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Linear Integrated Circuits Notes
Linear Integrated Circuits Notes
Importance of Op-Amp:-
o Block diagram of Op-Amp and function of each block.
o The circuit such as balanced, Unbalanced, differential amplifiers with simple current source,
level shifter and complementary push-pull amplifier.
o Equivalent Circuit, Circuit Symbols and Terminals.
o Op-Amp IC-741 pin diagram and function.
Parameters of Op-Amp:-
a. Input offset voltage.
b. Input offset current.
c. Input bias current.
d. Differential input resistance,
e. Input capacitance,
f. Input voltage range,
g. Offset voltage adjustment range,
h. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR),
i. Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio (SVRR),
j. Large signal voltage gain.
k. Transfer characteristics,
l. Supply voltages,
m. Supply current,
n. Output voltage swing,
o. Output resistance,
p. Slew rate,
q. Gain bandwidth product,
r. Output short circuit current.
Working:-
Input stage:-
o The input stage is dual input-balanced output differential amplifier.
o This stage generally provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier.
o This stage also provides high input impedance (2 MΩ).
Intermediate stage:-
o The intermediate stage is driven by the output of first stage (input stage), and is dual input-
unbalanced output.
o The intermediate stage is usually a differential amplifier.
o Because the direct coupling is used, the DC voltage of at the intermediate stage is well above
the ground level.
DC level shifter stage (level translator):-
o The DC level shifter stage, is usually a emitter follower circuit which is used after the
intermediate stage to shift DC level downwards to zero volts with respect to ground.
Output stage:-
o The final stage (output stage) is a complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier.
o The output stage increases output voltage swing, and supplies current supplying capability of
Op-Amp.
o Output stage provides low output impedance (75 Ω).
o The input stage is dual input-balanced output differential amplifier with constant current source.
o This stage generally provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier.
o This stage also provides high input impedance (2 MΩ).
o Differential amplifier is a two input transistor amplifier which amplifies the difference between
the two input signals Vin1 and Vin2.
o The circuit is in the form of bridge and is excited by +VCC and –VEE and output Vo= VC1 –
VC2
o When supply voltages are applied then Q1 and Q2 turns ON.
o As the circuit is symmetrical
Therefore IB1= IB2, and IC1= IC2
o By applying KVL at the output, we get,
VC1= VCC- IC1 RC1
VC2= VCC- IC2 RC2
o As,
IC1= IC2, RC1= RC2, therefore, VO= 0
o As the output is taken between two collectors, the zero output is obtained, and the circuit is said
to be balanced.
o The intermediate stage is driven by the output of first stage (input stage), and is dual input-
unbalanced output.
o The intermediate stage is usually a dual input-unbalanced output differential amplifier.
o Because the direct coupling is used, the DC voltage of at the intermediate stage is well above the
ground level.
o In this amplifier the output is measured at collector of only one of the two transistors with
respect to ground.
o In the quiescent condition some DC voltage exists at the output terminals.
o This is why the amplifier is unbalanced output type differential amplifier.
o This unbalanced DC voltage present at the output acts as the error voltage in the desired output.
o Due to direct coupling between the first two stages, the input at level shifter stage contains dc
signal along with the required ac output.
o This increase in DC level tends to shift the operating point of the succeeding stage which
distorts the waveform.
o To avoid saturation of o/p voltage, the DC level shifter stage, usually a emitter follower
circuit, is used after the intermediate stage to shift DC level downwards to zero volts with
respect to ground.
o So that highest amplitude ac signal can be amplified without getting saturated.
o The simplest level shifter circuit is a emitter follower with a voltage divider
Question: - Explain how offset voltage nulling is an important in Op-Amp and why it is required in op- amp
application?
Answer:-
The 741 type Op-Amp has a feature of offset voltage nulling capability.
The 741 type Op-Amp has pin number 1 and 5 for this purpose.
As shown in figure, a 10 KΩ potentiometer be placed across offset null pins 1 and 5 and a wiper be
connected to the negative supply pin 4.
By varying the position of the wiper on the 10kΩ potentiometer, we are trying to remove the
mismatch between inverting and non- inverting input terminals of the op- amp.
Adjust the wiper until the output offset voltage is reduced to zero.
Op-Amp parameters:-
In basic op – amp operation, the offset voltage is assumed to be zero where the output voltage is
plotted against input difference voltage (Vid) keeping gain constant.
However, that the output voltage cannot exceed the positive and negative saturation voltage.
These saturation voltage are specified by an output voltage swing rating of the op – amp for given
value of supply voltage that means output voltage is directly proportional to the input difference
voltage only until it which is the saturation voltage and that there after output voltage remains
constant.
Hence, the curve is called an ideal voltage transfer curve.
List the ideal values and practical values (typical values) of Op-Amp:-
Differential amplifier:-
o Figure shows the open loop differential amplifier in which input signal Vin1 and Vin2 are applied
to positive and negative terminals.
o Since Op-Amp amplifies the difference between two input signals, this configuration is called
the differential amplifier.
o As OP-Amp can amplify AC as well as DC input signals, this means V in1 and Vin2 can be AC or
DC voltages.
o The source resistance Rin1 and Rin2 are normally negligible compared to input resistance Rin of
Op-Amp.
waveform
o Figure shows the open loop inverting amplifier in which only one input signal (V in) is applied
and that is to the inverting input terminal.
o The non-inverting input terminal is grounded.
o Since V1= 0 volts and V2= Vin; the output voltage will be
VO= -Av X Vin
o The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to the input by
180o or is of opposite polarity.
o Thus in the inverting amplifier the input signal is amplified by the gain (AV) and is also inverted
at the output.
waveform
o Figure shows the open loop non-inverting amplifier in which only one input signal (V in) is
applied and that is to the non-inverting input terminal.
Prepared by: - Sudershan. Dolli V.V.P.Polytechnic, Solapur
Linear Integrated Circuits
o The inverting input terminal is grounded.
o Since V1= Vin volts and V2= 0 ; the output voltage will be
VO= Av X Vin
o The output voltage is in phase with respect to the input by 360o or is of same polarity.
o Thus in the non-inverting amplifier the input signal is amplified by the gain (A V) and is also non-
inverted (in phase) at the output.
Question: - Calculate the output voltage for open-loop non-inverting amplifier if Vin = 10mV dc. Also draw i/p
and o/p waveforms.
Answer:-
Question: - Why open loop configuration of op- amp is never used for amplification? Give reasons.
Answer:-
Since open-loop gain of the op-amp is very high, the clipping occurs in the open-loop configuration
when the output attempts to exceed the saturation levels of the Op-Amp.
The open loop voltage gain of the op-amp is not constant. The gain varies with the changes in
temperature and power supply. This makes op-amp unsuitable for the linear applications.
Open loop configuration of op-amp is never used for amplification because an amplifier requires linear
relationship between input signal and output signal.
Therefore for very small input differential voltage (Vd) of the order of few microvolts, the op- amp
output will reach saturation level (+Vsat or -Vsat) and linear relationship between input and output is not
possible for input signal (Vd) beyond few microvolts.
Also there are problems of distortion, noise, low bandwidth in open loop mode.
Hence op- amp is never used in open loop mode for amplification.
Closed loop configuration’s of Op-Amp:-
1. Inverting amplifier.
2. Non-inverting amplifier.
3. Voltage amplifier.
o The circuit diagram of closed loop inverting amplifier is shown in the above figure.
o The signal which is to be amplified is applied to the inverting terminal of the Op-Amp through
resistor R1.
o The resistor RF, connected between the output terminal and the inverting terminal is called as
feedback resistor. It introduces negative feedback.
o The non-inverting terminal is connected to ground.
o The amplified output signal will be 180o out of phase with respect to the input signal.
o As the output signal is in the inverted form of the input signal, therefore this amplifier is called
as inverting amplifier.
o Input and output waveforms are shown below.
Derivation (expression) for closed loop voltage gain of the inverting op-amp:-
o The circuit diagram of closed loop non-inverting amplifier is shown in the above figure.
o The signal which is to be amplified is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the Op-Amp.
o The resistor R1 is connected in between inverting terminal of op-amp and ground.
o The resistor RF, connected between the output terminal and the inverting terminal is called as
feedback resistor. It introduces negative feedback.
o The amplified output signal will be 0o or 360o phase shifted with respect to the input signal.
o As the output signal is in phase with the input signal, therefore this amplifier is called as non-
inverting amplifier.
o Input and output waveforms are shown below.
Derivation (expression) for closed loop voltage gain of the non-inverting op-amp:-
Prepared by: - Sudershan. Dolli V.V.P.Polytechnic, Solapur
Linear Integrated Circuits
Question: - Design the circuit to get O/P voltage VO = 5Vi and draw design circuit.
Prepared by: - Sudershan. Dolli V.V.P.Polytechnic, Solapur
Linear Integrated Circuits
Answer:-
Design:-
2 Gain Voltage gain is very high Voltage gain is low as compared to open
loop.
3 Bandwidth Bandwidth is low Bandwidth is high
4 Stability Less stable More stable
5 Frequency response Frequency response has high gain and Frequency response has low gain and
less bandwidth high bandwidth
6 Feedback No feedback from output to input Feedback exists from output to input
7 Input resistance Very high Low
8 Disadvantage Cannot be used as amplifier, since output Gain is low
gets distorted
9 Application Comparator It is used in amplifier, oscillator etc.
o The lowest gain that can be obtained from a non-inverting amplifier with feedback is 1.
o When non-inverting amplifier is configured for unity gain, it is called a voltage follower, because
the output is equal to and in phase with the input.
o In other words, the output of voltage follower (unity gain amplifier) follows the input.
o The voltage follower (unity gain amplifier) is preferred because it has much higher input
resistance and the output amplitude is exactly equal to input.
o To obtain the voltage follower (unity gain amplifier) from the non-inverting amplifier, simply
open R1 and short RF.
o The voltage follower is also called as a non-inverting buffer because, when placed between the
two networks, it removes the loading on the first network.
OR
The voltage Vid = 0, implies that terminal 1 (inverting) has same potential at terminal 2 (non-
inverting).
If the non-inverting terminal of OP-AMP is connected to ground then due to the virtual short
existing between the two input terminals, the inverting terminal will also be at ground potential.
Hence it is said to be virtual ground
Similarly, if the inverting terminal is connected to ground, then the non-inverting terminal will be at
virtual ground potential.
Thus virtual ground point has a zero Voltage at terminal (inverting or non-inverting) and draws no
current. Due to zero potential at terminal (inverting or non-inverting) this concept is called Virtual
ground concept.
o Figure shows the inverting configuration with three inputs Va, Vb, and Vc.
o Depending on the relation between the feedback resistor (RF) and the input resistance Ra, Rb,
and Rc, the circuit can be used as summing amplifier.
o The circuits function can be verified by examining the expression for output voltage VO.
o So, applying Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) to the node V2, we get:-
o Therefore, when the gain of the circuit is 1, i.e. RF/R=1, i.e. if Ra=Rb=Rc=RF, the output voltage
is equal to the negative sum of the input voltages.
VO= - (Va+Vb+Vc)
Prepared by: - Sudershan. Dolli V.V.P.Polytechnic, Solapur
Linear Integrated Circuits
Averaging amplifier:-
o Figure shows the inverting configuration with three inputs Va, Vb, and Vc.
o The circuit can be used as averaging circuit, in which the output voltage is equal to the average
of all the input voltages.
o This is accomplished by using all input resistors of equal values, Ra=Rb=Rc=R.
o Also the gain of the circuit must be equal to 1 over the number of inputs, i.e. RF/R=1/n, where n
is number of inputs (3 input for above circuit)
o Depending on the relation between the feedback resistor (R F) and the input resistance Ra, Rb, and
Rc, the circuit can be used as averaging amplifier.
o The circuits function can be verified by examining the expression for output voltage VO.
o So, applying Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) to the node V2, we get:-
o Figure shows the inverting configuration with three inputs Va, Vb, and Vc.
o If each input is amplified by different factor, i.e. weighted differently at the output, the circuit is
then called as scaling amplifier or weighted amplifier.
o Depending on the relation between the feedback resistor (RF) and the input resistance Ra, Rb,
and Rc, the circuit can be used as scaling amplifier or weighted amplifier.
o The circuits function can be verified by examining the expression for output voltage VO.
o So, applying Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) to the node V2, we get:-
o The condition can be accomplished if Ra, Rb, and Rc are different in value. Thus the output
voltage of the scaling amplifier is derived above.
Drawbacks of integrator:-
OR
Window detector:-
IC 555:-
OR
Or
Schmtt trigger:-
Bistable multivibrator:-