent vactors.
Note : The result in the above example can be generalized for more vectors. For
example, the vectors,
a 1 = (2, 3, 5, 6, 9), a 2 = (o, 4, -7, o, 8), a 3 = (0, o, 8, 4, 7),
a 4 = (0, 0, 0, 6, 5) are linearly independent vectors.
Important Note.
In light of above example we see the non-zero ~ow vectors of an Echelon
matrix are independent.
VECTOR SPACES 109

Theorem 12. Let A=

a,,,l am2 amn

be a m x n size matrix. Let

al =(a 11,a 12,· ··,a1 n)
a2 = (a21 ' a22 ' ... , a2n )
........................ ....
Rank of A =
am= (a,,,1, am2, · · ·, amn) be the row vectors of A. Then
ng the row sa 1, a 2 ,·•· ,am .
Maximum num ber of inde pen den t vectors amo
Proof. Bey ond the scop e of the book.
dent if and only if the
Corollary. All the row vectors of A are indepen
rank of A= m.
enie nt to find whe ther som e give n
Note : Usin g the abov e theo rem it is mor e conv
vectors are inde pend ent or depe nden t.

lliustration. Fin d whe ther the set of vect or

-1)} 1s lin ea rly
S = {(1, 2, -1, 3), (3, -1, 2, 1), (2, -2, 3, 2), (1, -1, 1,
are inde pen den t. Fin d the
dependent. If so find the vect ors in S whi ch
spa nne d by S. ·
vectors of S whi ch spa n the sam e subs pac e as
Let a 1 = (1, 2, -1, 3), a 2 = (3, -1, 2, ·1), a 3 = (2, - 2, 3, 2),
a 4 = ( 1, - 1, 1, - 1) .
,a and a 4 •
Let us form a matrix A whose rows are a 1, a 2 3
1 2 -1 3
3 -1 2 1
Thus A= 2 -2 3 2
1 -1 1 -1
matri x :
We find Rank of A by tran sforming it to eche lon

A=[~
2 -1
-1 2
-2 3
-1 1 1]
Rz - 3R
2 -1
Q -7 5
) 2 -2 3
1
[]
1 - 1 1 -1
~8]
 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS-II
110

1 2 -1 3 1 2 -1 3
0 -7 5 -8 R4-R1
0 -7 5 -8
R3 -2R1 ➔
) 0 ...:.6 5 -4
0 -6 5 -4
1 -1 1 -1 0 -3 2 -4
1 2 -1 3
1 2 -1 3 3
6 R4-·: :/2 0 -7 5 -8
R3--:: /2 0 -7 5 -8
0 0 5/7 20/7 0 0 5/7 20/7
0 -3 2 -4 0 0 -1/7 -4/7

1 2 -1 3 · 1 2 -1 3
l
0 -7 5 -8 R4+5R3 0 -7 5 -8
7 R1 =B
0 0 5 20 0 0 5 20
and 7R4
0 0 -1 -4 0 0 0 0

Rank of B = 3.
Bis an Echelon matrix having three non-zero rows. So,
Since A and Bare row equivalent, so Rank of A= 3.
have at most 3
Therefore by the previous Theorem the matrix A may
of A are linea rly
inde pend ent row vectors. Ther efore the four vectors
rs amon g the
dependent. Thus there exist maximum 3 independent vecto
given vectors.
In matrix B the row-vectors a;
= (1, 2, -1, 3), a;
= ( 0, - 7, 5, - 8)

a;= (0, 0, 5, 20) are independent [See Illustration Ex of Th.11]. They

in- S the vectors
are transformed form of a 1, a 2 , a 3 respe ctive ly. So
mum
a 1, a 2 , a 3 i.e., (1, 2, -1, 3), ( 3, -1, 2, 1) and (2, - 2, 3, 2) are maxi
maximum so they
number of linearly independent vectors. Since this is
spans same subspace as spanned by S [ by Th 11.]
Note : If in the above process two rows would be interchange
d then a~, a;, a 3
a 1, a 2 , a 3 • [This case can be seen in_
etc. would not be transformed form of
Example 10, page 166.
3.8. Basis.
, ···,a , is said
Let V be a vector space. A collection of vectors, a 1 , a 2
endent and if they
to form a basis of V if a 1, a 2 , •••,a , are linearly indep
generate V.
Illustrative Examples.
Ex. 1. Sh aw that a 1 =(I , 0, 0), a 2 =(0, 1, O),a 3 = (0, O, 1) form a basis of the
vecto rs sp ace V3 .
 111
v£ CT0R SPACES

8
c1 ·Cl1 +c2 •a2 +c3 ·a3 ==
c1 ·( 1, 0, 0) +c2 •( 0, l,O
)+ c3 -( 0, 0, 1) =( 0, 0, q)
~
~ (ci, C2, C3_) = (0, 0, 0)
~ Ci =C2 =C3 =0
So, a i, a 2 , a 3 are independent.
l
tra ry . Th en a = (x x 2 , x 3 ) where x i , x 2 , x 3 are rea s.
Let a E V3 be arbi i ,

X2 · (0, 1, 0) + X3 · (0, 0,
1)
Now, (x i' X2 ' x3 ) = X i· (I, o, 0) +
be
. is sh ow s an y ve cto r of V can
i.e., a = Xi · a i + X2 ·
a2 + X3 · a3 Th
are g!nerators
n of a ,a ,a • So a 1,a 2,a 3
m bi na tio 2 3
expressed as a lin ea r co
1

of V3 .
a 1, a 2 , a 3 form a basis of V3 .
Therefore
ent but not
o ve cto rs ( 1, 0, 0) an d (0, 1, 0) are independ
Ex. 2. Prove that the tw
form basis of V3 .
(1, 0, 0) + C2(0, 1, 0) = (0, 0,
0)
C1

=> (C1, C2, 0) = (0, 0, 0)

t
=> c1 = c2 = 0. So they are independen
d (0, 1, 0 ) is
m bi na tio n of th e tw o vectors (1, 0, 0 ) an
We see a lin ea r co vector
0) os e las t co mponent must be 0. So a
x, (1, 0, 0) + x 2(0, 1, 0) = (x 1 2
,x , wh
(0,
pr es se d as lin ea r co mb inations of (I.° 0, 0) and
not be ex
of V3 like (1, 2, 3) can a basis of
rs do no t ge ne ra te V3 • So they do not form
cto
1, 0). Thus these two ve
V3. form a basis though
ve cto rs (1 , 0) , (0 , 1) an d (2, 5) do not
Ex. 3. Prove that the
they generate V2 . x1, x 2 are reals. We ca
n
a = (x 1, xi ) wh ere
ry. So
Let a E V2 be arbitra
, x ) = x • (l, 0) + x 2 · (0, 1) + 0· (2, 5).
express a = (x 1 2 1
= x 1 -a 1 + x2 -a 2 +0 •a 3
•

bi na tio n of
rs of V ca n be ex pr es se d as lin ea r co m
This sh ow s an y vecto 2

, a· , a 2 , a 3 ge ne ra te the vector space V2 .

, a
a1 2 3 , a • So 1
see (-2) •a 1 + (-5) •a 2
+ l •a 3
On the other hand, we e.
o) =
= (o,
= (-2). (1, o) + (-s). (o, 1) + (2, s)
 112 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS-II

This shows that a. 1 ,a. 2 ,a. 3 are dependent.

Thus the given three·vectors do not form a basis.
Note: A vector space may have more than one basis, i.e., basis is not unique.
Below we give an example of a vector space having three basis.
Ex. 4. Give an example of a vector space which has three basis.

Consider the vector space V3 (Set of all 3-tuples ). We shall show the following
three collections form basis of V3 :

A= {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}

B = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, o), (1, o, o)}
c = {(o, o, 1), (o, 1, 1), (1, o, 1)}
c1(1, 0, 0) + c2 (0, 1,0) + c 3 (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ (ci, C2, C3) = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ c1 = C2 = c 3 = 0.
So the vectors in collection A are independent.

Let a E V3 be arbitrary. So, a= (Xi, x 2 , x 3 ) where Xi, x 2 , x 3 ar~ reals. We

can express
a= (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) = x 1 ·(1, 0, 0) + x 2 ·(0, 1, 0) + x 3 ·(0, 0, 1)
= X10.1 + X20.2 + X30.3
So the collection A generates V3 . So the collection A form a basis of V3 •
Again (1, 1, 1) + C2 • (1, 1,0) + C3 • (1, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0)
C1 •

⇒ (c 1 +c2 +c3 ,ci +c2 ,c1 )=(0,0,0)

⇒ c1 + c2 + c3 =0,
Ci + c2 = 0,
and Ci= 0
⇒ c1 = c2 = c3 = 0
So the vectors, in collection B are independent.
Let a E V3 • a = ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3}

Let (x 1 , x2 , xJ) = d 1 ·(l, 1, 1) + d 2 ·(1, 1,0)+ d 3 ·(l, 0, 0)

i.e. (x 1, x 2 , x 3 )=(d1 +d2 +d3 ,d1 +d2 ,d 1)
⇒ _d i= X3'

di+ d 2 = X2'
 VECTOR SPACES 113

andd1 +d2 +d3 = Xi

__..
;,...-,' d I = X3 ' d2 =X 2 - X 3, d 3 -- X1 - X3 - x 2 + x3 = x 1 - x 2
so, a can be expressed as
a=x3 ·(1,1,l)+ (x2 -x3 )·(1,1,0) +(x 1 -x2 )•(1,0,0)
This sh~ws that ~ny vector of V3 can be expressed as a linear combination of
the ve~tors m collection B. So collection B generates V3 . So the collection B form
a basis of V3 .
Similarly we can show collection C is also a basis of V3 •
Note : In the above example we see though a vector space V3 has three basis, the
number of vectors in each of the basis is same (which is 3)
In fact we have the following theorem.
Theorem 13. Any two bases of a vector space have same number of
vectors.
Proof. Beyond the scope of the book.
3.9. Dimension or Rank of a vector space.
The number of vectors present in a basis of a vector space Vis called
the dimension of V. It is denoted by dim (V).
Example : ( 1) Dimensio n of the vector space V4 is 4, since the four
vectors (I, 0, 0, 0),(0, 1, 0, 0),(0, 0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 0, 1) form a basis of V4 •

(2)dim (Vn) =n since there are n number of vectors in a

basis of Vn.
Note: (1) The dimension of a vector space may be oc. Here we are mainly
concerned with finite dimension al vector space.
(2) In light of Theorem 13, we see the dimension of a vector space is
unique.
Theorem 14. If a vector space has dimension r then the vector space
may have at most r number of independent vectors.
Proof. Beyond the scope of the book.
Illustration. Find whether the vectors a= (1, 0), ~ = (0, I), y = (5, 6),
8 == ( 99, - I 00) are independent in the vector space V2 •
Dimension of V2 is 2. Therefore, by above Theorem 14, V2 may have
at most two independ ent vectors. Therefore the four vectors of V2 would
be dependent.
E.M.II-8
 ◄

114 ENGINEERI NG MATHEMATIC

S-II

Theorem 15. If the dimension ~f a vector space Vis r and if a collection

of r number of vectors of V are independen t then the collection is a basis
of V.
Proof. Beyond the scope of the book.

Illustrati on. (i) Given the ~ectors . a= (1, 2, 3, 0), f3 = (2 , J,O, 3),
y = (1, 1, 1, 1), 8 = (2, 3, 4, 1) are linearly independent, can we say they
form a basis of V4 ?

Since dim (V4 ) = 4, by above Theorem 15, they form a basis of V4 •

Note : Let ~ be a vector space. S be a subspace of V. Since S is Jtself a vector
space so S would have basis, dimension and all the characteristic as V. More
precisely we have the following example.
(ii) Prove that S ={(x, y,0,0):_x,y areanyrea l} isasubspa ceofV4 •
Find a basis and dimension of S.
Proceeding as Illustrative Ex in Art 3.4, Sis a subspace of V4 •

Second part : Consider the two vectors of S, a 1 = (1, 0, 0, 0),

a 2 = (0, 1, 0, 0) .Obviousl y they are independe nt. Now let a ES be
arbitrary. So, a =(x 1 , x 2 , 0, 0) where x 1, x 2 are reals. Then we can express
a= x •-a + x • a 2 • So the two vectors a 1 ,a 2 generate S. Thus, a.,a 2
1 1 2
form a basis of the subspace S.
Since there are two vectors in a basis of S, so dim ( S) = 2 .
Theorem 16. Let a 11 x 1 + a12X2 + · · · + a1nx,, = 0
a21X1 + a22X2 + ... + a2,,Xn = O

be a sys tem of homogeneo us equation.

T he set of all solu tions of thi s system is a subspace of V,, .
The dime nsio n of thi s subspace = Number of unknown - Rank of A,
where A is its cot!ffici ent matrix .

Proof. T he system can be expressed in matrix notati on as

( 1)
AX = O
r~
VECTOR SPACES 115

a11 a12 al,, X1 0

where A= a 21 a 22 a2,, X 0
and X = 2 and O =
a111 l a1112 a11111 x" 0
let S be the set of all solutions.
Also let a, PE S then Aa = O and AP= 0 .. A(a+P)=O
This shows a+ P is a solution of (1) a+ pES
Let c be any number. Then A(ca) = c(Aa) = c O = 0. So ca is a
solution of ( 1). Therefore ca E S . Since S c Vn and Vn is vector space
so S is a subspace of Vn .
Since number of independent solution = ·number of unknowns - Rank
of A, so maximum number ~f independent vectors of S is Number of
unknowns - Rank of A.

:. dimension of S = Number of unknowns - Rank of A.

mustrative Examples.

Ex. 1. Show that W = { ( x, y, z) E R 3 : x + 2 y - z = 0, 2x - y + 3z = 0} is a

subspace of R3 . Find a basis of Wand hence its dimension.
If ( x, y, z) E W then x +2y - z= 0. } (1)
2x-y+3z = 0
clearly W c R3.
Let a.,PEW .Soif a.=(x 1 ,y 1 ,zi) and P=(x2,Y2,z2)
then x 1 + 2 y 1 -z1 = 0 (2)
2x 1 - y 1 + 3z 1 = 0 (3)
and .x2 + 2 y 2 - z2 = 0 (4)
2x 2 - y 2 + 3z2 = 0 (5)
Adding (2) and (4); (3) and (5)

We get (x 1 +x2)+2(y1 + y 2 )-(z1 +zi)=0

2(x 1 +x 2)-(y 1 + Y2 )+3(z1 +z 2 )=0
Which shows (x 1 + x2 , y 1 + y2 , z1 + zi) is a solution of (1)
:. a +PEW
Let c be any ·real number. Multipl~ing (2) and (3) by c we get
 I I6 ENOIN ERRJNO MA1'JfE~M
ATJr•" '
· · cJ
'-•H I
cx 1 +2(cy1 )- (cz 1)=0
and 2( cx 1 ) - ( cy 1) + 3( cz 1) = 0.
This show (cx 1 , cy 1 , cz 1) is a solution of (I.)
:. c · a. E W. Thus Wi s a subspace of V .
3

The coefficient matrix, A = (1 : 1-1).

Let us find the rank of A by transforming it to Echelon matri

A= u: -1) I n,-w , {
x

6:5 -;) = B
B is a Echelon matrix having two non-zero rows. So, Rank
of B = 2 .

:. Rank of A= 2. ( ·: A and Bare row equivalent)

So, dimension of W = 3 - 2 =1.

From the matrix B we see the system (1) is transformed to
x+2 y-z= 0
-5y +5z = O
This implies, y = z and x = -z.
So, (-z, z, z) are solution, where z may take any reals. Put any non-zero value
for, z, say l.Then a. = (-1, 1, 1) is a solution of (1 ). Since a. is independent and
dimension of W = 1, so (-1, 1, 1) form a basis of W.

Ex. 2. Prove that the set R3 = {(x, y, z): x,y, z ER} is a vecto
r space where
'+' and '•' are defin ed as (x 1,y 1 ,z 1)+(x2 ,y2 ,z2 )
=(x 1 +x2 ,y1 + Yi,Z 1 +z 2 ) and a·(x 1,_y1 ,z1)=(ax1,ay ,az ).
1 1
Let us verify the axioms of vector space .
Let a.,~ ,yER 3 . So a.=( a ,a ,a ) ; ~=(b ,b2 ,b3) and
1 2 3 1
y = (c 1 , c2 , c3 ) where a,, b1 and C; are all reals.
I. Then (i) a.+~ = (a 1 + b1, a2 + b , a + b )
2 3 3
:. a.+~ E R3 , since a 1 + b1 , a + b and a + b are al so r~al.
2 2 3 3
(ii) Now , a + (~ + y) = (a , a , a ) + {(b1, b2 , bJ + (c1, c'.! , cJ}
1 2 3

= ( a 1, a2 , aJ + (b1 + c1, b2 + c2 , b3 + c3)

VECTOR SPACES 117

=(a1 +b1 +ci,a2 +bi +ci, a 3 +b3 +c3)

=(a, +b1 , ai +bi,a 3 +b3 )+(ci,ci, c3 )
= {(a1, ai, a3) + (b,, bi, b3)} +(cl , C2 , c3)
=(a+~)+y.
8 = (0, 0, 0) E R 3 . Moreover we see
(iii) Since O is a real number, so
a+8=(a1,l½,a3)+(0,o,o) =(a1,a2,a3)=a.
:. R 3 contains null vector, 8 = (0, 0, 0).
(iv) Since -a 1. ,-ai, - a 3 are also real so -a= (-a 1, - a 2,- a 3) E R 3. .
Moreover we see a+ (-a)= (a 1, a 2,a3) + (-a 1, - ai ,- a 3)
=(a 1 -a 1 ,ai -a 2,a 3 -a 3)=(0,0,0)=8
:. R3 contains additive inverse of each element.
(v) a+ P= (a 1 , a 2, a 3) + (b1 , b2 , bJ)
=(a 1 +b1 ,Gi +b2 ,a3 +bJ)=(b1 +ai,b2 +a 2,b3 +a 3 )
=( b1,b2 ,b3 ) + (a 1 , a 2., a 3 ) =P+ a
:. commutative property hold in R 3 •
II. Let a, b, c E R .
Then (i) c•a=c·(a 1 ,a 2 ,a 3 )=(cai,ca2 ,ca 3)ER 3 ,since ca;
are all real.
(ii) l · a = l · (a 1, a 2 , a 3) = (a 1 , a 2, a 3) = a
(iii) (ab)· a= (ab)· (ai,a 2,a 3) = (aba.,aba 2 ,aba 3 )
= a •(ha 1 , ba 2 , ba 3 ) = a · {b · (a 1, a 2 , a 3 )}
=a·(b•a).
(iv) a •(a + P) = a · {(a 1, a 2 , a 3 ) + (b1, h2 , b3 )}

=a·(a I +bi,a 2 +b2 ,a 3 +b3 )

=.(a· (a 1 + b1), a· (a 2 + b2 ), a · (a 3 + b3 ))
= ( aa 1 + ab I , aa 2+ ab2 , aa 3 + ab3 )
= ( aa 1,aa 2 ,aa3 ) + (ab 1,ab2 ,ab3 )

= a · (a 1, a 2 , a 3 ) + a · (b1, b2 ,,b3 )
=a•a+a· P .
(v) (a+b)•a=(a+b)·(a 1,a 2 ,a 3 )
= ((a +b)a 1 ,(a +b)a 2 , (a +b)a 3 )
 I 18 ENGINEERING MATH EMA TICS-II

= (aa 1 +bai ,aa 2 +ba 2 ,aa3 +ba )

3
= (aai ,aa 2 ,aa 3 ) + (ba 1,ba2 ,ba )
3
=a• (a 1,a 2 ,a 3 ) + b · (ai ,a 2 ,a
3)
=a·a +b•a .
Thus all the axioms of vector space are satisfied in R 3 • So R3 is a vector
space.
Ex. 3. In the set R2 = { ( X, Y) : X, Y E R} the composition are defined as
(xi, Yi)+ (x2, yi) =(xi+ X2 + l, Yi+ Y2 + 1)
a· (x., y 1) = (ax 1 + a -1, ay 1 + a -1)
Prove that R 2 is a vector space over real field.
Leta ,~,yE R 2 :.a= (x1 ,y1)
~ = (x 2 , Yi), and y = (x 3 , y 3 ) where X;, Yi are real.
I. Then (i) a+~ = ( x1 + x2 + 1, Yi + Yi + 1 ) E R 2 since
Xi + x 2 + 1 and Yi + y 2 + 1 are also real.
(ii) Now a+(~ + Y) = (x1 , Yi)+ {(x2, Y2) + (x3, Y3)}
= (x., Y1) + (x2 + X3 + 1, Y2 + Y3 + 1)

= (x1 + X2 + X3 + 1+ 1, Yi+ Y2 + YJ + 1+ 1)
= (x1 _+ X2 + 1 + X3 + 1, Yi+ Yi + 1+ YJ + 1)
=(x1 +x2 +l,Y1 + Y2 +l)+(x3,Y3)
={(x1 + Y1)+(x2, Y2)}+(x3, yJ
=(a+ ~)+y .
Thus a + (~ + y) = (a + ~) + y .
(iii) We have to find a 2- tuple ~ = (x, y) such that a+~ = a.
:. (xi,Y ,)+(x ,.y)= (x 1 ,y1)
or, (x 1 +x+ l, y 1 + y+l) =(xi ,Yi)
i.e., x 1 + x + 1 = x 1 ⇒ x = -1
Y1 + Y + 1 =y 1 ⇒ y = -1
so, = ( -1, - 1) E R 2 , since -1 is real.
<I>

:. R 2 contains null vector which is (-1, -1).

 119
VECTOR SPACES

(iv )W eha vet ofi nd - a= (x' ,y' ) s.t

a+ (- a) = <t> '!'
i.e. ,(x 1, yi) + (x', y') = (- 1, - 1)
i.e, (x1 + x' + l, Y1 + y' + 1) = (- 1, -
1), by definition.
so, X1 + X ' = - 2 ⇒ X ' = - x1 - 2

Y1 + y' = - 2 ⇒ y' = -yl - 2

2 - 2 and :_y 1 - 2 are real
s.
:. - a= (-xi - 2, - Y1 - 2) E R since -x 1
(v) a+ f3 = (X1, Y1) + (X2, Y2)
= (X1 + X2 + 1, Y1 + Y2 + 1)
,Y1)
=(x2 +x1 +l, Yi +yi +l)=(x2,Y2)+(x1
=f 3+ a.
II. Let a,b are real numbers. Then
2 since
x ,y )= (ax +a -I, ay 1+a -I) ER ,
(i) a• a= a·( 1 1 1

ax 1 + a - l, ay 1+ a - l are real
(ii) l•a =l ·(x1 ·yi)=(.xi +l -l, y 1
+1 -l) =( x 1 y1)= a
x +a b-1 ,ab y 1 ~a b-I )
(iii)Now, (ab )•a =( ab )·( x 1,y 1 )=(ab 1
and a·( b•a )= a·( b·( x 1 ,y 1 ))= a·( bx1
+b -1, by 1+b -1)
= (a(bx 1 + b-1 ) + a -1, a(by 1 + b-
1) + a -1)
= (abx 1 +a b-I , aby 1 + ab -1)

Thus (ab) · a = a · (b · a) .
(iv)Now, a• (a+ f3) = a ·{(x., Yi)+
(x2, Y2)}
=a · (x 1 + Xz + 1, Yi+ Y2 + 1)
)
=(a(xi +x2 +l )+ a-I ,a( y 1 + y2 +l )+ a-1
= (ax 1 + ax 2 + 2a -1, ay 1 + ay 2 + 2a -1)

Again a·a +a ·f3 =a •(x 1 ,y 1 )+ a·(

x2, Y2)
aYz +a -1 )
=(a x1+a -1 , ay, +a -l) +( a.x 2 +a -I,

+a -l+ l)
=(ax 1 +a -l+ ax2 +a -l+ l, ay, +a -l+ ay2
=(ax1 +ax2 +2 a-l ,ay , +ay 2 +2 a-l )
This show a· (a+ f3) =a · a+ a· f3. ,
( v) Now (a+ b)• a= (a+ b)· ( x,, y1)
 120 ENG INEE RING MATHEMATICS-II

"' = ((a + b )x 1 + (a + b) .-
1, (a + b) y 1 + (a + b) - 1)
=(a x1 +bx 1 +a+ b-1 ,ay 1 +by +a+ b-1 )
1
Agai n a · a + b · a = a · ( x , Yi) + b · ( x , Y
1 1 1 )

=(a x1 +a- 1,a y1 +a- l)+ (bx +b- 1,b y +b- 1)

1 1
= (~1 + a -1 + bx1 + b - 1 + 1,
ay 1 + a - 1 + by 1 + b - 1+ 1)
=(ax1 +bx1 +a +b -1, ay 1 +by 1 +a+ b-1 )
This shows ( a + b) · a = a · a. + b · a. .
Thus all the axioms of vector spac e are satis
fied. : . R 2 is a vector space
under the given compositions.
Ex. 4. Show that the set of all real valued func
tions defined on [ 0, 1] having
property f (x) = f (1- x) is vector space over
real field with respect to pointwise 1
addition and multiplication.
Let F= {f: f(x )=/ (1- x)} whe re f(x) is real valu ed, defin ed on
[0, 1] . Let us verify the axio ms of vector spac e :
Let f, g and h E F

:. f (x), g(x) are real valued. Then

I. (i) f (x) + g(x) is real valu ed and f (x) + g(x) = f (1- x) + g(l - x)
, (ii) f + (g + h) = (f + g) + h is well know n.

=
(iii) Con side r the func tion 0(x ) 0 for all x.
We see f (x) + 0(x) = f (x).
Mor eove r 8(x) = 0 = 8(1 - x). :. S(x) E F.
So F cont ains null vect or whic h is
8(t) .
(iv) f (x) + (- f (x)) =0 =0(x) and - J(x) is also real valued :. - f E F.
(v) f (x) + g(x ) = g(x ) + f (x) is well known .
.,
II. Let a, b be real numbers. Then
(i) a·f (x) =a ·f(l -x) :. af E F
(ii) l · f (x) = f (x) is well known.
(iii) (ab) · f (x) =a · (b· f (x)) is well known.

(iv) a· (J (x)
+ g(x )) =a• f (x) +a• g(x ) is well known.
(v) (a+ b)· J(x )=a ·f(x )+b ·f(x ) isw ellk now
n.
Thu s F is a vector space.