EDUCATION

Definition and Meaning of Education

Education is the most important foundation of a successful, learned and thriving society. It plays an
extremely important role in the social, economic and political development of the society as a
whole.
According to National Education Policy, 2020, ‘education is fundamental for achieving full human
potential, developing an equitable and just society, and promoting national development.’
A very comprehensive definition of education is given by Redden and Ryan- "Education is the
deliberate and systematic influence exerted by the mature person upon the immature through
instruction, discipline and harmonious development of all the powers of the human being physical,
social, intellectual, aesthetic and spiritual, according to their essential hierarchy, by and for their
individual and social uses and directed toward the union of the education with his Creator as the
final end,"
According to Frobel, "education is a process by which the child develops its inner potential in a
manner so as to participate meaningfully in the external environment." He has said that the purpose
of education is; “to expand the life of the individual in order to participate in this all-pervading spirit
which manifests and realizes itself in and through the whole universe”.
Different definitions of education as given by famous personalities are:
● Swami Vivekananda has defined Education as "Manifestation of perfection already in man."
● John Dewey, an eminent American educationist saw "education as the power by which man
is able to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities"
The word "Education" has originated from the Latin word "Educatum'' the meaning of which is "to
lead out" or "to bring ideas out of the mind." Hence education is a process or an activity, which leads
ideas or emotions out of the mind. Synonyms of education are: "Pedagogy", "Shiksha", "Vidya".
The wider meaning of education is that ‘it is a lifelong process of modification of behaviour through
every experience of life. In this sense, education is imparted by every person to anybody, at any time,
at any place and any way, it aims at the total development of the person.
In the stricter sense, education means the training that is given within the four walls of an
educational institution during a particular period of time to attain prescribed purposes and
objectives.

Forms of Education
We can divide education into 3 types:

EDUCATION

Informal Formal Non-Formal

Through family, press, radio, Through school, college and Through a correspondence
 cinema, church, playground, other Educational Institute course, summer institute, On-jo
library, etc training, Radio or television, op
university

Informal Education
It is not pre-planned, it is indirect, incidental and spontaneous. No specific agencies or institutions
are to impart this type of education. Informal education takes place from the day-to-day activities,
experiences and living in the family or community or even in the school and colleges incidentally
either through informal interaction or by observation of various things.

Formal Education
It is pre-planned, direct, organized and given in specific educational institutions such as school and
colleges. It is limited to a specific period and it has a well-defined curriculum. It is given by qualified
and trained teachers and observe strict discipline.

Non-formal Education
It is intentional, incidental and given outside the formal system, i.e., school. It is consciously and
deliberately planned, organized and systematically implemented. It is an open system of education
without rigid rules, regulations and fixed stages or time schedule. It necessitates flexibility in
designing the curriculum and the scheme of evaluation.

Each has its own merits and demerits. There is a need to integrate the three forms and
make education holistic and comprehensive.

Aims and Objectives of Education

Havighurst and Neugarten have given two important functions of the education system:
1. A mirror that reflects society as it is or to be the stabilizer of the society.
2. An agent of social change or a force directed towards implementing the ideas of society.
George Payne, a sociologist, has given three main functions of education:
3. Assimilation of traditions
4. Development of new social patterns
5. Creative and constructive role
The following are the aims of education in general:
● Vocational: The aim of education is to prepare the child to earn his livelihood and make him
self-sufficient and efficient economically and socially.
● Knowledge: Knowledge is as essential for intellectual growth as food is essential for physical
growth.
● Complete Living: Education should acquaint a person with the activities of complete living.
They are bearing and rearing of children, self-preservation, activities related to social and political
duties and activities related to the beneficial utilization of leisure time.
● Total Development: The overall development of individuals which include physical, mental,
emotional, social and spiritual developments is one of the most important aims of education.
● Harmonious Development: It means the harmonious cultivation of the physical, intellectual,
aesthetic and moral aspects of human nature. The aim of education is to produce a well balanced
personality.
● Moral Development: Herbert Spencer, an eminent English educationist, believed that
education must enable the child to cultivate moral values and virtues such as truthfulness, goodness,
purity, courage, reverence and honesty.
● Character Development: It is believed that education consists of cultivation of certain
human values and development of attitudes and habits which constitute the character of a person.
● Self-realization: Education should help a person to become what he has to become
according to his/her individual potential.
● Cultural Development: Every individual has to become cultured and civilized through
education. Cultural development if attained truly gives refinement, aesthetic sense and a concern
and respect for others and others' culture.
● Citizenship: The child needs education to become a good citizen of his country. It should
enable him to cultivate such qualities that are beneficial to society. As a member of the society, he
should have knowledge about his duties, functions, and obligations towards society.
● Individual and Social Aim: Individual needs his society and society need individuals. Social
contacts and relationships are essential for individual development. Education should help to create
and foster a sense of obligation and loyalty to the community and its needs. Social progress and
welfare should be the aim of each and every citizen. Individual and social development should be
complementary to each other.
● Education for Leisure: Leisure time is needed to take some rest and regain energy which
should be utilized in such activities that are beneficial to the individual as well as society. Leisure
time, if wisely used, can inspire artistic, moral and aesthetic developments and give birth to physical
and mental balance.

Aims of Education in Indian Context

Since Independence, various committees and commissions have been appointed to lay down the
aims and objectives of education in India. These committees suggested different aims of education in
the Indian context which are mostly similar to the general aims of education. These Include:
● All round material and spiritual development of all people
● Cultural Orientations and development of interest in Indian Culture
● Independence of mind and spirit
● Furthering the goals of socialism, secularism and democracy
● Man-power development for different levels of economy
● Fostering research in all areas of development
● Education for equality
TEACHING

Concept and Nature of Teaching

Teaching is a process of attempting to promote changes in the learners. It involves physical, mental,
emotional, social, moral, and spiritual development of learners. Teaching is a skilful application of
knowledge, experience and scientific principles with an objective to set up an environment to
facilitate learning. Teaching is a planned activity and effective teaching depends on the following
factors.
1) How clearly the students understand what they are expected to learn.
2) How accurately their learning can be measured
The characteristic features of teaching includes the following:
1) It has different levels of teaching.
2) It takes place in a dynamic environment.
3) It is essentially an intellectual activity.
4) It is an art as well as science.
5) It has a high degree of autonomy.
6) It is a continuous process.

Difference between Instruction, Training and Teaching

Training involves preparing someone to do a job. Training involves a relatively systematic attempt to
transfer knowledge and skills from one who knows to someone who does not know.
Instruction, on the other hand, although often used synonymously with teaching, it has more to do
with the development of skills rather than education in a broader sense.
Unlike training and instruction, teaching refers to the actions of someone who is trying to assist
others to reach their fullest potential in all aspects of development.

Basic Teaching Models

There is no basic model of teaching that augurs well for all the situations.
Two contrasting models are discussed here; these models separately or in combination could be
used for different courses.
● Pedagogy Model
● Andragogy Model
● Heutagogy Model

Pedagogy Model
Pedagogy is a conventional approach. In this method, the instructor, more or less, controls the
material to be learned and the pace of learning while presenting the course content to the students.
The purpose of this method of learning is to acquire and memorize new knowledge or learn new
skills. Instructor-centred teaching can also be described as ‘pedagogical approach’. Pedagogy is the
art and science of teaching. It determines ‘how the teaching occurs, the approach to teaching and
learning, the way the content is delivered, and what the students learn as a result of the process’. In
pedagogical approach, the learner is dependent upon the instructor for all learning, and the
teacher assumes full responsibility for what is taught and how it is learned. The teacher or instructor
evaluates the learning processes of the students.

Andragogy Model
In this model, the learner is mostly self-directed and is responsible for his or her own learning. The
students learn best not only by receiving knowledge but also by interpreting it, i.e., learning through
discovery and, at the same time, setting the pace of their own learning. In this method, the
instructors facilitate the learning of participants and help them by offering opportunities to learn
themselves and acquire new knowledge and develop new skills. This type of teaching is also referred
to as andragogical approach. Self-evaluation is also the characteristic of this approach. Andragogical
approach is also identified with ‘adult learning.’

Heutagogy
In this model, learners are highly autonomous. The emphasis is placed on the development of
learner capability with the goal of producing learners who are well-prepared for the complexities of
today’s workplace. It is basically self-determined learning.
Pedagogy is also understood as engagement, andragogy as cultivation and heutagogy as
realization.

Major shifts in Teachings

From To
Teacher centered, fixed designs Learner centered, flexible process
Teacher’s direction and decisions Learner’s autonomy
Teacher’s guidance and monitoring of learning Teacher’s facilitation, support and encouragement f
learning
Passive reception in learning Active participation in learning
Learning within the four walls of the classrooms Learning in the wider social context
Knowledge as ‘given’ and ‘fixed’ Knowledge as it evolves and is created
Disciplinary focus Multidisciplinary, educational focus
Linear exposure Multiple and divergent exposure
Assessment short, Few Assessment multifarious, continuous
LEVELS OF TEACHING

Memory level of Teaching

The memory level of teaching was proposed by Herbart. It is the initial stage of teaching. It induces
the habit of rote memorization of facts and bites of information. The teaching–learning process is
basically a ‘Stimulus–Response’ (S–R) here. It enables the learner to retain and also to reproduce
the learnt material whenever required. Good memory includes rapidity in learning, stability of
retention, rapidity in recalling and the ability to bring only desirable contents to the conscious
level.

Role of Learners and Teachers

The teacher has the active, dominating and authoritarian role in this level of teaching. S/he is the
central figure and the stage-setter. The teacher is the resource manager and evaluator in the
classroom.
The role of the learner is the passive one, as the subject content, teaching techniques and teaching
methods are decided by the teacher. Instructional material is delivered by the teacher and the
learner has to memorise it in a mechanical manner. Little understanding is applied.

Teaching methods used

1. Drill- means repetition or practice for the purpose of attaining proficiency in memorising the
material. There are four types of drills which are:
a. Substitution
b. Expansion
c. Restatement
d. Completion
2. Review and Revision- It is revising the elements to relate them with new experiences and
to form a new association for the development of new skills or learning to solve new problems.
3. Asking the question- to examine whether or not the learning objectives of the teaching
have been achieved.
Some other facts
● Subject matter is structured and well organised. It’s simple in nature that can be easily
acquired through rote learning and can be retained and recalled.
● Nature of motivation is purely extrinsic.
● The evaluation system mainly includes oral, written and essay-type examination. They are
conducted to check the power of memorization of students.
● Teaching aids used are: Visual, audio, and audio-visual. For example: Models, charts, maps,
pictures, computers, film strips, etc. They help develop curiosity amomg learners.

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Useful for young children 1. Not suitable for higher classes

2. Useful for acquisition of facts, information 2. Use of rote learning
models and structure 3. Dominance of teacher
3. Helpful for slow learners 4. Little interaction, no intrinsic motivation
4. Forms the base for understanding and 5. No room for initiation and self-learning for
reflective level of teachings. students

Understanding Level of Teaching

The main proponent of understanding level of teaching is Morrison. This level of teaching is
‘memory plus insight’ as it goes beyond just memorizing of facts. It focuses on mastery of the
subject. It makes pupil understand the generalizations, principles, and facts. It provides more and
more opportunities for the students to develop ‘intellectual behaviour’

Role of Learners and Teachers

The teacher is a prominent figure in the classroom. They play a significant role but are not so
dominating and authoritarian as compared to the teachers in the memory level of teaching. The
framework is set by teachers.
The role of the learner is more active in this stage. They are also called secondary learners. Learners
tend to participate more in the class and may put forward questions to clarify their doubts.

Teaching methods used

Teaching methods used in understanding level of teaching include:
1. Lecture cum demonstration method
2. Discussion method
3. Inductive and deductive method
4. Exemplification and explanation

Some other facts

● At the understanding level of teaching, motivation for students is both intrinsic and
extrinsic. Students are asked by the teacher to learn and their intrinsic forces insist upon them to
learn.
● The evaluation system mainly includes both essay and objective-type questions.
● Teaching equipments used are different charts, models, flashcards, pictures, and many other
electronic devices.

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Effective learning for students 1. Teacher-centric

2. Developments of different cognitive 2. Ignores developing higher cognitive
abilities abilities
3. Effective classroom interaction 3. Less emphasis on intrinsic motivatio
4. sets the stage for entering into the 4. No individualistic learning
reflective level of teaching

Reflective level of Teaching

The main proponent of reflective level of teaching is Hunt. It is the highest level of teaching and it
includes both Understanding level of teaching and Memory level of teaching. It is a
problem-centric approach of teaching. Classroom environment is to be sufficiently ‘open and
independent’. The learners are motivated and active. The aim is to develop the reflective power of
learners so that they can solve problems of their lives by reasoning, logic and imagination, and lead
successful and happy lives.

Role of learners and Teachers

The teacher takes a secondary place in this level of teaching. S/he is responsible for the creation and
maintenance of the democratic, dynamic atmosphere.
The learners become active. They not only repeat, revise (memory level) and understand, learn,
interrelate, or interpret the concepts (understanding level) but also ponder upon and pay serious,
thoughtful consideration to the presented concepts. Ability of independent thinking and decision
making is developed among the learners.

+++Teaching methods used

Teaching methods used in reflective level of teaching include:
1. Problem-solving methods
2. Investigating projects
3. Heuristic methods
4. Experimental methods
5. Inquiry oriented method
6. Analytic method

Some other facts

● Subject matter is unstructured and open-ended. It is concerned with the problem rather
than the subject.
● The nature of motivation is purely Intrinsic.
● Evaluation system should test higher-order cognitive abilities like reasoning, creativity,
critical thinking, problem-solving, etc. Essay-type test is used for evaluation. Attitude, belief and
involvement are also evaluated.

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Learner-centred approach 1. Not suitable for lower classes

2. Provides maximum flexibility in 2. Mostly suitable for mentally mature
curriculum students and not dull students
3. Most thoughtful mode of operation 3. Time-consuming process

OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING
The objective of teaching is to bring desired changes in students' attitude and to shape their
behaviour and conduct. However, the primary objective is always the acquisition of knowledge. A
good objective should always be outcome based and measurable.
Teaching objectives can be classified into two main ways.
1. Bloom's classification of teaching and instructional objectives
2. Gagne and Briggs classification of teaching

Bloom's classification of teaching and instructional objectives

According to this classification, instructional objectives fall under one of the following three
categories:
1. Cognitive domain
2. Affective domain
3. Psychomotor domain

Cognitive domain
It is related to the development of intellectual capability (i.e., thinking or knowledge) and it is the
core learning domain. It functions at six levels, which are as follows.
1. Knowledge: It is basically about recalling information or contents.
2. Comprehension: It is the ability to grasp the meaning of a material.
3. Application: It converts abstract knowledge into practice.
4. Analysis: It involves breaking down a communication into its constituent parts in such a
manner that relationship of ideas is understood better.
5. Sythesis: It is about combining the constituent parts into whole. It is the opposite of analysis
6. Evaluation: It involves judgement made about the value of methods and materials for
particular purposes.
Anderson and Krathwohl rearranged these six levels in the following manner:
1. Remembering
2. Understanding
3. Applying
4. Analysing
5. Evaluating
6. Creating

Affective Domain
The affective domain includes the feelings, emotions, and attitudes of the individual. Thus, the
affective domain deals with attitude, motivation, willingness to participate, valuing what is being
learned and ultimately incorporating the values of discipline into a way of life. It asks for better
student participation. It includes the following levels:
1. Receiving- it refers to the willingness to listen
2. Responding- it refers to the willingness to participate
3. Valuing- it refers to the willingness to be involved
4. Organising- it refers to the willingness to be an advocate of an idea
5. Characterisation- it refers to the willingness to change one’s behaviour or way of life
This implies that the educational process should provide the individual with adequate knowledge
about the situation to enable him or her to use reasoning to mould the emotional behaviour in a
desirable form. Daniel Golemann (1995) calls this type of mental functioning ‘Emotional Intelligence’,
which enables the individual to deal intelligently with various social problems that one faces in life
situations.

Psychomotor domain
The psychomotor domain includes utilizing motor skills and the ability to coordinate them. Following
are the five different levels of instructional objectives in psychomotor domain.
1. Imitation: It includes demonstration of a skill by a skilled person and the learner tries to
follow the same.
2. Manipulation: A learner tries to experiment various aspects, like manipulating machinery,
equipment, etc.
3. Precision: Accuracy in performing various acts increases with practice.
4. Articulation: Achieving a desired level of efficiency and effectiveness through practice.
5. Naturalization: Skill is internalized and an individual is able to adapt, modify or design new
techniques, methods or procedures according to the requirements of a situation.

Gagne and Briggs Classification of Teaching and Instructional

Objectives
According to this classification, the learning outcomes fall under one of the following categories.
1. Intellectual skills: Problem solving, discriminations, concepts, and principles. These skills
are crucial for dealing with the environment. They include concept learning, rule learning and
problem solving.
2. Cognitive strategies: Meta-cognition: strategies for problem solving and critical thinking.
These include methods and techniques for one’s own learning, remembering and thinking skills.
3. Verbal information: Facts of knowledge. It refers to organized bodies of knowledge that an
individual acquires.
4. Motor skills: Action that a person chooses to complete. They are basically about motions
carried out when the brain, nervous system and muscles work together.
5. Attitudes: Behavioural physical skills. They refer to an internal state of an individual.

Hierarchy of Formulation of objectives

Teaching objectives can also be put into the following hierarchical order:
EFFECTIVE TEACHING

Phases of Teaching
There are 3 phases of teaching which are:
1. Pre-active stage (Planning phase)
2. Interactive stage (Execution phase)
3. Post-active stage (Evaluation cum feedback phase)

Pre-active stage
This phase means the selection and organisation of content to be taught. There is a selection of
appropriate methods of teaching. Decision about the preparation and usage of evaluation of tools.

Interactive stage
This phase includes the execution of all the selected content and curricula. Teacher in the interactive
phase works in this particular order:
1. Perception
2. Diagnosis
3. Response

Post-active stage
This phase includes selecting the appropriate testing devices and techniques and then the evaluation
of results. On the basis of this evaluation, problems of the teaching methods is understood.
Changing in the strategies in terms of evidences gathered.

Maxims of Teaching
Maxims are simple guidelines or principles which help the teachers to take decisions and act
accordingly during the teaching process. Maxims of teaching act as the springboard which catalyses
the momentum of teaching learning process and thus helps the teacher in achieving the
pre-determined objectives of education besides providing the contentment to both the learner as
well as the teachers. Following are the different maxims of teaching:
1. From simple to complex- In this process, the teacher starts with explaining simple
concepts and gradually moves towards more complex things. Learning simple things builds
confidence among students and encourages them to learn more. For example, first teaching simple
interest and then moving on to compound interest.
2. From known to unknown- This maxim states that the new knowledge to be given to the
learners should be linked to their previous knowledge. This is to enable the teaching-learning
process and the progress of the classroom. For example- Buying and selling is known and profit and
loss is unknown.
3. From concrete to abstract- Concrete things are solid things which can be visualised and
verified by five senses. Abstract things are only imaginative and therefore difficult to understand. It is
based on the cognitive developments of the students. For example, Water bodies (concrete) and
Ocean currents (abstract).
4. From particular to General- This maxim states that particular concepts, or subject matter
should be taught first and then the generalised laws and principles. For example, Experiments
(particular) and Implications (general).
5. From whole to part- Gestalt psychologists have proved that we first see the whole object
and then its parts. For example, we first perceive the tree and then its trunk, branches, leaves, etc.
Thus, the introduction or overview of the topics is important.
6. From indefinite to definite- The teacher should help to transform indefinite knowledge
into definite one and aim to clarify the doubts of students
7. From psychological to logical- During initial stages, psychological order is more important,
whereas for grown-up learners, logical order is emphasized more.
8. From analysis to synthesis- Initially, the students have little or vague knowledge about the
topics. Analysis means dividing problems into its constituent parts, and then, these are studied.
Synthesis means to understand by connecting the knowledge acquired through analysing the parts.
A teacher should use analytic–synthetic method.
9. From empirical to rational- Empirical knowledge is based on verifiable observable
experiences. Rational knowledge is based on reasoning and logic. For example, Environmental
pollution (empirical) and future implications of pollution (rational).

Principles of Teaching
They are closely related to maxims of teaching. Teaching methods are based on two types of
principles: General principles and Psychological principles.

General Principles Psychological Principles

1. Principles of motivation 1. Principle of motivation and

2. Principle of activity (learning by interest
doing) 2. Principle of recreation
3. Principle of interest 3. Principle of repetition and exerci
4. Principle of linking with life 4. Principle of encouraging creativit
5. Principle of definite aim and self-expression
6. Principle of recognizing individua 5. Principle of sympathy and
differences cooperation
7. Principle of selection 6. Principle of reinforcement
 8. Principle of planning 7. Principle of imparting training to
9. Principle of division senses
10. Principle of revision 8. Principle of remedial teaching
11. Principle of creation and
recreation
12. Principle of democratic dealing

METHODS OF TEACHING
In the stricter sense, there are mainly two methods of teaching:
1. Teacher-centered
2. Student-centered
In between these two extreme approaches, which is called
3. Mixed approach

Teacher-centered methods

Lecture Method
Lecture method is the most commonly used and dominating teaching method. It is an oral
presenation of information by the instructor. In this method, teacher is an active participant, the
students are assumed to be passive listeners. Usually, the students do not converse with the
teacher during lecture by the teacher. That way, it is one way communication.
Steps included
1. Preparation
2. Presentation
3. Evaluation
Principles of Instructions used
1. From known to unknown
2. From simple to complex
3. From parts to whole

Merits Demerits

1. Economical as a single teacher can 1. Less developments of creative and

teach a large number of students. problem-solving mental abilities of students
2. Saves time 2. Very little participation of students.
3. Distractions and interruptions are 3. No place for individual pace of
usually avoided learning.
4. No extra teaching equipments used
5. Useful for teachers as it simplifies
 their task

Team Teaching Method

Team teaching is an innovative approach in teaching large groups in which two or more teachers are
involved in planning, executing and evaluating the learning experiences for a group of students.

Merits Demerits

1. Teaching quality is improved 1. Multiple teachers are not available

2. Knowledge of faculties of different everytime.
fields. The best faculty is used by more 2. Not suitable for teaching every
students. subject.
3. Proper use of teaching aids and 3. Requires time for scheduling and
equipments. planning

TV or Video Presentation
Television or video presentation is an improved presentation of radio or audio presentation and it
can virtually bring the whole world inside the classroom. Screening of video presentation is followed
by a discussion or task.

Merits Demerits

1. Relatively more interactive and 1. Equipments and network not easily

interesting class available everywhere
2. Better understanding 2. Difficult to adjust complicated
3. Many important personalities and schedule for the telecast.
experts are brought to the classroom throug
video presentation.

Learner-centered methods

Assignments method
The teacher provides students with different assignments on varying topics in order to promote
learning. Although the main role is of the learner, the teacher too has a crucial role. The teacher has
to plan the assignments and guide the student regarding references for collecting relevant
information. The aim is to enhance creativity among students.

Merits Demerits
 1. Promotes creative freedom 1. Learners may end up copying the
2. Helps student to work individually assignments among themselves.

Case Study
In this method, learners are provided with a case study and they must deal with the situation
described in the case as a decision maker. It enhances the problem-solving and creative abilities of
the learner. They become actively involved in the classroom and may lead to innovative solutions by
the learners.

Merits Demerits

1. Opportunity for learners to analyse 1. Teachers should e well trained to

critically examine, evaluate, and express practice this method in classroom.
reasoned opinion. 2. Not applicable for all subjects.
2. Active participation of learners

Computer-Assisted Learning
Computer-Assisted Teaching and Learning is defined as the use of computers or other electronic
device that will effectively help teachers to deliver the contents of a subject either fully or partially
during teaching. It refers to the use of computers in the classroom to ease the learning process.

Merits Demerits

1. Better controlled and more flexible 1. Expensive and impersonal

2. Used for drilling and practicing,
simulation and modeling

Heuristic Method
Prof. Armstrong was the expounder of this learner-centric method. In this method, learners are
asked to solve their problems without any help. A spirit of inquiry is developed among the learners.
The main objective of this method is not to pre-load students with facts of science, mathematics, etc
but to teach them to reach knowledge by themselves. It is also called Trial and Error method.

Merits Demerits

1. Self-learning approach 1. Little focus on factual knowledge

Open Learning
The term " open learning " is used to describe learning situations in which learners have the
flexibility to choose from a variety of options in relation to the time, place, instructional methods,
modes of access, and other factors related to their learning processes. For open learning, the
learning packages are to be developed, making use of multimedia. There are minimal or no
restrictions on admissions. Regular class attendance is not important.

Merits Demerits

1. Flexible to the needs to learners 1. Not suitable for subjects of highly

changing nature.
2. Not suitable for achieving
psychomotor and affective learning
objectives.

Personalised system of Instruction

Personalised System of Instruction(PSI) is a system which promotes learners to manage and take
control of their own learning. PSI was originally designed as a classroom-based method of
instruction with the intention of improving student achievement and, at the same time, replacing
the long tradition of punishment in education with the use of positive consequences for learning. PSI
has five defining features:
1. Stress on written word
2. Unit mastery requirement
3. Student self pacing
4. Use of proctors
5. Lectures and demonstrations as motivational devices

Merits Demerits

1. Promotes self learning 1. Not suitable for subjects of highly

2. Based on mastery learning changing nature.
2. Not suitable for achieving
psychomotor and effective learning
objectives.

Differences in Teacher-centered and Learner-centered Methods

Teacher-centered methods Learner-centered methods

 1. Teacher is the dominant figure 1. Students are the main focus point
2. Students are passive learner 2. Students are actively involved
3. Less flexibilty 3. More flexible
4. Students can not work in groups 4. Students can work in groups
5. Teacher constantly monitors the 5. Teacher does not monitors
students and their progress throughout, students can learn on their ow
6. Teacher chooses Topic, study 6. Learners have a choice in the
material, and Learner have no choice in it. selection of study materials
7. Flows from teacher to learner, 7. More than one way of flow of
one-way communication knowledge, promotes two-way
8. Large group methods communication
8. Individualised methods

Mixed-group teaching methods

Group Discussion (GD)

Group discussion is a teaching strategy, in which students are divided into groups and they are
encouraged to discuss on the subject matter given. Group discussion is dominated by the teacher.
Classroom climate is democratic. Teacher supervises them and provide guidance to make the
discussion fruitful.This teaching strategy is focused to achieve higher order of cognitive objectives
and affecting objectives. The strategy is based on the following principles.

1. Principles of active participation

2. Principle of learning by listening

There are two types of Discussions

1. Classroom Discussion
This is an informal method of discussion with the class. If the class is not too large, sometimes the
teacher may select a particular topic with the whole class participating as one group. In this
situation, the teacher acts as a leader, they present the topic guides and directs the discussion. At
times, a student may take the role of a leader. The leader usually notes down the main points on the
blackboard or may ask one of the students to do this. He or she also assists the group in summing
up.
2. Formal Group Discussion
Formal group discussion is comprised of small group discussion followed by large group discussion. It
is desirable when the number of students is more or when it is desirable to discuss several aspects of
a topic. To start with the discussion, the teacher may act as the chairman. He or she introduces the
topic for discussion and explains the objectives of discussion. He or she helps the students get
organized into 3 to 5 small groups. Each group selects a leader and a recorder. Each sub-group (small
group) discusses the topic. The leader initiates, coordinates and controls the group discussion. The
recorder notes down the discussion points. The teacher acts as a facilitator and a resource person.
She is available to assist groups as required. At the end of allotted time (not more than 30 minutes),
all the groups reassemble as large group. The leader or the recorder of each small group presents
the report; and the teacher then leads the general discussion, clarifies points and finally sums up.
Group discussion can be of the following types as well:
1. Planned: There is certainty about the conclusions and objectives. The discussion is guided by the
trainer in an appropriate sequence.
2. Partly planned: Here, the concluding and opening statements are known, but the discussions
inbetween is not directed or very loosely guided.
3. Unplanned: The topic presented for discussion is without any opening statement and the
discussion that follows is entirely spontaneous without any guidance from the trainer.

Merits Demerits

1. Creating a pool of knowledge, ideas 1. Discussion may go off-track because

and feelings of all the learners and then of unnecessary arguments
integrations of these. 2. Domination of session by few
2. Promoting team spirit students
3. Suitable for developing oral and 3. Requires time, efforts, and resource
non-verbal communication 4. Not suitable for all topics
4. Stimulating thinking process

Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a strategy where Group members produce a large number of ideas quickly on a
given topic or problem. Brainstorming is a problem-solving activity where students build on or
develop higher order thinking skills. Brainstorming encourages students to think creatively (out of
the box), encouraging all students to share their ideas, no matter how far “out there” they may
seem. Spontaneity is the hallmark of brainstorming sessions. Several rounds of brainstorming are
conducted till all the ideas are exhausted. Participants are then asked to evaluate all ideas and list
the best one.

Merits Demerits

1. Economical 1. Some learners hesitate to participat

2. Suitable for large participation 2. Not suitable for every subject or top
3. Promotes creative thinking

Project Method
Project method is based on the philosophy of Pragmatism which endorses the principle of ‘Learning
by Doing’. This can be described as both a small group and an individualized instruction. In this
method, the students are allowed to explore and experience their environment through their senses
and direct their own learning by their individual interests. Very little is taught from the textbooks and
the emphasis is on experiential learning rather than rote learning and memorization. A project
method classroom focuses on democracy and collaboration to solve purposeful problems.
 Merits Demerits

1. Teamwork helps develop team spiri 1. Requirement of extra resources

2. Teacher only plays a facilitative role 2. Constant monitoring by the teacher
and students have a higher degree of required
freedom
3. Development of creative thinking

Role Playing
In Role playing, students are asked to assume the role of any person or act out in a given situation.
Role plays engage students in real-life situations or scenarios that can be “stressful, unfamiliar,
complex, or controversial” which requires them to examine personal feelings toward others and their
circumstances (Bonwell & Eison, 1991, p.47). Role playing has also been used to facilitate
subjectmatter learning through the dramatization of literary and historical works and historical or
current events.

Merits Demerits

1. Develops social, decision-making, 1. More resources are used

problem-solving, negotiating and 2. Complex real life situations
manipulating skills.
2. Immediate feedback
3. Increased participation by learners
4. resemblance to real-life situations

Tutorials
Tutorial method is a method employed for teaching small groups for developing skills for solving
numerical problems, providing individual guidance and sorting personal problems. It is appropriate
for taking care of individual differences and guiding the students as per their needs, mastery,
learning, comprehending concepts, principles and their applications and for remedial exercises.

Merits Demerits

1. Compliments and supplements 1. Time consuming

theory sessions 2. Difficult to find a suitable pace if the
2. Better control over pace of learning trainees vary greatly in ability
process
Simulation
Educational simulation is a teaching method which tries to tests participants’ knowledge and skill
levels by placing them in scenarios which are similar to real-life situations where they must actively
solve problems. For example, the training of pilots and astronauts takes place in conditions that are
quite similar to actual flight conditions. Simulation is specifically used for training purpose.

Merits Demerits

1. They are economical in the long run 1. It entails high initial investment in
2. Safety aspects are taken care of. machinery equipment, etc.

Seminar
It is a type of group discussion where one trainee or several, prepare a paper on a given topic, issue
or problem, which is then presented to the whole group for discussion and analysis. A series of
seminars can be presented by the trainees around a major topic, so that they form a linked series of
discussions. The main stages in seminar are preparation of paper, presentation of paper and
discussion on it. Seminars can be bigger ones also.

Merits Demerits

1. Opportunity for learner towards 1. Time consuming

practical group leadership 2. Demands a group of trainees with
2. Use and development of analytical, fairly high-level of attainment.
presentation, and research skills
3. More freedom and independence

Panel Discussion
In this method, a selected group of students act as a panel and the rest act as audience. A panel
consists of a small group of six to eight people. They carry on a guided and informal discussion
before an audience. For example, a panel discussion takes place on the issue of climate change. The
leader must, in addition, take special care to select the panel members who can think and speak
effectively. He must also be sure that they prepare themselves to discuss the subject.

Merits Demerits

1. More interesting for the audience 1. No active participation of audience

than the single speaker forum. learners
2. Discussions on socially relevant issu 2. Bringing multiple experts to a single
form can be a difficult task
Demonstration Method
It is a method where the subject matter is taught with the help of audio-visual aids. It is adopted in
the classroom for the achievement of cognitive, affective and psychomotor objectives. This method
is based on the principle of learning by doing and learning from concrete to abstract. Demonstration
can be defined as a combination of verbal explanation coupled with a live display of using apparatus
for presenting important facts, ideas, or processes.

Merits Demerits

1. Useful for explaining abstract 1. Not all learners get to participate in

concepts. the experiments.
2. Attainment of cognitive, affective,
and psychomotor domain.

Gagne’s 9 Events of Instructions

In 1965, Robert Gagne proposed a series of events that are required for effective learning.
1. gain attention- present introductory activity to engage learners
2. inform leaners of objectives- give learner the objectives of the class
3. stimulate recall of prior learning- present an experience that stimulates memory of prior
learning
4. present stimulus- deliver content
5. provide learner guidance- give learner example
6. elicit performance- give practical activities
7. provide feedback- feedback should be immediate, specific and corrective
8. assess performance- present learners with post-assessment items
9. enhance retention and transfer- give resources that enhance retention and facilitate
transfer of knowledge

ONLINE METHODS OF TEACHING

Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)

A massive open online course (MOOC) is a model for delivering learning content online to any person
who wants to take a course, with no limit on attendance. MOOCs were first started in 2008 by
George Siemens and Stephen Downs. It was called as “Connectivism and Connective Knowledge
2008.”
MOOCs have become a popular avenue for diverse learners to upgrade their knowledge and skills.
Instructors who are new to creating MOOCs tend to focus on the use of technology features to
mimic their classroom actions. While it is necessary to be aware of the technology affordances, it is
more important to focus on the pedagogy of how to use the MOOC features effectively to foster
student engagement and learning. Hence MOOC instructors need a set of design principles and
guidelines to create a learner-centric MOOC.
India has become the second largest user of MOOCs after USA. Private houses, and also by
government with the help of NPTEL and IITs in India run MOOCs.
The following feature is mostly adopted for MOOC courses:
1. Course format
2. Learning model
3. Number of courses
4. Number of users
5. Platform language
6. Mobile app
7. App platform
MOOCs are further divided into two categories:
1. cMOOCs
2. xMOOCs

cMOOCs
They allow for dynamic development of study material. It means that the course material is not
pre-planned or organised, instead; it is decided with the help of learners from across the globe
through online discussions and collaboration.

xMOOCs
It follows a conventional approach, where the courses and their study material is pre-planned and
well organised, the reading and reference materials are pre-selected.

Pedagogical benefits of MOOC characteristics

● Online mode of delivery- Efficacy of online learning
● Online quizzes and assessments- Retrieval learning
● Short videos and quizzes- Mastery learning
● Peer and self-assessment- Enhanced learning through this assessment
● Short videos- Enhanced attention and focus
● Online forums- Peer assistance, out-of-band learning

MOOC platforms in India

The main objective is to provide open resources in terms of repositories, libraries, educational media
files, e-books, etc and make them accessible to all through technology as mentioned below:
1. IGNOU’s National Digital Repositories
2. Sakshat providing e-content
3. CBSE’s Sishya for XI-XII standards
4. Vidya Vahini integrating IT into the curriculum of rural schools.
5. Educational and Research Network (ERNET) connecting various colleges and schools by
providing network connectivity.
6. EDUSAT- a satellite launched for education in India.
7. Consortium for Educational Communication (CEC)- the use of TV
8. Information and Library Network Centre (INFLIBINET)- autonomous Inter-University Centre
for connecting university libraries.
9. e-PG pathshala for postgraduate courses- it is managed by INFLIBINET of UGC.

Process of MOOC courses

1. Choose the Platform- A MOOC platform should be useful, consistent, and credible. There are
multiple of platforms such as:
a. NPTEL
b. mooKIT
c. IITBX
d. SWAYAM
2. Create an Account
3. Decide how we want to Learn- There are three types of courses:
a. Audited courses
b. Certified courses
c. Specialised courses
4. Enrolling in the MOOC
5. Complete the course

Important MOOC Linked Institutions

National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)

NPTEL (National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning), is a joint venture of the IITs and IISc,
funded by the Ministry of Education (MoE) Government of India, and was launched in 2003. Initially
started as a project to take quality education to all corners of the country, NPTEL now offers close to
600+ courses for certification every semester in about 22 disciplines.
NPTEL began offering open online courses in March 2014. It is now possible for ANYONE outside the
IIT System to be able to do an online certification course from NPTEL and get a certificate from the
IITs. IITs are reaching out and taking education to the homes of people through this initiative.
NPTEL is the single largest repository of technical courses through video format and with text
meta-data for videos, text transcription and subtitling.

mooKIT
mooKIT is an open-source MOOC Management software designed and developed at IIT Kanpur.
mooKIT is a system that instructors, learners, and system administrators find easy to work with -
designed for “Internet Novices”. It has been used in more than 60 courses so far in India and abroad.
It offers four types of solution based on the requirements:
1. mooKIT standard- used to run a single course, even Youtube videos can be used.
2. mooKIT Enterprise- suitable to run a large number of online courses.
3. mooKIT Replicated- suitable for low bandwidth area, by allowing the content to be cached
on local servers.
4. mooKIT personal or Mobi-mooKIT- can run on devices with low computation and low
storage capabilities.
IIT-BombayX
IITBombayX is an online platform developed by IIT Bombay, to offer Massive Open Online Courses
(MOOCs) for individuals from varying backgrounds. We specialise in Hybrid MOOCs which captures
the benefits of flipped classrooms, online lectures, and live interactions with the IITBombayX course
instructors.
IITBombayX offers four different types of MOOCs for various learning needs.
1. EduMOOCs- EduMOOC is targeted for learners wishing to enhance their academic
knowledge in different fields of study. These MOOCs are mainly IIT Bombay extension
courses, and are taught with the same rigour as those running on the campus.
2. SkillMOOCs- SkillMOOC effectively trains individuals in their on-the-job skills, with a
primary focus on professional development. The learners honing such skills are likely to
succeed by gaining a competitive edge in their profession.
3. TeachMOOCs- TeachMOOC is designed for teachers across the country, to enhance
their teaching skills by introducing them to various pedagogical methodologies.
TeachMOOCs are mostly conducted in a hybrid fashion, where the initial part of learning is
conducted online, followed by face-to-face sessions.
4. LifeMOOCs- LifeMOOC offers courses of short durations for working professionals
and others desiring to pursue life-long learning. Life-long learning is a journey that every
learner seeks to undertake. The purpose of LifeMOOCs is to benefit learners in elevating
their careers. In addition, these MOOCs may well be used as precursors to any other domain
of MOOCs.

Challenges for MOOC in India

Some of the major concerns are:
1. Technological Infrastructure- MOOC needs high speed internet connectivity and there is still
a digital divide present across the country.
2. Investment- Public-private partnerships should be encouraged for creating MOOC in the
country.
3. Diversified needs- India is a country of multiple cultures and language and hence the quality
and availability of content is compromised at certain levels.
4. Adoption of MOOC among learners- Need for improvement of communication skills for
both students and teachers to facilitate adoption of MOOC.
5. Quality- Quality teachers and technical staff is needed to deliver best quality content.

SWAYAM
SWAYAM is a programme initiated by Government of India and designed to achieve the three
cardinal principles of Education Policy viz., access, equity and quality. The objective of this effort is to
take the best teaching learning resources to all, including the most disadvantaged. SWAYAM seeks to
bridge the digital divide for students who have hitherto remained untouched by the digital
revolution and have not been able to join the mainstream of the knowledge economy.
This is done through a platform that facilitates hosting of all the courses, taught in classrooms from
Class 9 till post-graduation to be accessed by anyone, anywhere at any time. All the courses are
interactive, prepared by the best teachers in the country and are available, free of cost to any
learner. More than 1,000 specially chosen faculty and teachers from across the country have
participated in preparing these courses.
The courses hosted on SWAYAM are in 4 quadrants –
1. video lecture,
2. specially prepared reading material that can be downloaded/printed
3. self-assessment tests through tests and quizzes and
4. an online discussion forum for clearing the doubts.
Steps have been taken to enrich the learning experience by using audio-video and multi-media and
state of the art pedagogy / technology.
In order to ensure that best quality content is produced and delivered, nine National Coordinators
have been appointed. They are:
1. AICTE (All India Council for Technical Education) for self-paced and international courses
2. NPTEL (National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning) for Engineering
3. UGC (University Grants Commission) for non technical post-graduation education
4. CEC (Consortium for Educational Communication) for under-graduate education
5. NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training) for school education
6. NIOS (National Institute of Open Schooling) for school education
7. IGNOU (Indira Gandhi National Open University) for out-of-school students
8. IIMB (Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore) for management studies
9. NITTTR (National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and Research) for Teacher Training
programme

Swayam Prabha
The SWAYAM PRABHA is a group of 34 DTH channels devoted to telecasting of high-quality educational
programmes on 24X7 basis using the GSAT-15 satellite. Every day, there will be new content for at least (4)
hours which would be repeated 5 more times in a day, allowing the students to choose the time of their
convenience. The channels are uplinked from BISAG-N, Gandhinagar. The contents are provided by NPTEL, IITs,
UGC, CEC, IGNOU. The INFLIBNET Centre maintains the web portal.
The DTH Channels shall cover the following:

● Higher Education: Curriculum-based course contents at post-graduate and under-graduate

level covering diverse disciplines such as arts, science, commerce, performing arts, social sciences
and humanities, engineering, technology, law, medicine, agriculture, etc. All courses would be
certification-ready in their detailed offering through SWAYAM, the platform being developed for
offering MOOCs courses.
● Curriculum-based courses that can meet the needs of life-long learners of Indian citizens in
India and abroad.
Teaching Support Systems

Traditional teaching support systems

Traditional is basically teacher centered instruction that reflects educational essentialism and
education perennialism.
In traditional approach, memorization of facts, objective information; correct knowledge is
paramount. Traditional approach aims at high test scores, grades and ultimately degrees. Subjects
are individual and independent. In traditional methods, students matched by age, ability etc, while
modern and possibly also by ability. Traditional method has direct instruction and lectures,
seatwork. Here, students learn through listening and observation. The teacher relies on textbooks,
lectures, and individual written assignments etc. In traditional approach, presentation and testing
methods favor students who have prior exposure to the material or exposure in multiple contexts.
Tools used in Traditional Teaching aids:
● Blackboards
● Textbooks
● Charts
● Images and posters
● Maps & atlas, globes
● Flash cards, flip cards
● Science lab apparatus, models
● Workbook
● Drawing books
● Dictionary, encyclopedia
Merits and Demerits of Traditional Teaching Support Systems
Traditional methods of teaching that are still being adhered in the schools, it has more interaction
between teachers and students. Traditional methods help in building in discipline in the classroom.
There is a lack of collaboration and group learning in traditional methods. There is more emphasis on
examinations and results rather than understanding of concepts.

Modern Teaching Support Systems

Modern is students’ centric approach that reflects educational progressivism. In modern approach,
understanding the facts, Application of facts, Analysis, Evaluation, Innovation; Critical thinking is
paramount. Modern approach aims at Learning, retention, accumulation of valuable knowledge &
skills. Subjects are integrated and multidisciplinary. In modern approach, students match by interest
or ability for each project or subject. It can be multiage also. In modern teaching, practicality,
discoveries, group activities are the main pillars. Focus is on Internet, library and outside experts. In
Modern approach, context learning integrates personal knowledge within the school environment.
Tools used in Modern Teaching aids:
● Computers
● Internet surfing
● Laptops
● Electronic notebooks
● E-readers
● Online dictionaries
● Audio-video teaching aids
● PowerPoint slides
● Educational CDs and DVDs
● Projectors
● Interactive whiteboards
Merits and demerits of Modern Teaching Support Systems
Interactive and collaborative learning process with more interest among the students with the help
of interesting group activity. Modern teaching methods can cover more syllabus and lesser time.
Lots of audio-visual recording and online contents help the students to understand the subject
better and also help students to memorize the concept for longer time. These methods can
adversely affect the eyes of the students. Less integration with teachers.

ICT Based teaching support systems

ICT based teaching support is an approach to facilitate and enhance learning through, and based on,
both computer and communication technology. It refers to the use of computer-based electronic
technologies of internet, e-mail, websites and CD-ROMS to deliver, facilitate and enhance both
formal and informal learning and knowledge sharing from any place at any time. The communication
devices can also include digital television, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and mobile phones. ICT
based learning is also called Computer-Based Training (CBT). Generally, CBT and e-learning are
treated as synonyms, but CBT is the older term dating from the 1980s. The term ICT evolved from
CBT along with the maturation of the internet, CDs and DVDs. It includes Internet-based Learning,
Web-based Learning and Online Learning.
ICT is significant in many ways.
● It enables flexible learning where just-in-time, effective and efficient learning.
● The pace is determined by the learner.
● ICT facilitates collaborative internet and web-based learning opportunities to the learners.
● ICT supports distance learning with wide area networks (WAN) and by creating multimedia
CD-ROMs or websites.
In ICT teaching methods, there is advantage of having hyperlinking. There are interactive parts that
illustrate difficult things. Here doing some exercises is also possible; It allows a wider range of
learning experiences, such as there is educational animation to online learners. It also imparts
e-training through the asynchronous and synchronous communication modes. Thus, it permits
learners the convenience of flexibility. Learners may look at many other options to learn.
Specialized training is rendered through customized software, which addresses the particular needs
of the clientele mostly through the synchronous mode on a dedicated broadband internet
connectivity.Equally, it also renders training to the learners through the generic software displaying
universal contents in asynchronous mode to the learners through a shared network with limited
internet access or on World Wide Web; and enhances teaching by professional development of
teachers through training on usage of ICT in education.
World Links enables the teachers to integrate technology into teaching and thus create dynamic
student-centered learning environment in classrooms.
The faculties can also interact with their peer groups in the world and exchange ideas and notes on
the subject.
ICT is a planned effort towards providing interactive and experiential learning;
● flexibility in terms of time, place and pace;
● participation and accessibility;
● expertise and qualitative subject matter;
● best resource at the learners’ doorsteps and personalized training; and
● centres round the trainees.

LEARNING
According to Smith (1962),‘learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or
weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience’. It means, instead of change in existing
behaviour or acquisition of new behaviour, learning may also result in discontinuance or
abandonment of existing behaviour. This ‘unlearning’ is also learning in itself.
According to Fagin (1958), learning is a sequence of mental events or conditions leading to changes
in learner.

Learning mainly involves three aspects, namely

● some relatively permanent change in the learner’s behaviour,
● the change may be in the potential rather than necessarily in the actual performance, and
● the change must come about as a result of experience.

Elements of Learning Event

The main components of learning events are:
1. Learner- The leaner must interpret the stimulus, differentiate, and combine them and give
them some meaning
2. Stimulus- Any stimulus or set of stimuli to which the learner is sensitive can become a part
of his learning situation.
3. The internal conditions of the learner- These are perception, cognitive structure,
self-concept, attitude, needs, motives, intelligence, previous learning, etc.
4. Response- Any action or reaction to a learning situation.

Main steps in Learning Process

Steps of the learning process are as follows:
1. Reception- Gaining attention by making some abrupt changes in stimuli or stimulus
2. Expectancy- Informing learners of the objective and what they will be able to do after
learning.
3. Retrieval to working memory- Stimulating recall of prior knowledge
4. Selective perception- Displaying contents with distinct features
5. Semantic encoding- Learning guidance
6. Responding- Asking learner to perform
7. Reinforcement- Providing feedback to the learner
8. Retrieval and reinforcement- Additional performance by learner and it entails feedback also.
9. Generalisation- More practice of varied problems so as to increase retention.

Important Learning Theories

If we look back, we can see that the concept of learning has not been the same throughout for the
last 100 years. Three schools of thought have been found prevailing during these years. These
schools are
1. behaviourist school of thought,
2. cognitive school of thought, and
3. constructivist school of thought.

Behaviourist School of Thought

The school of thought that remained dominant in the first half of the twentieth century was that of
the behaviourism. The behaviourists gave focus only to those behaviours that can be observed and
measured. They believed that learning is nothing but a stimulus response reinforcement process.
When learners respond to the stimulus, if they are reinforced, their responses would get
strengthened. So the behaviourists believed that learning is a response strengthening process. For
example, when a teacher asks student a question in Environmental Sciences and the student
responds correctly, then he/she rewards the student by saying ‘excellent’ or ‘very good’. This acts as
reinforcement to the student’s response, which gets strengthened.
The Behaviourist have put forward three main laws of learning

1. Law of Effect
The law of effect gives importance to the effect of any response. Positive results reinforces the
response, while negative results weakens the response. Rewards and punishments are therefore
important ingredients of learning.

2. Law of Readiness
This law indicates the readiness of a learner or students’s willingness to make Stimulus-Response
connection.

3. Law of Exercise
The law of the exercise relates to strengthening the connection through practice.

Cognitivist School of Thought

The cognitivists believed that every subject (discipline) has a structure and when information is
presented in an organized manner through lecture or demonstration, learners would acquire
knowledge and skills. The cognitivists believed that learning is nothing but acquisition, assimilation
and accommodation of knowledge and skills in the cognitive structure.
There are three main cognitivist theories

Stages of Cognitivist Development by Jean Piaget

Sensory motor stage
This stage consists from birth to 18-24 months old child. Focuses on motor activities without use of
symbols. All things are learned on experience, or trial and error basis. Understanding Object
permanence is the goal.
Pre-operational stage
This stage consists of 2 to 7 years old children. There is development of language, memory, and
imagination. Intelligence is both egocentric and intuitive. Goal is developing Symbolic thought.
Concrete operational stage
This stage consists of 7 to 11 years old children. There is more logical and methodical manipulation
of symbols. Children become less egocentric and more aware of the outside world and events. Goal
is developing Operational thought.
Formal Operational stage
This stage extends from adolescence to adulthood. There is a use of symbols to relate abstract
concepts. Learners are able to make hypothesis and grasp abstract concepts and relationships.

Insight Theory of Kohler

Insight learning is the abrupt realization of a problem's solution. It is a completely cognitive
experience that requires the ability to visualise the problem and the solution internally, in the mind’s
eye, before initiating a behavioural response.

Gardener’s Multiple Intelligence Theory

He argues that students might have multiple types of intelligence. He proposed seven abilities that
we need to meet these criteria.
1. Musical
2. Visual-Spatial
3. Verbal-Linguistic
4. Logical-Mathematical
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal

Constructivist School of Thought

The constructivists believe that learning is not that passive as the behaviourists think. They began to
consider learning as personal and that everyone constructs his or her own knowledge and skills as a
result of undergoing experiences. The knowledge the learner gets from experience and the prior
knowledge he has related to it, gets integrated and as a result, new knowledge and skills are
constructed. So constructivists believe that learning is nothing but construction of knowledge and
skills as a result of undergoing new experiences.

Vygotsky Constructivist Theory

His theory states that knowledge is co-constructed and that individuals learn from one another. It is
called a social constructivist theory because as per Vygotsky, the learner must be engaged in the
learning process being intrinsically motivated.
Social Competence- ability to handle interactions affectively. It refers to getting along with the
others, being able to form and maintain close relationships, and responding in adaptive ways in
social settings.

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development

The zone of proximal development refers to the different between what a learner can do without
help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
“proximal” refers to those skills that the learner is “close” to mastering.

Progressive Education by John Dewey

Dewey emphasizes on the need to ‘learn by doing’. He believed that Human beings learn through a
‘hands-on approach’. From Dewey’s point of view, Pragmatism means that students must interact
with their environment in order to adapt and learn. His view of classroom was deeply rooted in
democratic ideals, which promoted equal voice among all participants in the learning experience.

Principles of Learning

1. Principle of Association
Learning is a continuous process and so a teacher must start teaching their students after
understanding their state of mind and capacity. The learning is better if it can be linked with those
already known to the community. This helps in better development of ideas.

2. Principle of Clarity
Objectives of teaching and learning should be clear to the teacher and the learner. Practice should
be continuously evaluated and redirected.

3. Principle of Self Activity

It is understood that the Learning is most effective if it engages the maximum number of senses.

4. Principle of Rewards
Learning must be challenging and satisfying as well. Rewards are believed to reinforce the positive
behaviours towards learning.

5. Principle of Practice
Learning should always result in functional understanding of facts.
6. Principle of Nurturing Environment
Both Physical and social environment must be conducive to the learning process

7. Principle of Variable Learning Ability

There are differences in learning abilities among learners, like some may be slow learner and some
may be fast learners. Learning should be, thus, depend upon communication and variable learning
ability

8. Principle of Multiple Exposure

Using a combination of teaching methods, our teaching will have a cumulative effect on the learners.
The percentages of learning and adoption will be higher with multiple exposures.

9. Principle of Learning Capacity

The rate of learning declines at the rate of about one percent a year after the age of 35. The main
reasons attributed for this decline are physical problems, low external motivation, habits and the
impacts of a particular ideology.

10. Principle of Active Process

Some practices are always required as learning is an individual or personal choice. Audio-visual aids
may also help.

11. Principle of Theory and Practice

The ‘why’ and ‘how’ of an idea are explained by theory. So a teacher should balance theory and
practice for better learning by the learners.

12. Principle of Effective Communication

Better learning can be achieved by integrating suitable audio-visual aids in the teaching-learning
process.

Learning Methods
Apart from teaching, some of the ways how children learn have been explained below:

1. Imitation-
Young children are often seen imitating their parents. Even adults do imitations of other people.
People with relatively less confidence or attractive personality tend to imitate people who are more
confident in their personalities. With practice and passage of time, they also become confident or
assertive.

2. Observation-
Observation is another interesting way to learn. We generally tend to observe our bosses and
leaders to learn about certain social behaviours.
3. Experience-
After we undergo certain experiences, we reflect on to them and learn a lot and apply those
learnings in the future. Thus, experiences are always a great source of learning.

4. Teaching-
The teachers select a topic, subject it to content and task analysis, and expose students to the topic
through lectures. The student listen to the lecture and as a result, both teacher and students learn.

5. Instruction-
Instruction is usually concerned with physical settings rather than cognitive skills. Usually the system
involves demonstration with supporting explanation. As a result, the learners acquire knowledge and
skills.

6. Trial and Error-

When a person is faced with a problem, trial and error method comes in. S/he tries multiple options
not knowing which one is the correct one, after multiple hits and trials finally one option works. This
is how we learn in many of our day-to-day experiences.

7. Reflection-
This method has the tendency to consider and deliberate the alternate solutions to problems.
Conversely, an impulsive person tends to respond spontaneously without deliberation, especially in
case of uncertain situations. The reflective person uses cognitive powers to make sense of things
that he or she is required to do.

8. Experimentation-
To know the reality or a situation when in doubt, relying on intuition is not a wise option. If we
choose to conduct an experiment, we can certainly arrive at the reality. And in this course, we learn
several things.

9. Questioning-
Questioning is a good technique to learn. In theory, the perfect convergent (close-ended) question
would have only one answer, and the perfect divergent (open-ended) question would have infinite
answers. Questions can be factual, explanatory, analysing, hypothetical, decisoonal, and so on.

Characteristics of Learning

Development of Knowledge
Studies carried out by cognitive psychologists like Bruner and Ausubel found that each discipline has
a structure consisting of key concepts that define the discipline. They argued that when knowledge is
organized systematically and presented to students using expository methods such as lecture or
demonstration, they will understand it easily. Expository methods are those methods through which
learning experiences are presented to learners by teacher in finite form.
Learners are to receive learning experiences from the teacher as presented by him/her. If the
content is organized logically, they easily fall into patterns. It is these patterns that give meaning.
What is meaningful is easily understood and as a result, it is easily internalized and retained by
learners.
Only when they have picked up critical thinking ability (analysis), creative thinking ability (synthesis),
and evaluative thinking ability, the learner will be able to make decisions, solve problems and handle
tasks with ease and efficiency.

Development of Skill
A skill is a learned activity that one develops through practice and reflection. To be skilled is to be
able to perform a learned activity well and at will. Each skill may consist of a number of sub-skills. It
is these component skills that make up the overall skill. Lack of mastery in one of the sub-skills can
affect what would otherwise be a good performance.
Skill, as an ability to perform something, includes proficiency, competence, and expertise in the
activity. Skill refers to learning of psycho-motor behaviours required in activities like riding a bicycle,
driving a car, swinging a tennis racket or even something like tying a shoe lace.
These stages are as follows:
1. Cognitive Stage (following directions guided by declarative knowledge).
2. Associative Stage (combining individual steps into larger units)
3. Automated Stage (where the whole procedure can be accomplished without much
attention).
Although learning a new skill involves conscious attention, skill performance later become
unconscious and relies on nondeclarative memory.

Development of Attitudes
Attitude is a mental state held by an individual which affects the way that person responds to events
and organizes responses. Attitudes are commonly held to have three essential components or
dimensions:
1. a cognitive dimension involving the beliefs and rationalizations which explains the holding of
the attitudes,
2. an affective dimension involving the emotional aspects of attitude such as likes, dislikes,
feeling of distaste, and
3. a conative or behavioural dimension which involves the extent to which the individual are
prepared to act on the attitude that they hold.

Learner’s Response to Learning

Singh and Sharma (1987) have suggested five component behaviours of the skill for managing
students' responses.
1. Prompting (when no answer/response): The teacher can give clues, hints, a partial
answer, etc. to the students. Clues given for a correct answer are known as prompts.
2. Redirection: This behaviour is applied when no answer or wrong answer or incorrect
answer is given by a student. The question is directed to a number of students. Through redirection,
teacher can ensure greater participation, more time to think and brainstorming situation for the
students.
3. Seeking further information: This behaviour is applied when a student gives incomplete
or partially correct answer. The teacher tries to help the student to clarify hi/her response.
Additional information related to a question or answer can be asked to ensure whether a student
has properly understood the ideal concept or not.
4. Refocusing: This behaviour is used when the students' answer is correct. A student can be
asked to relate knowledge gained in similar or new situations. It will provide an opportunity to think
about the application of the acquired knowledge.
5. Increasing critical awareness: This behaviour is also used when a student gives the
correct answer. In such a situation, the teacher puts higher order questions in order to increase
critical thinking or awareness among ' students.

LEARNER’S CHARACTERISTICS

On the basis of personal and social attributes

They help in planning instructional objectives as it may reveal physical characteristics that are
relevant to training or instructional decisions. The social factors may include the following:
● age and maturity level
● Motivation and attitude towards the subject
● expectations and vocational aspirations
● special talents
● mechanical dexterity
● ability to work under various environmental conditions

Field independent versus field dependent

‘Field’ here means context or surroundings. Some people are more and some less influenced by the
context when performing a skill or learning. Field-independent learners tend to rely less on the
teacher or other learners for support field independent learners perceive analytically. They see
objects separately from the surrounding field, they prefer to work in self structured situation and
have self-defined goals. In the classroom activities such as extensive reading and writing, which
learners can carry out alone are useful for field independent learners.
On the other hand, Field-dependent learners often work well in teams as they tend to be better at
interpersonal relationships. They perceived globally. They prefer to work in existing structure or
context, they require externally defined goals and reinforcements and are more aware of their
surroundings. In classroom, activities that connect different parts of a lesson are useful for field
dependent learners. For example, learners can discuss what they know about a topic, predict
content or look at and listen to related materials.

Reflectivity and impulsivity

When question is posed, some students take long time to respond while others are quick in
response. The speed with which the respondents make a response to the task and number of errors
they make is termed as conceptual tempo.
Those students who respond quickly and make a fair number of mistakes are said to have a fast
conceptual tempo. They are said to possess impulsive style of learning. Learners who are slow in
response and tend to make fewer mistakes are called reflective. In Problem-solving situations, the
impulsive learner collects less data, they are less systematic and does not look for alternative
solutions. Reflective learner spends more time collecting information and analyzing the data before
offering a response.

Classroom based learning Styles

Learning styles are traits that refer to how learners receive and process information. Next time

1. Visual Learners
They learn easily and are better through sight. Brightness, size, color, distance, clarity, frame and
symmetry are important to visual learners. Visual learners must see so that they may learn easily.
Visual learners may be categorized as verbalists (they see word and letters) or imagists (they see
images, i.e., pictures).

2. Auditory Learners
They acquire information through sound. Various aspects of sound, for example, pitch, volume,
tempo, rhythm, resonance is important for auditory learners. Auditory learners may be Aural (they
learn by listening to others) or oral (they learn by talking and hearing themselves).

3. Motor learners
Motor activity. Various aspects of action, for example, frequency, duration, intensity, pressure, etc.,
are important for them. Motor learners can be kinesthetic (they learn through the use of gross
motor muscles) or (they use fine motor muscles to support their learning).

Learner characteristics on the basis of listening skills

Listening is an important skill and there are four types of listening styles, which are as folows:

1. Active Listening
It is listening with purpose.

2. Empathetic Listening
It is a form of active listening in which you attempt to understand the other person.

3. Evaluative or Critical Listening

In this type, the listener evaluates the accuracy, meaningfulness and utility of speaker’s message.

4. Appreciative Listening
Listening for enjoyment involves seeking situations involving relaxing, fun or emotionally stimulating
information.

Learner characteristics on the basis of thinking styles

There are different thinking styles of learners, which are mentioned below
1. Reflective Thinkers
● View new information with respect to the subject.
● Relate new information to the past experiences.
● Always ask ‘why’?
● Examine their feelings about what they are learning.

2. Creative Thinkers
● Like to play with new information.
● Always ask ‘why’?
● Create their own solutions and shortcuts.

3. Practical Thinkers
● Always look for factual information.
● Seek the simplest and the most efficient way to do their work.
● Not satisfied until they know how to apply their new skills to their job or other interest.

4. Conceptual Thinkers
● Accept new information only after seeing the big picture.
● Want to know how things work, not just the final outcome.
● Learn the concepts that are presented but also want to know their related concepts that
may not have been included.

Academic, Social, Emotional and Cognitive Characteristics

Learner characteristics can be personal, academic, social/emotional and/or cognitive in nature.
Personal characteristics often relate to demographic information such as age, gender, maturation,
language, social economic status, cultural background, and specific needs of a learner group such as
particular skills and disabilities for and/or impairments to learning.
Academic characteristics are more education and/or learning related such as learning goals (of an
individual or a group), prior knowledge, educational type, and educational level.
Social/emotional characteristics relate to the group or to the individual with respect to the group.
Examples of social/emotional characteristics are group structure, place of the individual within a
group, sociability, self-image (also feelings of self-efficacy and agency), mood, et cetera.
Finally, cognitive characteristics relate to such things as attention span, memory, mental procedures,
and intellectual skills which determine how the learner perceives, remembers, thinks, solves
problems, organizes and represents information in her/his brain.

TYPES OF LEARNERS

Adolescence Learners
Adolescence means ‘to emerge’ to achieve ‘identity’. It is a time for the maturing of mind and
behaviors. It is not an age, but a stage. It is divided into three major stages:
1. Early adolescence: (10 to 12 years) growth hands, feet and later in the limbs. There is
demand for independence and privacy, so chances of conflict.
2. Middle adolescence: (12 to 16 years) there are further bodily and genetic developments,
specifically in girls. Girls develop into personal skills quicker, loyalty and commitment matter more.
The decisions of vocations and education are made. The physical effect of pubertal development
becomes incorporated into the self-image.
3. Late adolescence: (16 to19 years) and transformation towards adulthood. In late
adolescence, career decisions are finally traced. The child gradually returns to the family, on a new
footing.
WHO defines adolescence both in terms of age spanning the ages between 10 and 19 years. Hall
describes adolescence as “storm and stress” period that reflects the unsettling growth period in
modern societies.
Academically, adolescence is the time spent in high schools and early colleges.
Psychologically it is a period of transition, during which cognitive, physical, personality and social
changes occur.
Sociologically, it is a period that fills the gap between dependent childhoods to self-sufficient
adulthood.

A. Academic Achievements
Academic achievement during adolescence is predicted by interpersonal (parental engagement),
intrapersonal (intrinsic motivation), and institutional factors. Malcom Knowles has identified
following characteristics of adult learners.
● More autonomous and self-directed
● Goal-oriented and practical.
● Relevancy-oriented and see a reason for learning something.
● Adults must be shown respect. The adult trainers must acknowledge the wealth of
experiences that adult participants bring to the classroom.
Adults learn voluntarily, they require more time to practice new skills. They have many
responsibilities and have less time to learn. They prefer to learn by participation. As they have own
self-esteem and ego, they evaluate learning in terms of results, and its utility to their life
situations.

B. Social Changes
The cultural aspect of adolescence states that two main aspects:
1. a rapidly widening life
2. an increasing overlapping between the roles of the child and adult.
With fast growth and structural bodily changes, new attitude towards oneself and others, rising
awareness of one’s rights and duties, adolescence is a transitional period. The adolescence is
affected by the following:
● There is search for self-concept or self-identity.
● There is demand for more independence to make decisions.
● They think more about right values and wrong values.
● Peer pressure also increase.
● They communicating in different ways - through internet, cell phones and social media.
Socialisation is affected during this stage.
C. Emotional Changes
Role confusion is an indicator of not successfully meeting the task of adolescence. Adolescents face
problems of morality and being much ambitious.
● They favour freedom and democratic life.
● They like permissive atmosphere so that parents and teachers to be lenient towards them.
● They tend to be rebellious by nature.
● ‘Conscience formation’ takes place during this stage.
Hall says that the major physical changes during this phase cause major psychological changes.
Adolescent years are more important for the formation of personality. According to Erik Erickson
adolescence resolves the conflict of identity vis-à-vis identity confusion. Early puberty and cognitive
changes come with worse outcomes for girls than boys. It impacts decision making controls also. The
emotional changes with the unique combination of genes, brain, environment, experiences, and
culture shape development. There is more self-consciousness about physical appearance and
changes. It is basically an “invincible” stage of thinking and acting. The egoistic needs are in the form
of dominance, achievement, retention, attention, autonomy, acquisition, cognizance and
destruction.

D. Cognitive Development
Cognitive development refers to the mental activities that enable an individual to adjust to the
environment while mental development refers to intelligence, thinking or imagination about the
environment. Piaget mentioned the following stages for cognitive development:
1. Sensory period (0–2 years)
2. Pre-operational period (2–7 years)
3. Concrete operation period (7–11 years)
4. Formal operation period (11–15 years)
The main characteristics displayed here are:
● Systematic analysis of a problem
● Logical approach towards a solution of problem – to move away from rote learning.
● Ability to use higher order structure to solve a problem
● Systematic analysis of a problem
● Moral maturity It has been observed

Adult Learners
Adult education is based on a philosophy called ‘andragogy’ that is art and science of helping adults
learn. The guiding principles of adult learning aim at bringing:
● changes in what people know
● changes in what can do
● changes in what people think
● changes in what people actually do.
Adult learning process may be systematic learning process, be it formal or non-formal or informal,
it may be self-mentored or corporate-sponsored, may be undertaken as fulltime or a part time
learner.
Principles and Characteristics of Adult learning

Difference between Adolescent and Adult learners

Elements Adolescent Learners Adult Learners

FACTORS AFFECTING TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS

Factors related to students

The most important component of the process of teaching-learning is the student. The effectiveness
of the process of teaching-learning depends the most on the student. The main factors related to
student are

1. Age and maturity of the student

It has been seen that as a child proceeds towards maturity from physical and mental viewpoint, the
rate of his learning increases and his level of learning rises.

2. Physical and mental health of the student

A physically and mentally healthy child takes interest in learning and feels less fatigue, so he learns
sooner. On the contrary, a physically unhealthy and suffering from mental ailments (as fear, anxity,
and frustration, etc.) child does not take interest in learning and thus the process of
teaching-learning can not be run smoothly and efficiently.

3. Intelligence, aptitude, attitude, interest, and attention of the students

Generally, a child learns with his conformity with his IQ. Inspite of high IQ if a child does not have
aptitude and attitude for the subject, then he can not learn properly. Besides, a child may have all
the above three but if he does not have interest in it then he would not be able to pay his attention
to it and the teaching-learning process can not be effective. It is clear that all the above factors
affects the teaching-learning process.

4. Level of motivation and will to learn

It is seen that, when a student is not motivated to learn an activity, it is difficult to teach him
anything. The will to learn is necessary along with motivation. The level of his will and motivation
decides the duration of his learning.

5. Level of aspiration
Each individuals desires to attain something at each level of his life, somebody aspires more than his
ability and capability, somebody aspires according to hs ability and capability and somebody aspires
less than his ability and capability, this is called aspiration level in psychological terminology. Because
this decision is taken by the individua; himself, so it functions like self-motivation. It has been seen in
the context of child learning that a child who wants to have higher achievement in the class, his level
of aspiration is higher and he is more active, that is, his aspiration level is higher, all this is helpful in
his learning. Aspiring more than one’s ability and capability and failure to achieve it disappoints him
which obstructs his learning. Aspiration level is acceleratory only when it is according to one’s ability
and capacity.

Factors related to teachers

The second most important component of the process of teaching-learning is the teacher.
1. Personality of the teacher
Personality is a multidimensional concept. A teacher’s personality includes his physical and mental
health, his physical constitution, his speech, his knowledge, his skill of communication and his
behavior with students etc. It has been observed that the more attractive a teacher is, the more
effective is the process of teaching-learning.

2. Knowledge of the teacher

The clearer a teacher is in his knowledge and skill to be taught , the more effective is the process of
teaching-learning.

3. Communicating skill of the teacher

Having knowledge is one thing, and communicating his knowledge properly is another thing. When a
teacher communicate his knowledge and skill in proper way, the teaching-learning process becomes
more effective.

4. Behavior of the teacher towards students

If a teacher behaves with the student with love, sympathy, and cooperation, then the process of
teaching-learning becomes very effective.

Factors related to Curriculum

1. Nature of the subject matter

Nature of the subject matter means its direct and indirect components and its formal and informal
form. A text material can be direct for children of one level and indirect for children of another level.
In the same way, it can be formal for the children of one level and informal for the children of
another level. The direct and formal text material is helpful for effective teach-ing learning process.

2. Organization of the subject-matter

If the text material is organized in a logical sequence i.e. from simple to complex and from direct to
indirect and is presented in that form, the teaching-learning occurs in more proper form.

3. Relation of subject-matter with life

If the subject-matter is related to the level of utility of present and future life of the children, then, it
influences the process of teaching-learning. The more useful a subject-matter is for life, the faster
the children learn it.

4. Difficulty level of subject matter

The subject-matter is neither too difficult nor too easy from the view point of the students, then
teaching-learning is effective. Difficulty level of the subject-matter is determined on the basis of age,
maturity, and related previous knowledge of the students to make teaching-learning process
effective.
Factors related to methods of teaching

1. Suitability of teaching methods

The more suitable teaching method is used for the development of knowledge or skill, the more
effective becomes the process of teaching-learning. Play way method is suitable for infants, learning
by doing method is most suitable for children and adolescents, and experiment, exploration and
reasoning methods are suitable for higher education students.

2. Practice and application

Practice and application are very effective factors. Practice of knowledge and skill by teacher and
application of knowledge and skill by students, makes the learning permanent.

3. Use of teaching aids

The use of teaching aids makes the process of teaching-learning interesting lively, and effective.

4. Use of co-curricular activities

Co-curricular activities play an important role in the teaching of certain subjects and training in
certain skills. For example, poetry recitation, story telling, lecture, debate and dramatization are very
important in learning language skills.

Factors related to environment

1. Natural Environment
The arrangement of pure air, light and less of noise is required at the place of teaching-learning. The
children are fatigue in the absence of these, which has adverse impact on teachinglearning.

2. Social Environment
If children have proper social and educational environment at all places—family ,society,
community, and school, then their teaching-learning process becomes effective. If the environment
of any one of the above place is not favourable, then the process of teaching- learning is less
effective.

3. Time of teaching and Learning

The time is most important factor when the process of teachinglearning is under taken. Morning
time in hot countries and day time in cold countries is favorable. The duration of teaching-learning
has also an great effect on it.

4. Fatigue and rest

It has been observed that fatigue does not allow teachers and students to work properly. So it should
be kept in view while constructing the time table of a school that the difficult subjects are kept
earlier than the easier subjects, an easy subject is kept after one difficult subject and recess in
between.
EVALUATION SYSTEMS

Evaluation
Evaluation is “a systematic process of collecting and analyzing data in order to determine whether,
and to what degree, objectives have been, or are being, achieved (Gay, 1991)”. It leads to decision
making. As a teacher, you should understand that “the purpose of evaluation is to make a judgment
about the quality or worth of something. (Ebel and Frisbie, 1991)”
According to Bebby (1977). evaluation as “the systematic collection and interpretation of evidence
leading as a part of process to a judgment of value with a view of action”. If you analyze this
definition, you can identify four key elements of evaluation as follows:
1. Systematic collection of evidence- implies that whatever information is gathered, should be
acquired in a systematic and planned way with some degree of precision.
2. Its interpretation- Information gathered systematically should be carefully analysed and
interpreted; superficial observations may lead to wrong interpretation.
3. Judgment of value- takes evaluation far behind the level of mere description of what is
happening, but requires judgments about the worth of an endeavor.
4. A view of action- means every decision has a specific reference to action. It may be
conclusion oriented or decision oriented.

Characteristics of Good Evaluation

As a teacher whenever you are involved in the evaluation process, you should ensure that evaluation
should have following characteristics, which are often termed as “elements of a good evaluation”.
These are:
● Validity: A valid evaluation is one which actually tests what is set out to test i.e., one which
actually measures the behaviour described by the objective (s), under scrutiny.
● Reliability: It is a measure of consistency with which the question, test or examination
produces the same result under different but comparable conditions. A reliable evaluation
mechanism is independent of the characteristics of individual evaluator.
● Practicability: Evaluation procedure should be realistic, practical and efficient in terms of
their cost, time taken and ease of application.
● Fairness: Evaluation must be fair for all learners. This can be possible by accurate reflecting
of range of expected behaviors as desired by the course objectives.
● Usefulness: Evaluation should be useful for all learners. Feedback from evaluation must be
made available to learners and help them to prove their current strengths and weaknesses.

Purpose of Evaluation
According to Oguniyi (1984), educational evaluation is carried out from time to time for the following
purposes:
● To determine the relative effectiveness of the programme in terms of students’ behavioural
output. To make reliable decisions about educational planning.
● To ascertain the worth of time, energy and resources invested in a programme.
● To identify students’ growth or lack of growth in acquiring desirable knowledge, skills,
attitudes and societal values.
● To help teachers to determine the effectiveness of their teaching techniques and learning
materials.
● To help motivate students to learn more as they discover their progress or lack of progress in
given tasks.
● To encourage students to develop a sense of discipline and systematic study habits.
● To provide educational administrators with adequate information about teachers’
effectiveness and school need. To acquaint parents or guardians with their children’s performance.
● To identify problems that might hinder or prevent the achievement of set goals.
● To predict the general trend in the development of the teaching-learning process;
● To ensure an economical and efficient management of scarce resources.
● To provide an objective basis for determining the promotion of students from one class to
another as well as the award of certificates.
● To provide a just basis for determining at what level of education the possessor of certificate
should enter a career.

Measurement
“Measurement is a process of assigning numbers to individuals or their characteristics according to
specific rules.” (Eble and Frisbie, 1991, p.25). Gay (1991) further simplified the term as a process of
quantifying the degree to which someone or something possessed a given trait, i.e., quality,
characteristics, or features. You can generalize these definitions as measurement provides a
quantified description of any trait, characteristics, or ability.

Scales of Measurement
Whenever we measure anything, we assign a numerical value. This numerical value is known as scale
of measurement. A scale is a system or scheme for assigning values or scores to the characteristics
being measured (Sattler, 1992). There are mainly four scales of measurement, namely;
1. Nominal Scale-
In nominal scale, a number is assigned for characterizing the attribute of the person or thing. That
caters no order to define the attribute as high-low, more-less, big-small, superior-inferior etc. In
nominal scale, assigning a number is purely an individual matter. It is nothing to do with the group
scores or group measurement. It is therefore, measurement in nominal scale has limited meaning,
even if some experts do not consider it as a measurement. As discussed earlier, any student
achievement related scores (scores in subjects) or other measurement like height, weight, etc. are
the examples of nominal measurement. Statistics such as frequencies, percentages, mode, and
chi-square tests are used in nominal measurement.
2. Ordinal Scale-
Ordinal scale is synonymous to ranking or grading. It includes the characteristics of a nominal scale
and provides an order to the measurement, like; when we know the achievement scores of students
in a group, we can arrange them either in ascending (lowest to highest) or descending (highest to
lowest) order. We can also interpret the result like; who stood first, second, 10th in the group, even
the last one in the group. In ordinal scale, we can use the statistics such as median (measures of
central tendency), quartile and percentile measures, correlation in rank difference method, and
non-parametric tests.
3. Interval Scale-
Interval scale carries all the characteristics of earlier scales like nominal and ordinal and added with
an arbitrary zero point. That is, there is no absolute zero-point or true zero point. In this scale, we
can group the scores into equal intervals like, scores within the intervals of : 0-5; 5-10; 10- 15; 15-20;
20-25; 25-30 etc. This is also called as equal interval scale as the size of the classes are equal, i.e. size
of the class 0-5 is 5; 5-10 is 5; 10-15 is 5; 15-20 is also 5. As there is no absolute zero point in this
measurement and the existing zero value is an arbitrary one, that’s why all types of measurement
done in education and social sciences are usually done by the interval scale. The statistics like mean,
standard deviation, product moment correlation, t-test and f-test can be used in interval scale.
4. Ratio Scale-
Ratio scale is called as the highest scale in measurement. It carries all the characteristics of earlier
discussed scales with a true or absolute zero point. As there is absolute zero point in this
measurement, we can say that zero height means no height. But in the case of interval scale, we can
not say that zero intelligence means no intelligence. All types of measurements conducted in
Physical Sciences such as Physics, Mathematics, etc. are done by ratio scale. Ratio scale are almost
non-existence in psychological and educational measurement except in the case of psycho-physical
measurement. All mathematical applications – addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can
be done in ratio scale. All statistical techniques are permissible with ratio scale.

Assessment
Assessment is “a systematic procedure for collecting information that can be used to make
inferences about the characteristics of people or objects (AERA, et. al., 1999)”. Assessment is
referred as “a process of collecting evidence and making judgments relating to outcomes”. It is said
that assessment has a narrower meaning than evaluation but a broader meaning than
measurement.
Assessment is considered as a part of the teaching-learning process and often categorized as
assessment of learning, assessment for learning and assessment as learning.
Components of Assessment

Relationship between Measurement, Assessment, and Evaluation

Evaluation may be considered as an umbrella term which includes measurement and assessment
In assessment you try to find out, the level of achievement or performance of a learner. But in
evaluation your focus is, how good is the performance or the level of performance. You can say that
evaluation is a process of value judgment. It is also used to refer to the product or outcome of the
process. You can say that “measurement and assessment are the means and evaluation is the end”.
In the process of evaluation, measurement is the first step, assessment comes next and when value
judgment is added to it, it becomes evaluation.

This figure depicts the following :

1. Evaluation = Measurement + Value Judgment
2. Evaluation = Assessment + Value Judgment
3. Evaluation = Measurement + Assessment + Value Judgment
From the above three concepts of evaluation, now it is clear that without value judgment there is no
evaluation.

Functions of Evaluation
Evaluation does not end with the summarization of results. It has direct bearing on the improvement
of the system as a whole. The functions of evaluation are as follows:
1. Feedback: To assess strengths and weaknesses.
2. Motivation: The mere realization that you would be evaluated propels a student to work
hard.
3. Better guidance: Crucial for the growth of pupils.
4. Remediation: It helps in locating the areas that require remedial measures.
5. Facilitates planning: It helps the teacher in planning, organizing and implementing learning
activities.
6. Revision of curriculum.
7. Inter-institutional comparison.
8. Educational decision-making: It relates to selection, classification, placement, promotion,
etc.
9. Submission of progress report to parents.
 TYPES OF EVALUATION

On the basis of On the basis of phase On the basis of On the basis of On the basis of
Approaches Instruction Nature of Reference Purpose Grades

Quantitative technique Placement Norm referenced Diagnostic tests Direct

Qualitative techniques Formative Criterion referenced Aptitude tests Indirect
Diagnostic Achievement tests
Summative Proficiency tests

On the Basis of Approaches

Quantitative techniques
1. Written examination: It is also known as paper pencil test. In this technique, the answers are
to be written as per the instruction of questions.
2. Oral examination: They supplement the written examination. Examples are test of reading
ability, and pronunciation and viva voce is also an example.
3. Practical examination: These tests are necessary to test experimental and manipulative skills
of a learner, particularly in subjects, such as science, technology, agriculture, craft and music.

Qualitative techniques
1. Observation and interviews: Observation is used to evaluate the behaviour of the pupil in
controlled and uncontrolled situations. It is purposive and systematic and carefully viewing or
observing the behaviour and recording it. Interview is sometimes superior to other devices. It is
because of the fact that pupils are usually more willing to talk than write.
2. Checklist: A checklist is an instrument that is used for collecting and recording evidence
regarding significant behavioural tendencies of the pupils or specific problems they present in the
classroom.
3. Rating scale: Rating is a term applied to the expression of opinion or judgement regarding
some situation, object or character. Rating scale is a device by which judgements can be quantified.
4. Cumulative records: Anecdotal records, cumulative record cards and diaries of pupils are
some other devices used in the evaluation process to know the details about a child’s behaviour.
On the Basis of Phase of Instruction

Area of Function Types of Evaluation and their function

Before instructional process Placement evaluation (to know entry

behaviour)

During instructional process Formative evaluation (to know mastery in

content)

Diagnostic evaluation (to solve learning

difficulties)

After instructional process Diagnostic evaluation (to solve learning

difficulties)

Placement Evaluation
Placement evaluation can be defined as a type of evaluation that provides information to the
teachers about the learners to whom he/she deals with relating to their existing knowledge and
experiences based on that the teacher designs to teach new knowledge. It is basically used to
measure the entry behaviour or existing knowledge of the learners. Another purpose of placement
evaluation is to know whether the learner is able to acquire the new learning experiences based on
his/her previous knowledge.
The key word which is used for placement evaluation is the “entry behaviour”. Assessment of entry
behaviour is done just before teaching starts. In the teaching-learning process, before teaching a
new topic, teacher should know the previous knowledge of students. This helps teacher to organise
teaching-learning activities according to the previous knowledge of learners. The technique of
introducing a lesson by asking certain questions from the previous knowledge of the students is
related to the topic taught or by any other techniques like demonstrating something, telling a story,
doing a role play, etc. are also the examples of placement evaluation. In other way, conducting a type
of entrance examination for selecting learners to a particular course is also example of placement
evaluation.

Formative Evaluation
According to Scriven (1991), “Formative evaluation is typically conducted during the development or
improvement of a programme or product (or person, and so on) and it is conducted, often more
than once, for in house staff of the programme with the extent to improve”. If we analyse the
definition, it is clear that the purpose of conducting formative evaluation is to monitor the learning
progress of the learner. The key word in formative evaluation is learning progress. The salient
features of formative evaluation are as follows:
● It builds on the prior knowledge, and experiences of the learners, and ensures learner
friendly assessment.
● It helps in enhancing the learning abilities of the learner. It provides scope for the use of
variety of activities, and various tools and techniques for promoting holistic development of the
learners.
● It provides descriptive feedback to children for realising their strengths and weaknesses. It
provides a chance to the learners to reflect on their performance, as it realises the role of motivation
and self-esteem of students learning.
● It encourages learners to understand the criteria/parameters that have been used to judge
their performance. It helps learners to actively and continuously engage in learning.
● It provides feedback to the teachers to use teaching strategies according to the needs of the
learners.
● It is diagnostic and remedial, formal and informal approach of assessments.
Components of Formative evaluation in classroom

Diagnostic Evaluation
Diagnostic evaluation is conducted along with formative evaluation during the instructional process.
It is carried out based on the data obtained from formative evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation is
specially conducted to identify and remove the learning difficulties of learner if it is observed and
found during the formative evaluation. For example, if a learner couldn’t understand certain
concepts in a particular subject and continuously performing poorly in that subject, we conduct
diagnostic test to know the causes of the difficulties and accordingly provide them remedial
treatment to overcome the difficulties.
The key word in diagnostic evaluation is identifying of ‘learning difficulties’. Diagnostic evaluation
not only solves learning difficulties of learners but also identifies and provides remedies for personal,
physical and psychological problems. This can be exemplify as sometime you may find that few
students in your class are very nervous to come forward and say something, tendency of fear
towards the friends and teachers, suffering certain psycho-social disorders and physical disorders.
Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluation is used to find out the extent to which the instructional objectives have been
achieved at the end of a terminal period. It is used primarily for assigning course grades or for
certifying student’s mastery of the intended learning outcomes at the end of a particular
programme. We can understand summative evaluation as follows:
● It is conducted after the completion of the instruction in a term, a course or a school session.
● It ‘Sums-up’ how much a student has learnt over a period of time.
● It focuses mostly on assessing the scholastic abilities of the children.
● It contributes to the overall grading and certification of the children.
● It is mostly structured and formal approach to assessment of learning;
● It provides terminal feedback, both, to the teacher and the children to re-design their
teaching and learning accordingly.

On the Basis of Nature of Reference

Norm-referenced Evaluation
When we measure one’s relative position in a well defined known group, we usually use the
norm-referenced test. As example, if we want to know Rakesh’s rank or position in the 10th Board
Examination held in 2022 in the State of West Bengal, that can be done through the
norm-referenced test. In this example, we compare Rakesh’s performance with others performance
in that group.
Norm-referenced test is also a type of standardized test. The procedure followed for developing a
standardized test is also followed for developing norm-referenced test.
According to Nayak and Rath (2010), the various procedures adopted for norm-referenced
evaluation are as follows:
1. When marks are evaluated with reference to average, it is norm-referenced evaluation
because the average is based upon the obtained scores. If it is to be used, as measure of variability
which shows the scatter of the scores, should be taken into account.
2. We can express a mark in terms of its standing in the group. It is clearly understood but it
has certain difficulties. The 7th rank in a group of 10 does not have same meaning as the 7th rank in
a group of 100. If number of candidates is not the same, we cannot compare the merit of a student
in different examinations in terms of ranks.

Criterion-referenced Evaluation
Criterion referenced evaluation is related to performance of the students in a well defined learning
task. It has nothing to do with the norms or relative rank or position of students in any well defined
group. As example, if we say that Sudhir successfully solves 60 percent of questions in the chapter of
‘Modern History’ in class-IX text of History, is rightly an example of criterion-referenced evaluation.
In this example, the performance of Sudhir is defined in relation to a learning task i.e., chapter of
‘Modern History’ in the class-IX text of History. Thus in contrast to a norm-referenced evaluation we
can refer an individual performance to a pre-determined criterion which is well defined. In
criterion-referenced evaluation, a criteria is fixed i.e. a fixed standard in a learning task, say 50% or
60%.
In it, the individual’s status is ascertained with respect to some performance standard. The standard
is the measure representing the criterion, the criterion itself being a specified performance. In
criterion-referenced evaluation, there is no question of comparing one student with the other in it.

On the Basis of Purpose

Diagnostic Test
These tests help in identifying ‘area of learning’ in which a learner may need a remedial course and
they provide us a profile of what the learner knows and does not know. A diagnostic test may consist
of a battery of a number of sub-tests to cover-tests to cover sub-areas.

Aptitude Test
Aptitude tests basically serve a predictive function. They help us identify potential talents and
desirable characteristics which are essential for one to be competent to perform a specific task.
These tests are generally used while selecting people for special courses.

Achievement Test
As the name indicates, such tests aim to measure the extent to which the objectives of the course
have been achieved. The usual end-of-course exam may be taken a typical example of achievement
test.

Proficiency Test
These tests aim to assess the general ability of a person a given time. Their scope is governed by a
reasonable exception of what abilities learners of a given status (say graduates) should possess.

On the Basis of Grades

Direct Grading
In direct grading, the performance exhibited by an individual is assessed in qualitative terms and the
impression so obtained by the examiner is directly expressed in terms of letter grades. The
advantage of direct grading is that it minimizes the inter-examiner variability. Moreover, it is easier to
use in comparison to indirect grading. Direct grading lacks transparency.

Indirect Grading
In this method, the performance of an examinee is first assessed in terms of marks and subsequently
transformed into letter grades by using different modes. This transformation may be carried out in
terms of both ‘absolute grading’ and ‘relative grading’ as discussed below.
1. Absolute grading: Absolute grading is a conventional technique of evaluation. It is based on
a pre-determined standard that becomes a reference point for assessment of students’
performance. It involves direct conversion of marks into grades, irrespective of the distribution of
marks in a subject. For example, the categorization of students into five groups, namely, distinction
(75% and above), first division (60% and less than 75%), second division (45% and less than 60%),
third division (33% and less than 45%) and unsatisfactory (Below 33%).
2. Relative grading: Relative grading is generally used in public examination. In this system,
grade of a student is decided not by her performance alone rather than performance of the group.
This type of grading is popularly known as ‘grading on the curve.’

CHOICE BASED CREDIT SYSTEM (CBCS)

Choice-Based Credit System (CBCS) essentially implies a redefining of the curriculum into smaller
measurable entities or ‘modules’ with the hours required for studying / learning (not teaching) these
modules. The primary focus is to combine the modules in different ways so as to qualify for a
certificate, diploma or degree. In a sense, therefore, the completion of a single ‘module’ of learning
can pave the way for learning other modules either in the same institution or elsewhere and a
combination of modules in keeping with the needs and interests of the learners. It is therefore inter
and intra institutional mobility of the students is possible.

Features of CBCS
As highlighted by the UGC (2015), the features of CBCS are:
● Enhance learning opportunities of the learners.
● Match the learners’ scholastic abilities and aspirations.
● Inter-institution transferability of learners (following the completion of a semester).
● Part-completion of an academic programme in the institution of enrolment and
part-completion in a specialized (and recognized) institution.
● Improvement in educational quality and excellence.
● Flexibility for working learners to complete the programme over an extended period of time.
● Standardization and comparability of educational programmes across the country and global
scenario as well.
Choice-based implies that the learner has the choice to select the subjects that he/she would like to
learn within the prescribed time period and the programme parameters. For example, a learner who
wants to major in Accountancy wishes to study History may be permitted to study. The CBCS enables
a student to obtain a degree by accumulating required number of credits prescribed for that degree.
The number of credits earned by the student reflects the knowledge or skill acquired by him/her. The
CBCS enables the students to earn credits across departments and provides flexibility in duration to
complete a programme of study. The CBCS facilitates transfer of credits earned in different
departments/ centers of other recognized/accredited universities or institutions.

Advantages of CBCS
● Teaching and learning process is shifting from teacher-centric to learnercentric education.
● All activities are taken into account - not only the time learners spend in lectures or seminars
but also the time they need for individual learning and the preparation of examinations etc.
● Learning is self-pacing and self-directed. Learners may undertake as many credits as they
can cope with without having to repeat all the courses in a given semester.
● In case they fail in one or more courses. Alternatively, they can choose other courses and
continue their studies.
● Affords more flexibility to the learners by allowing them to choose interdisciplinary courses,
change majors, programmes, etc. Respects ‘learner autonomy’.
● It allows learners to choose subjects according to their own learning needs, interests, and
aptitudes.
● Helps in learner mobility. It offers the opportunity to study at different times and in different
places.
● Beneficial for achieving more transparency and compatibility between different educational
structures.

Outline of CBCS
1. Core course: A course, which should compulsorily be studied by a candidate as a core
requirement is termed as a Core course.
2. Elective course: Generally a course which can be chosen from a pool of courses and which
may be very specific or specialized or advanced or supportive to the discipline/subject of study or
which provides an extended scope or which enables an exposure to some other
discipline/subject/domain or nurtures the candidate’s proficiency/skill is called an Elective Course.
3. Discipline Specific Elective (DSE) Course: Elective courses may be offered by the main
discipline/subject of study is referred to as Discipline Specific Elective. The University/Institute may
also offer discipline related Elective courses of interdisciplinary nature (to be offered by main
discipline/ subject of study).
4. Dissertation/Project: An elective course designed to acquire special/advanced knowledge,
with an advisory support by a teacher/faculty member is called dissertation/project.
5. Generic Elective (GE) Course: An elective course chosen generally from an unrelated
discipline/subject, with an intention to seek exposure is called a Generic Elective.
6. Ability Enhancement Courses (AEC): This may be of two kinds: Ability Enhancement
Compulsory Courses (AECC) and Skill Enhancement Courses (SEC). “AECC” courses are the courses
based upon the content that leads to Knowledge enhancement; Skill Enhancement Courses (SEC):
These courses may be chosen from a pool of courses designed to provide value-based and/or
skill-based knowledge.

COMPUTER-BASED TESTING
CBT brings about a transformation in learning, pedagogy and curricula in educational institutions.

Types of CBT
There are two types of CBT which include:
1. Linear test: This involves a full-length examination in which the computer selects different
questions for individuals without considering their performance level.
2. Adaptive test: Here the computer selects the range of questions based on individuals
performance level. These questions are taken from a very large pool of possible questions
categorized by content and difficulty.
Using the waterfall model, the CBTS SDLC was split up into a number of independent steps. Each step
was carried out in sequence and accordance to one after the other. The previous stage is always
completed before moving to the next stage of the life cycle.
● Requirements analysis and definition
● System and software design
● Implementation and unit testing
● Integration and system testing
● Operation and maintenance
Benefits of ICT based Evaluation
● ICT-enabled assessments provide children scope for engaging in individualised testing
situations.
● In such contexts, the learning proceeds in tune with the pace of the individual attempting
tests.
● ICT integrated assessment provides immediate feedback to the children.
● Technology enabled assessment enhances the confidence level of children as they receive
results of their learning instant.
● The assessment could be arranged in such a way that children would get instant feedback
and thus can correct their mistakes and move forward.
● The frequency of assessment can be increased that would benefit children and will
continuously engage them in their studies.

CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK, CURRICULUM, AND

SYLLABUS

Curriculum Framework
Curriculum framework is a document that sets standards for curriculum and provides the context
(available resources) capabilities of teachers and system support in which subject specialist develop
syllabuses. It is usually a single document which is supplemented by other materials to guide the
implementation of specific parts of framework.
Until 1976, Indian constitution allowed the state governments to take decisions on all matters
pertaining to education including curriculum. The centre could only provide guidance to the states
on policy issues. National Council for Education Research and Training developed National
Curriculum Framework (NCF) in 1975 following the recommendations of Education Policy on 1968.
NCF was subsequently revised in the years 1988, 2000 and 2005.
NCERT is the official agency in India for deciding the curriculum framework for schools. In India
during 2005 National Curriculum framework (NCF-2005) the new policy was drafted (NCF-2005,
2012).
In September 2021, the Union Ministry of Education constituted a 12-member national steering
committee to develop a new National Curriculum Framework (NCF) in line with the National
Education Policy 2020 (NEP).
NCF 2005 recommends
● Bringing arts, work, peace, health, physical education into the domain of the curricular
infusing them in all areas of learning, while giving them an identity of their own at relevant stages.
Enable learners to find their voices, nurture their curiosity to think, ask questions, integrate their
experience with school knowledge rather than reproduce textual knowledge.
● Shift from content-based testing to problem-solving and competency-based testing.
● Use of technology in teaching-learning
● Shift from teacher centric to learner centric with flexible designs, processes providing wider
social context to learning as well as multiple and divergent exposures.
Functions of Curriculum Framework
Few functions of curriculum frameworks are as follows—
● It defines a set of curriculum standards that enable a range of curricula to coexist on the
provision that each curriculum compiles with specific criteria.
● It functions as a tool that may assist teacher to put the national policy on
education—educating our future into practice.
● It develops certain quality standards for curriculum, evaluation is also needed.
● Gives guidance to syllabus and textbook writers.

Syllabus
Syllabus is a descriptive document of a course. It is the study of outline and timeline of a particular
course. It will typically give a brief overview of the course objectives, course expectations, list of
reading, assignments, homework deadlines, exam dates, etc. it connotes both the subject as well as
the topics covered in the course of the study.

Difference between Curriculum and Syllabus

Curriculum Syllabus
 1. A blue print of a whole level/stage o 1. Content Index list of books to read
education system and for higher studies
2. Achievable aims and objectives of a 2. Achievable objectives, aims of each
whole stage subject
3. Its objective is all-round developme 3. It is supplementary to achieve the
of the child objectives
4. Wide scope/meaning. 4. Rigid scope /meaning
5. Includes content, learning 5. Only includes content
experiences and learning activities 6. Only indicates curricular activities
6. Indicates curricular, co-curricular 7. Only to teachers
activities. 8. Time is specified
7. Understand able to both teachers a 9. It is a part of curriculum
students 10. Only limited to classroom activities.
8. No specific time to fulfill
9. Helps to prepare syllabus
10. Source of school activities

Approaches to Curriculum

Learner-centered Curriculum
The main objective of learner-centered approach is to stimulate and nurture growth of learners and
teachers must trust in the innate abilities of learners. The learning is viewed from a constructivist
perspective. Learning is more effective when learners engage with stimulating environment, get
involved in inquiry and make meaning for themselves out of interactions with environment. Here,
the mantra is ‘what is happening within’ and the learner stands between stimulus and response. The
curriculum must engage learners with stimulating experiences by arranging suitable learning
environment.
‘Constructivist curriculum’ is based on the following assumptions.
1. Knowledge is actively constructed, invented, created or discovered by learners. It is not
passively received and stored by learners.
2. Knowledge cannot be separated from the process of learning. It is based on learner’s
conceptual structures and prior experiences.
3. Learners are constantly constructing and reconstructing their cognitive structures, both as a
result of newly acquired knowledge and as a result of their reflection on previously acquired
knowledge.
4. Social interactions with peers and adults in a cultural context are important in the
construction of knowledge.
5. Concept formation progresses from concrete to abstract slowly.
6. Learners have different learning styles and teaching–learning should accommodate this
process.
7. The teacher in constructivist curriculum is the provider of the learning environment and a
facilitator of learning.
Subject-centered Curriculum
In subject-centered curriculum, it is assumed that universal and objective knowledge can be
transmitted directly from those who have acquired the knowledge to those who have not. Lecture is
the most commonly used method to communicate subject knowledge to students. Students
generally memorize the subject content provided by the teacher or textbook. Examinations test the
content knowledge of students.

Behaviorist Curriculum
Behaviourist psychologists view learning as change in behaviour and learning objectives are defined
in terms of behavioural change. Knowledge is the capability for action, identified as the ‘successful
performance of tasks.’ The only way to determine whether or not students ‘know’ or ‘do not know,’
something is to see how they behave in certain situations.
The following falls within the scope of behaviourist theories of learning:
1. Competency-based curriculum
2. Criterion referenced curriculum
3. Mastery learning
4. Programmed learning
These approaches assume that large or complex tasks can be broken down into small or simpler
tasks and these can be sequenced in order from simple to complex. In competency-based
curriculum, terminal competencies are defined in behavioural terms. These are then sub-delineated
into sub-competencies. The competency based curriculum (minimum levels of learning) has been
developed in India and some other countries. In behaviourist curriculum, the teachers are
instrumental to implement curriculum developed by curriculum developers. Teachers do not
question the ‘ends or means of curriculum.’
The behaviourist curriculum does not take into consideration the learner’s experiences, context and
cognitive predispositions. The learners are treated as passive receivers of knowledge and teachers
are regarded as transmitter of knowledge. Chalk and talk is the common method of teaching.
Learners memorize, recite or study their lessons silently without questioning. Childhood is viewed as
the preparation for adulthood within the society. The education aims at developing such knowledge
and skills which will be helpful for students to serve society in their adult life. Critiques of
subject-centred and behaviourist approaches say that these curricula do not help in achieving the
aim of all-round development of the learner.

INSTRUCTIONAL FACILITIES
Instructional facilities assist an instructor in the teaching–learning process. They supplement
teaching methods and are themselves not as self-supporting as teaching methods. The teaching
instructional facilities include audiovisual instructional facilities. They follow the assumption that
learning originates from senses’ experience. They help in better learning, retention and recall,
thinking and reasoning, activity, interest, imagination, better assimilation and personal growth and
development.

Types of Instructional Facilities According to Projection

Teaching instructional facilities according to projection or show are divided into projected and non-
projected instructional facilities.
1. Projected instructional facilities: Visual instructional devices that are shown with a projector
are called projected instructional facilities. Examples include slides, filmstrip, silent films, cartoons,
etc. These are projected through an opaque projector (epidiascope) or an overhead projector.
2. Non-projected instructional facilities: Visual instructional devices that are simply presented
without any projection equipment are nonprojected instructional facilities. Examples include
blackboard, chart, etc.
There are two additional categories of the teaching instructional facilities, they are display
instructional facilities and presentation instructional facilities.
1. Display instructional facilities: Visual instructional facilities that are spread before the
audience for viewing information and instruction. Examples are posters, bulletin boards, models,
exhibits, etc.
2. Presentation instructional facilities: Visuals instructional facilities are presented or
projected before the audience for viewing, explaining or presenting the message of the visuals, so
that the audience gets meaningful understanding of the subject. Examples are flashcards, slides,
filmstrips, etc.

Projected Instructional Facilities

There are three important methods of projection and they are listed below.
● Direct projection: Slide and film projectors
● Indirect projection: Overhead projector
● Reflected projection: Opaque projector and epidiascope

Slides
A slide is a transparent-mounted picture that is projected by focusing light through it. The projection
may be made on a screen or on a white wall. Slides of 35 mm films mounted on individual
cardboard or plastic frames are common and are extensively used in extension work during training
programmes, seminars, workshops, group meetings, campaigns, exhibitions, etc.

Overhead Projector (OHP)

The overhead projector projects the picture over the head of the speaker on the screen. Drawings,
diagrams, letterings, etc., are made on transparent sheets and are put on the glass platform of the
overhead projector, through which a strong light is passed. The rays of light are made to converge
with a lens and are reflected by a mirror held at an angle on the screen at the back. Transparencies
can also be made through photographic, xerox or electronic processes as well. Overhead projection
is used in training programmes, group meetings, seminars, symposiums, workshops, etc. Advantages
include synchronization of projections with audio, facing audience and observing their reaction,
sustaining audience interest, clear presentation of complex ideas, time saving and easy availability of
materials for making transparencies.

Film Strips
The filmstrip was a common form of still image instructional multimedia. It was once commonly used
by educators in primary and secondary schools, now overtaken by newer and increasingly low-cost,
full-motion videocassettes and DVDs, since 1940s till 1980s.
Opaque projector (epidiascope or episcope)
It is a device that displays opaque materials by shining a bright lamp onto the object from above. The
material can be book pages, drawings, mineral specimens, leaves, etc.

Video projector
A video projector is also known as a digital projector, which is now popular for many applications for
extension and development. All video projectors use a very bright light to project the image.

Handheld Projector
It is also known as a pocket projector, a mobile projector or a pico-projector. It is an emerging
technology that applies the use of a projector in a handheld device. It is a response to the
emergence of compact portable devices, such as mobile phones, personal digital assistants and
digital cameras, which have sufficient storage capacity to handle presentation materials with an
attached display screen.

Non-projected Visual Instructional Facilities

Non-projected visual instructional facilities are those instructional facilities that are used without
projection or help of any projector. Advantages include easy availability, no specific power supply
requirement, economical and ease in handling. They can be useful in small group situations. Many of
them can be converted into projected instructional facilities. For example, charts, flannel graphs and
flash cards can be photographed or scanned and converted into slides. Some of them can be
projected through an opaque projector.

Pictures and photographs

A picture is a representation made by drawing, painting or photography, which gives an accurate
idea of an object. A good picture may tell a story without using a single word. Pictures may be in
black and white or in colour. Nowadays, digital cameras are popularly used to take many photos and
eye-catchy images.

Graphs
A graph is an image that represents data symbolically. A graph is used to present complex
information and numerical data in a simple, compact format. Bar graphs, line graphs, scatter graphs,
and pictographs are some types of graphs. In a two-dimensional graph, the information is
represented along two co-ordinates: X coordinate and Y coordinate. An independent variable is
shown along X axis and dependent along Y axis.

Maps
A map is a visual representation of an area. It is a symbolic depiction highlighting the relationship
between elements of that space, such as objects, regions and themes. Cartography or map-making is
the study and practice of crafting representations of the earth upon a flat surface. Maps are useful
tool in every discipline. In social studies, it is very important for learning geographical, historical and
economical concepts.
Charts
A chart is a symbolized visual instructional facilities with pictures of relationships and changes, which
are used to tabulate a large mass of information or show a progression. Charts can help
communicate difficult and dull subject matter in an interesting and effective way. They make facts
and figures clear and interesting, show or compare changes and show the size and placement of
parts. They are also helpful in summarizing information and presenting abstract ideas in visual form.
There are many varieties of charts
● Process charts
● Organisational charts
● Time charts
● Tabular charts
● Tree charts
● Stream charts
● Tabular charts

Display boards
There are multiple types of boards:
● Black boards or chalk boards
● White board
● Bulletin board
● Flannel boards and Flannel Graph

Three-dimensional models
Real things may not be available all the times, and in the desired form. Hence, models help to tide
over this problem. A model is a recognizable representation of real things in three-dimensional view,
such as its height, width and depth. This makes the understanding better and easy. Models can be of
three types, such as (i) solids, (ii) cut away or cross sections and (iii) working models. They have
advantages of reality depiction, illustration and are complex and intricate. They are long-lasting and
inexpensive.

Audio-instructional facilities
● Radio- Radio has been a popular mass medium for close to a century. These days many of us
are tuned to Radio through FM channels. Radio is due to its easy access, speed and immediacy. In its
start in 1917, radio was visualized as a source for mass education. In India, the first radio station was
established in Mumbai (Bombay) in July 1927. Two more radio stations in Calcutta and Delhi were
established in 1936. All India Radio (AIR) broadcasted radio programmes for the country. In 1937,
Calcutta station broadcasted school programmes for the first time and it continues till date. School
educational programmes are still in demand and are used by teachers to generate interest of
students.
Gyan Vani is a dedicated FM channel for educational broadcasts. It is used to broadcast educational
programmes from Educational Media Production Centre (EMPC) of Indira Gandhi National Open
University (IGNOU), New Delhi. Audio programmes developed by Central Institute of Educational
Technology (CIET) of NCERT for school children are also broadcast by Gyan Vani.
 ● Podcast- Radio is a mass broadcast medium whereas podcasts are personalized broadcast.
Podcasts are prepared for specific target and made available to the target group for specific learning
objectives. Podcast is the portmanteau of words ‘pod’ from iPod and ‘cast’ from broadcasting.
● Recordings- A tape recorder or any other kind of audio recording is suitable for extension
work in meetings, training programmes, campaigns, recording radio programmes, etc. It facilitates
on-the-spot recording of sound. It is easy to operate and preserve. It has low operational cost as the
same tape may be used again.
● Digital Audio player- A digital audio player is sometimes referred to as an MP3 player and
has the primary function of storing, organizing and playing audio files. Some digital audio players are
also referred to as portable media players as they have image viewing and video-playing support. An
ideal example is iPod (fourth generation audio instructional facilities).
● Telephone and Mobile- Usually, two persons can communicate at a time through a
telephone and the system serves many people in a given area if a speaker is attached to it like Cell
Phone-Operated Mobile Audio Communication and Conference System (COMBACCS). This
technology is seeing a phenomenal growth in many developing countries. Short message service
(SMS) and wireless application protocol (WAP)-enabled cell phones with cameras can be effective in
offering always available extension between experts and people. COMBACCS can help community
members at different locations build relationships and understanding.
● Television- Television is an effective tool in expressing abstract concepts or ideas. Abstract concepts
are usually produced and conveyed with words. Besides this, in making an abstract concept
concrete, the role of animation and visual experimentation is very important.

Factors Influencing the Selection of Instructional Factors

Audio-visual instructional facilities are used singly or in combination, thereby taking into
consideration the following factors.
1. Nature of audience: Printed media are meant for literate people, whereas exhibits, pictures
and symbols are for less literate people.
2. Size of audience: A video show or whiteboard cannot be used effectively when the number
of participants exceeds 30 and internet can be used for large audiences.
3. Teaching objective or expected nature of change: Select the audio-visual instructional
facilities based on the objective of extension teaching, i.e., to bring about a change in
a. Thinking or knowledge
b. Attitude or feeling
c. Actions or skills.
If you merely want to inform or to influence a large number of people slightly, then use mass media,
such as radio or television.
4. Nature of subject matter: In case new practice is simple and familiar, a news article, a radio
message, or a circular letter will be effective, whereas complex or unfamiliar practices will require
audio-visual instructional facilities.
5. Availability of instructional facilities: Despite the availability of the Internet two decades
back, it was not being used on a large scale. With the availability of speed, due to better technology
and cost effectiveness, more people are now using internet-based technologies as teaching
instructional facilities.
6. Relative cost- Effective instructional facilities need not be necessarily costly. The amount
expended on audio-visual instructional facilities, in relation to the extent of effectiveness is also an
important consideration in their selection and use.
Dale’s Cone of Experience

According to Dale’s research, the least effective method at the top involves learning from
information presented through verbal symbols, i.e., listening to spoken words. The most effective
methods at the bottom involve direct, purposeful learning experiences, such as hands-on or field
experience. Direct purposeful experiences represent reality or the closet things to real, everyday life.
The cone charts the average retention rate for various methods of teaching. The further you progress
down the cone, the greater the learning and the more information are likely to be retained. It also
suggests that when choosing an instructional method, it is important to remember that involving
students in the process strengthens knowledge retention. It reveals that ‘action–learning’ techniques
result in up to 90% retention. People learn best when they use perceptual learning styles and these
learning styles are sensory based.
The more sensory channels possible in interacting with a resource, the better chance that many
students can learn from it. According to Dale, the instructors should design instructional activities
that build upon more real-life experiences. Dales’ cone of experience is a tool to help instructors
make decisions about resources and activities.
 Previous Year Questions
1. Which of the following statement/s is/are NOT true? [June 1997]
a. Teaching is just an art
b. Teachers can be trained only
c. Teachers are born
d. All the above

2. Which of the following statements is NOT correct? [June 1997]

a. A good communicator cannot be a good teacher.
b. A good communicator has good sense of humour.
c. A good communicator has wide reading knowledge.
d. A good communicator has command over language.

3. A teacher will become an effective communicator if [December 1997]

a. He uses instructional facilities.
b. He helps students get meaning out of what he teaches.
c. He asks question in between teaching.
d. He helps students get correct answer to the questions on the topic.

4. Students prefer those teachers who [December 2000]

a. Dictate notes in the class.
b. Give important questions before examination.
c. Can clear their difficulties regarding subject matter.
d. Are themselves disciplined.

5. An effective teacher will ensure [December 2002]

a. Cooperation among his students
b. Laissez-faire role
c. Competition among students
d. Competition or cooperation as the situation demands

6. A new teacher to start with will have to [December 2002]

a. Enforce discipline in class.
b. Establish rapport with the students.
c. Cut jokes with the students.
d. Tell the students about his qualifications.

7. Who has the least chance of becoming an effective teacher? [December 2002]
 a. One who is a strict disciplinarian.
b. One who knows his subject well.
c. One who has no interest in teaching.
d. One who teaches moral values.

8. Micro teaching is more effective [December 2009]

a. During preparation for teaching practice
b. During teaching practice
c. After the teaching practice
d. Always

9. Students can be classified into four types on the basis of their learning. Which one of the
following seeks meaning and reasoning to the learning? [December 2000]
a. Innovative learner
b. Analytic learner
c. Common sense learner
d. Dynamic learner

10. An ideal situation in a classroom would be where [December 2000]

a. A teacher comes fully prepared to deliver his lecture.
b. Students come fully prepared and discuss the subject with each other in teacher’s presence.
c. Teachers and students discuss the subject.
d. The teacher uses audio-visual instructional facilities while learning.
i.Both (a) and (c)
ii.Both (c) and (d)
iii.Only (b)
iv.Only (d)

11. What is more desirable in a classroom? [December 2000]

a. A teacher delivering a lecture on the basis of the text and his own research.
b. A teacher delivering a lecture on the basis of course content and standard books.
c. A teacher answering questions raised by students.
d. A teacher maintaining strict discipline and taking attendance regularly.

12. Which of the following should a teacher adopt in a lecture? [December 2002]
a. Precise and low tone
b. Elongated tone
c. Precise and high tone
d. Moderate tone

13. If students do not understand what is taught in the classroom, the teacher should feel [June
2002]
a. Terribly bored
b. To explain it in a different way.
c. That he is wasting time.
d. Pity for the students.

14. Which of the following will not hamper effective communication in the classroom? [June
2002]
a. A lengthy statement
b. An ambiguous statement
c. A precise statement
d. A statement which allows the listener to his own conclusions.

15. Discussion in class will be more effective if the topic of discussion is [December 2002]
a. Not introduced
b. Stated before the start of the discussion.
c. Written on the board without introducing it.
d. Informed to the students in advance.

16. Failure of teacher to communicate his ideals well to the students may result in [December
2002]
a. Classroom indiscipline
b. Loss of students’ interest in the topic being taught.
c. Increased number of absentees in the class.
d. All the above

17. Effectiveness of teaching has to be judged in terms of [January 2017]

a. Course coverage
b. Students’ interest
c. Learning outcomes of students
d. Use of teaching aids in the classroom

Answers
1. d
2. a
3. b
4. c
5. d
6. b
7. c
8. a
9. b
10. a
11. a
12. c
13. b
14. c
15. d
16. d
17. c