Unit - Ii - PPT-2 Mca-20-14

MCA-20-14
Data Communication and Computer

Networks
TRANSMISSION MEDIA, ENCODING & MODULATION
Dr. SHUCHITA UPADHYAYA BHASIN

Professor
Department of Computer Science & Applications
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra
CONTENTS
Transmission Media: Data Encoding & Modulation
Techniques:
 Guided Transmission
 NRZ
Media  NRZ-I
 Wireless transmission  Manchester and
 Satellite Differential Manchester
communication encoding
 4B/5B
 Pulse Code Modulation &
Delta Modulation
 Digital to Analog encoding
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
GUIDED MEDIA UNGUIDED MEDIA
• signal energy is contained and • signal propagates in the form of unguided
electromagnetic signals
guided within a solid medium • Eg. The atmosphere and outer space – Radio
• Eg. Copper twisted pair, copper waves, microwaves, infrared waves, Laser
waves
coaxial cable and optical fiber.
• achieve only limited directionality making the
• provide point-to-point medium broadcast in nature.
In addition, all users within receiving range of each
communication. other must share the frequency band that is
available and can thus interfere with each other.
• lead to well-defined discrete A given frequency band can be reused only in a
network topologies. sufficiently distant geographical area.
• leads to a network topology that is continuous
• Additional transmission capacity in nature.
can be procured by adding more • the ratio spectrum is finite, and it is not
wires. possible to procure additional capacity.
• do not require the right-of-way and can be
• require establishing a right-of- deployed by procuring only the sites where
way through the land that is the antennas are located. Wireless system can
therefore be deployed more quickly and at
traversed by the cable lower cost.

Guided Transmission Media
Guided media, which are those that provide a channel from one device
to another include:
• Copper Media
Twisted-pair cable
Coaxial Cable
• Fiber-optic Cable.
Twisted-pair and Coaxial cable are Copper media which use metallic
(copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of
electrical current.
 Optical fiber is a glass or plastic cable that accepts and transports
signals in the form of light.

TWISTED PAIR CABLES
• Twisted pair wire is the copper wire Unshielded Twisted Pair
commonly used to connect telephone
devices.
• The wire is twisted to enhance signal
transmission relative to straight wire.
• Twisted pair wire can be either
shielded or unshielded. Shielded Twisted Pair
• Shielded twisted pair permits higher
data transmission speed and is less
susceptible to interference but is also
more expensive than unshielded.
• Unshielded twisted pair is more
common in homes and businesses
(LANs)

TWISTED PAIR CABLES contd.
Physical Description:
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular
spiral pattern. A wire pair acts as a single communication link. Typically, a
number of these pairs are bundled together into a cable by wrapping them
in a tough protective sheath.
• Over longer distances, cables may contain hundreds of pairs. The signal is
transmitted through one wire in the pair while a ground reference is
transmitted through the other.
• The twisting tends to decrease the cross talk interference between
adjacent pairs in a cable. Cross talk refers to the picking up of electrical
signals from other adjacent wires.
• Because the wires are unshielded, there is also a tendency to pick up noise,
or interference from other electromagnetic sources such as broadcast
radio.

TWISTED PAIR CABLES contd.
Transmission Characteristics:
• Twisted pair may be used to transmit both analog and digital signals.
For analog signals, amplifiers are required about every 5 to 6 km. For
digital signals, repeaters are required every 2 or 3 km.
• Compared to other commonly uses guided transmission media
(coaxial cable, optical fiber), twisted pair is limited in distance,
bandwidth, and data rate.
• Twisted pairs are more prone to attenuation, noise, and
interference. Shielding the wire with metallic braid or sheathing
reduces interference.
• The twisting of the wire reduces low-frequency interference, and the
use of different twist lengths in adjacent pairs reduces cross-talk.

Unshielded Twisted-pair cable (UTP)
• Unshielded twisted-pair cable is the most common
type of telecommunication medium in use today.
Its usage is most familiar in telephone systems and
its frequency range (from 100 Hz to 5 MHz) is
suitable for transmitting both data and voice.
• The two conductors (copper wires) have their
own-colored plastic insulation. The plastic
insulation is color-banded for identification
• Colors are used both to identify the specific
conductors in a cable and to indicate which wires
belong in pairs and how they relate to other pairs
in a larger bundle.
• Advantages of UTP are cost and ease of use.
• Higher grades of UTP are used in many LAN
technologies, including Ethernet and Token ring.
Unshielded Twisted-pair cable (UTP)
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) standards
• The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) standards to grade UTP

cables by quality.
• Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as lowest and 5
(now 6 and 7) as highest.
• The optimal choice for any use is the cable with the minimal quality
necessary to do the desired job safely and effectively.
• Each EIA category is suitable for certain uses and not for others.
• Category 6 and 7 are not EIA standards.

Unshielded Twisted-pair cable (UTP) - The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) standards
• Category 1: The basic twisted-pair cabling used • Category 5: Used for voice and data transmission up to 100 Mbps. Much
in telephone systems. This level of quality is fine more tightly twisted - 3 to 4 twists per inch for less cross talk and better-
quality signal over longer distances.
for voice but inadequate for data Contains four pairs of wires. Suitable for Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit
communication Ethernet, token ring, and ATM.
• Category 2: Suitable for voice and for low- speed • Enhanced Category 5(developing nonstandard cabling): Same as Cat 5 but
digital data transmission of up to 4Mbps. manufacturing process is refined. Data rates of 1000Mbps.
Suitable for Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, token ring, and
• Category 3: Required to have at least 3-4 twists ATM. Also known as Cat 5E.
per foot, four pairs grouped together in a plastic • Category 6: 250 MHz rating (more than 1 Gbps).
sheath for protection and can be used for data
Suitable for Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, token ring, and
transmission of up to 16 Mbps. ATM. Also, can handle 550 MHz broadband video.
It is now the standard cable for most • Category 6 (Class E): Similar to Cat6 and is proposed international standard.
telephone systems. Can be used for Ethernet,
Fast Ethernet, and token ring. • Category 6 (STP): Shielded twisted pair. Rated at 600 MHz for data
transmission.
• Category 4: Must also have at least three twists Suitable for Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, token ring, and
or more per foot as well as other conditions to high-speed ATM.
bring the possible transmission rate from 16 to • Category 7: 600MHz rating. Can achieve higher speeds than Cat6.
20 Mbps. Will probably require new connectors instead of current RJ-45. Cat7 (Class E) is
the proposed international standard.
Used for data and voice transmission.
Suitable for Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit
Ethernet, token ring.

Shielded Twisted pair (STP)
• STP cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh

covering that encases each pair of insulated
conductors .
• The metal casing prevents the penetration of
electromagnetic noise.
• It also can eliminate a phenomenon called cross
talk, which is the undesired effect of one circuit
(or channel) on another circuit (or channel).
• Materials and manufacturing requirements
make STP more expensive than UTP but less
susceptible to noise.
• STP can carry data at a faster speed than UTP.
• it is more difficult to handle and less flexible.

UTP Connectors
• UTP is most commonly connected
to network devices via a type of
snap-in plug like that used with
telephone jacks.
• The most frequently used in
networking applications (LANs) is
an RJ45 (registered jack 45)
connector with 8 conductors, one
for each wire of four twisted pair.
• Only four wires are used for
slower speed LANs (10BaseT), but
all are used when the speed is
increased (100BaseT).
• For telephones, the registered jack
11 (RJ-11) is normally used.

RJ-45 Connector

Applications of Twisted Pair
• Telephone System and Digital

Subscriber Loops: Individual
residential telephone sets are
connected to the local telephone
exchange, or ‘end-office’, by
twisted-pair wire. These are
referred to as subscriber loops.
• These twisted-pair installations
were designed to support voice
traffic using analog signaling.
• However, by means of a modem,
these facilities can handle digital
data traffic at modest data rates.

Applications of Twisted Pair
Used within a building for local area networks
supporting personal computers where maximum
distance between a computer and a network device is
in the order of 100 meters.
• 10Base-T ETHERNET LAN: The most widely deployed
version of Ethernet LAN uses the 10Base-T physical
layer. The designation 10Base-T denotes 10 Mbps
operation using base band (digital) transmission over
twisted-pair wire.
• 100Base-T ETHERNET LAN: The 100Base-T Ethernet
LAN is also known as Fast Ethernet. 100Base-T
Ethernet operates at a speed of 100Mbps using
twisted-pair wire.
• Operating 100 Mbps on UTP is challenging, and so
three options for doing so were developed, one for
category 3 UTP, one for shielded twisted-pair, and
one for category 5 UTP.

10Base-T Specifications
10Base-T Quick Overview
IEEE-spec 802.3
Wire speed 10 Mbps
Cable type UTP CAT 3, 4 and 5
Connector type RJ45
Used pins 1 & 2, 3 & 6
Max. length of a segment 100m/328ft
Max. number of taps per
2
segment
Max. amount of stations per
1024
network
Max. amount of repeaters 4
Topology Star
Coaxial Cable
• Physical Description: Coaxial cable (or coax) carries
signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair
cable, and so it can span longer distances at higher
speeds.
• Its frequency ranges are 100 KHz to 500 MHz.
• Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core
conductor of solid (stiff) or stranded wire (usually
copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid or a
combination of the two (also usually copper).
• The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield
against noise and as the second conductor, which
completes the circuit.
• This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating
sheath and the whole cable is protected by a plastic
cover

Coaxial Cable contd.
• Transmission characteristics: The construction and shielding of the coaxial
cable give it a good combination of high bandwidth and excellent noise
immunity.
• The bandwidth possible depends on the cable length. For 1-km cables, a
data rate of 1 to 2 Gbps is feasible.
• Longer cables can also be used, but only at lower data rates or with
periodic amplifiers.
Two kinds of coaxial cables are widely used:
• Base band- 50-0hm cable, commonly used for digital transmission.
• Broad band- 75-0hm cable, commonly used for analog transmission.
• (Base band means digital and broadband means analog)
Baseband Coaxial is widely used in Local Area Networks.
10Base 5 (popularly called Thick Coax) and 10Base 2 (Thin Coax) are the
popular baseband cables used in 802.3 (Ethernet LAN) cabling.

Baseband Coaxial (10Base2 Thin net)
• 10Base 2 means it can support segments of up
to 200 meters with the same characteristics as
10Base 5.
• Connections to 10Base 2 are made using an
industry-standard BNC (bayonet network
connector) connector to form a T- junction with
a T-connector.
• BNC connector pushes on and locks into place
with a half turn into a T-connector. Thin Ethernet
is much cheaper and easier to install, but it can
run for only 200 meters and can handle only 30
machines per cable segment.
• Terminators are another type of connectors,
which are required for bus topologies where one
main cable acts as a backbone with branches to
several devices but does not itself terminate in a
device.
• If the main cable is left unterminated, any signal
transmitted over the line echoes back and
interferes with the original signal. A terminator
absorbs the wave at the end and eliminates
echo-back.

Baseband Coaxial (10Base5 Thick net)
• 10Base 5 means that it operates at 10
Mbps, uses baseband (digital) signaling
and can support segments of up to 500
meters.
• Connections to 10Base 5 are generally
made using vampire taps, in which a
pin is carefully forced halfway into the
coaxial cable’s core.
• It can support 100 machines per cable
segment.
• Thick coaxial cable is awkward to
handle and install.
• It requires the use of a transceiver to
attach the NIC card to the coaxial cable.
Applications
• Local Area Networks & Ethernet LANS

10BASE-5 Thick Ethernet 10BASE-2 Thin Ethernet
10Base-5 Quick Overview 10BASE-2 Quick Overview
IEEE-spec 802.3 IEEE-norm 802.3
Max. speed 10 Mbps Maximum speed 10 Mbps
Cable Standard Ethernet Coax Cable Cable RG58
Connectors N-type Connectors BNC
Terminators 50 ohm Terminators 50 ohm
Max. length of a segment 500m/1640ft Max. length of a segment 185m/607ft
Max. number of taps per segment 100 Max. number of taps per segment 30
Max. number of stations per network 1024
Max. amount of stations per network 1024
Min. distance between taps 2.5m/8.3ft
Max. length of tranceiver cable 50m/164ft Min. distance between taps 0.5m/1.65ft
Max. number of repeaters 4 Max. number of repeaters 4
Topology Bus Topology Bus

10BASE-5 application

BROADBAND COAXIAL CABLE
• Broadband coaxial cable system uses analog transmission on standard
cable television cabling.
• Coaxial Cable is used by cable operators, telephone companies and
internet providers. If you have cable television, you have a coaxial cable
installed in your home. Coaxial cables are also used for connecting VCRs to
a television or connecting your television set or digital convertor box to a
personal antenna.
• The cables can run for nearly 100 km due to the analog signaling
• Broadband systems are divided up into multiple channels, frequently the 6
MHz channels used for television broadcasting.
• Each channel can be used for analog television, CD-quality audio (1.4
Mbps), or a digital bit stream at, say 3 Mbps, independent of the others.
• Television and data can be mixed on one cable.
BROADBAND COAXIAL CABLE - Applications
• Cable Television distribution & Cable Modem
• Long-distance telephone transmission

"RG" Numbers for Coaxial Cables
• "RG" means "Radio Guide" and was the original military specification for coax cable. RG-
1 turned out to be pretty unpopular, whereas RG-6 became wildly successful!
• Coaxial Cable RG Numbers are generally just an indicator of size.
• Most RG numbers refer to cables made with specific diameters (as thicker diameters
typically have lower attenuation over long lengths), but also shielding, jacket type, and
dielectric type
• The three most common coax cable types for video applications - RG6/U, RG11/U and
RG59/U.
• RG-6 is the industry standard for cable and satellite signal transmission. The RG-6 is a
thin cable which is ideal when you need to coil or bend within a wall. Its great for home
installations.(cable TV and broadband internet)
• The RG-11 is thicker and inflexible. You can use it to minimize signal loss in long runs, so
it is typically used outside or underground.(satellite, TV, or cable TV)
• The RG-59 has a thinner centre conductor than the RG-6. This makes the RG-59 the best
choice for short runs and low frequency transmissions indoors, but in other ways it is
inferior to the RG-6.
• The higher the number the thicker and heavier the cable, and the less attenuation over
the length.

Co-Axial Connectors
• At each end of a
cable, connectors
are required for
further interface
of cable with
other system.
• The various kind
of connectors
used are BNC,
SMA, SMB, F, etc.

A coaxial cable (coax) brings TV and internet signals into homes and other buildings. These cables need connectors on the end to hook up to appliances like TVs
and transmit signal. If you have a coax cable without a connector, installing your own is a simple task. Strip the wire and expose its inner conductor. Then push a
connector over it and crimp it in place. For tight spaces, use a right-angle connector to avoid bending the cable too much.
Determine whether you have an RG59 or RG6 cable- The main difference between the cables is that RG6 is thicker and has more padding than
RG59. This makes it more durable, and a more common choice for cable and internet wiring.
Get a connector that matches your cable type.
Attaching a Crimp
Connector

Installing a Right-Angle Connector
Loosen the screw Touch the conductor to

inside the connector. the screw and tighten it.
Install the back housing of

the connector. Twist the connector base
around the connector.

Fiber-Optic Cable
• Made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
• The typical T-1 or coaxial system requires repeaters about every 2 km.
Optical fiber systems, on the other hand, have maximum repeater
spacing in the order of ten to hundreds of kilometers.
• A single fiber strand is much thinner than twisted pair or coaxial
cable.
• Because a single optical fiber can carry much higher transmission
rates than copper systems, a single cable of optical fibers can replace
many cables of copper wires.
• In addition, optical fibers do not radiate significant energy and do not
pick up interference from external sources. Thus compared to
electrical transmission, optical fibers are more secure from tapping
and are also immune to interference and cross talk.
Optical Fiber – Physical Description
Optical transmission system has three
components:
The light source
The transmission medium
The detector
• Conventionally, a pulse of light indicates a 1
bit and the absence of light indicates a zero
bit.
• The transmission medium is an ultra-thin
fiber of glass , flexible, and capable of
conducting an optical ray.
• Various glasses and plastics can be used to
make optical fibers.
Ultra pure fused silica is also used as optical fiber
and gives lowest losses but it is difficult to
manufacture.
• An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical

shape and consists of three concentric
sections: the core, the cladding and the
jacket

• At the center is the glass core
through which light propagates. The
core is surrounded by a glass
cladding with a lower index of
refraction than the core, to keep all
the light in the core.
• Next comes a thin plastic jacket to
protect the cladding.
• Fibers are typically grouped
together in bundles, protected by
an outer sheath.
• The detector or the receiving end of
an optical fiber consists of a
photodiode, which gives off an
electrical pulse when struck by light.

Optical Fiber – Physical Description contd.
• Two kinds of light sources can be used to do the signaling, LEDs (Light
Emitting Diodes) and semiconductor lasers. They have different
properties as shown below:
LED Semiconductor Laser
Data rate Low High
Mode Multimode Multimode or Single mode
Distance Short Long
Lifetime Long life Short life
Temperature Sensitively Minor Substantial
Cost Low cost Expensive
Focusing Provide unfocused light Focused to a very narrow range

Laser Light Versus LED Light Power Sources

Optical Fiber - Transmission Characteristics
Propagation Modes:
• Since any light ray incident on the
boundary above the critical angle will
be reflected internally, many different
rays will be bouncing around at
different angles.
• Each ray is said to have a different
mode so a fiber having this property
is called a multimode fiber.
• Single Mode fiber optic cable has a
small diametric core that allows only
one mode of light to propagate. This
application is typically used in long
distance, higher bandwidth runs

Fiber Optic Connectors
• SC, also called a square
connector, stands for
subscriber connector - widely
applied in single mode fiber
optic cable,
• LC refers to Lucent Connector
– used in FTTH.
• FC is short for Ferrule
Connector - applied for single-
mode optic fiber but now
mostly replaced by SC and LC
• ST refers to Straight Tip -
mainly used in multimode
fiber optic cable, campuses
and buildings.
Optical Fibers - Applications
Long – Haul Trunks:
Telephone network Backbone
Fiber-To-Home Broadband
Cable Television
Local Area Networks:
10 BASE-FP Ethernet physical layer standard;
Fiber Distribution Data Interface (FDDI) ring-topology LAN,
100 BASE-FX Fast Ethernet physical layer standard,
Gigabit Ethernet (1000 BASE-X standards; 1000 BASE-SX & 1000
BASE-LX)

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
• When electrons move, they create electromagnetic waves that can

propagate through free space (even in a vacuum).
• By attaching an antenna of the appropriate size to an electrical circuit, the
electromagnetic waves can be broadcast efficiently and received by a
receiver some distance away. All wireless communication is based on this
principle.
• There are basically two types of configurations for wireless transmission:
directional or omnidirectional.
• For the directional configuration, the transmitting antenna puts out a
focused electromagnetic beam; the transmitting and receiving antennas
must therefore be carefully aligned.
• In the omni-directional case, the transmitted signal spreads out in all
directions and can be received by many antennas. In general, the higher,
the frequency of a signal, the more it is possible to focus it into a
directional beam.
• Electromagnetic transmission in air can be radio or microwave
transmission depending on the frequency.
•
Radio Transmission
Properties:
• Radio waves are easy to generate,
• Can travel long distances
• Can penetrate buildings easily, so they are widely used for communication,
both indoors and outdoors.
• Radio waves also are omni directional, meaning that they travel in all
directions from the source so that the transmitter and receiver do not have
to be carefully aligned physically.
• The properties of radio waves are frequency-dependent.
• At low frequencies, radio waves pass through obstacles well, but the
power falls off sharply with distance from the source.
• At high frequencies, radio waves tend to travel in straight lines and bounce
off obstacles. They are also absorbed by rain.
• At all frequencies, radio waves are subject to interference from motors and
other electrical equipment.
Radio Wave Propagation
• In Radio communication systems, we use wireless electromagnetic waves as
the channel.
• The antennas of different specifications can be used for these purposes. The
sizes of these antennas depend upon the bandwidth and frequency of the
signal to be transmitted.
• The mode of propagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere and in
free space may be divided into the following three categories −
Line of sight (LOS) propagation
Ground wave propagation
Sky wave propagation

 Follow contour of the earth  Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere
 Can propagate considerable back down to earth
distances  Signal can travel a number of hops back and forth
 Examples – Amateur radio, CB radio, International
 Example – AM radio, Military
broadcasts
applications  The HF and VHF band transmissions are absorbed
 In the VLF, LF and MF bands by the atmosphere, near the Earth's surface.
the propagation of waves, However, a portion of the radiation called the sky
also called as ground  Transmitting and receiving wave, is radiated outward and upward to the
waves follow the curvature antennas must be within line-of- ionosphere in the upper atmosphere.
of the earth. sight  The ionosphere contains ionized particles formed
 The maximum transmission  infrared or microwave due to the Sun's radiation. These ionized particles
transmissions. reflect the sky waves back to the Earth. A powerful
ranges of these waves are of
sky wave may be reflected several times between
the order of a few hundred the Earth and the ionosphere.
kilometers. By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
Microwave Transmission
• Directional: Above 100MHz, the waves
travel in straight lines and can therefore be
narrowly focused.
• Parabolic Antennas: All the energy is
concentrated into a small beam using a
parabolic antenna (like the familiar satellite
TV dish)
• Alignment: The transmitting and receiving
antennas must be accurately aligned with
each other.
• Penetration: Unlike radio waves at lower
frequencies, microwaves do not pass
through obstacles well
Types:
Terrestrial Microwave
Satellite Microwave
Terrestrial propagation of microwaves
• Directionality allows multiple transmitters lined up in
a row to communicate with multiple receivers in a
row without interference.
• Since the microwaves travel in a straight line, if the
towers are too far apart, the earth will get in the way.
Consequently, repeaters are needed periodically.
• The higher the towers are, the further apart they can
be.
• Repeaters: To increase the distance served by
terrestrial microwave a system of repeaters can be
installed with each antenna. A signal received by one
antenna can be converted back into transmittable
form and relayed to the next antenna
• Terrestrial microwave with repeaters provides the
basis for most contemporary telephone systems
worldwide.
• Use Parabolic dish to focus a narrow beam

Satellite Communication
• A communication satellite
can be thought of as a big
microwave repeater in the
sky.
• It contains several
transponders, each of which
listens to some portion of
the spectrum, amplifies the
incoming signal, and then
rebroadcasts it at another
frequency, to avoid  Satellite relays allow microwave signals to span
interference with the continents and oceans with a single bounce.
incoming signal.  Satellite microwave can provide transmission capability to
and from any location on earth, no matter how remote.
• The downward beam can be  This advantage makes high-quality communication
broad, covering a substantial available to undeveloped parts of the world without
fraction of the earth’s
surface, or narrow, covering requiring a huge investment in ground-based
an area only hundreds of infrastructure.
kilometers in distance.  Satellite are extremely expensive, but leasing time or
frequencies on one can be relatively cheap.

Based on the location of the orbit, satellites can be divided into three categories:
•GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit) at about

36,000km above the earth's surface.
•LEO (Low Earth Orbit) at about 500-

1500km above the earth's surface.
•MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO

(Intermediate Circular Orbit) at about
6000-20,000 km above the earth's surface.
•HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit)

Geosynchronous Satellites (GEO):
• Line-of-sight propagation requires that the sending and
receiving antennas be locked onto each other’s location at all
times (one antenna must have the other in sight).
• To ensure constant communication, the satellite must move at
the same speed as the earth so that it seems to remain fixed
above a certain spot. Such satellites are called geosynchronous.
• Geostationary satellites remain in the same position relative to
the surface of earth.
• Geostationary satellites have a distance of almost 36,000 km to
the earth.
• Applications are
 TV and radio broadcast satellites,
 weather satellites and
 satellites operating as backbones for the telephone
network.
• Three Geostationary satellites are enough for a complete
coverage of almost any spot on earth.
• Receivers and senders can use fixed antenna positions, no
adjusting is needed.
• Lifetime expectations for GEOs are rather high, at about 15
years.
• Geostationary satellites have a 24 hour view of a particular
area.
• Transferring a GEO into orbit is very expensive.

MEO Satellites:
• At much lower orbits we have MEO
(Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites.
• As viewed from earth, these drift
slowly taking 6 hours to circle the
earth.
• Because they are lower than GEOs,
they have a smaller footprint on
ground and require less powerful
transmitters to reach them.
• Used for GPS: GPS is used by military
forces, navigation (a driver of a car
can find location of car), and clock
synchronization ( cellular telephone
system uses GPS to create time
synchronization between the base
stations.

LEO Satellites:
• Moving down in altitude, we have LEO (Low-Earth Orbit) satellites.
• Due to their rapid motion, large numbers of them are needed for a complete system.
• Because the satellites are so close to the earth, the ground stations do not need much
power.
• Three examples of LEOs are Iridium, Globalstar, and Teledesic
• Iridium is targeted at telephone users located at odd places. The system has 66 Iridium
satellites arranged in north-south necklaces (orbits), with one satellite every 32 degrees
of latitude.
• These are used for paging, navigation, voice and data.
• Iridium relays calls from satellite to satellite in space
• Globalstar routes call from satellite to ground based terrestrial network where it is
switched from one to another to reach the destination satellite and from there to the
user.
• Globalstar is based on 48 LEO satellites in six polar orbits with each orbit having eight satellites.
• Teledesic is targeted at Internet users all over the world providing broadband services.
The system is packet-switched in space with each satellite routing packets to its
neighboring satellites. Bandwidth is assigned to users dynamically.
• It has 288 satellites in 12 polar orbits with each orbit hosting 24 satellites. Communication is also
possible between a satellite and an earth gateway station.

With 66 Low-Earth Orbit satellites, Iridium offers
satellite communications voice and data connectivity
anywhere in the world

Infrared Waves
• Unguided infrared waves are widely used for short-range communication.
• The remote controls used on televisions, VCRs and stereos all use infrared
communication.
They are relatively directional,
 cheap and easy to build,
they do not pass through solid objects.
• An advantage of this is that an infrared system in one room of a building will not
interface with a similar system in adjacent rooms.
• Security of infrared systems against eaves dropping is better than radio systems.
• No government license is needed to operate an infrared system, in contrast to radio
systems.
• Infrared communication cannot be used outdoors because the sun shines as brightly in
the infrared as in the visible spectrum.
Applications:
• Used in indoor wireless LANs.
When several people show up for a meeting with their portables, they can just sit down in the
conference room and be fully connected without having to plug in.

DATA TRANSMISSION AND ENCODING
• A Computer Network is a system that is capable of
exchanging data and messages among its
interconnected computers, or DTEs. (DTE, Data
Terminal Equipment, a generic term used for any
digital data generating equipment, including PC
workstations, servers, switches, etc.)
• To do so, the system must consist of the following
components:
Transmission media (within transmission system),
which 'carries' signal from one end to the other.
Cables, optic fibers, etc.
Data Encoding (within DCE, (Data-Circuit terminating
Equipment)), which reshapes the user data to a form
that is more conducive to be 'carried' by the
transmission media. Modem, Codec, etc.
Switching devices (within data network), which route
data from one end user to another. Routers, switches,
etc.
Communication protocols (within DTE), which are a
set of rules allowing end users and switching devices
to send and receive data in an orderly and structured
manner. TCP/IP, LAN access protocols, etc.

Analog and Digital Transmissions through a Telephone Network
• Digital data generated by a computer
needs to be superimposed onto analog
carrier using a modem (modulation).
• Analog signals received by a Codec
needs to be converted to digital signals
over fiber trunks which then travel in
digital form from toll office to toll office.
• Receiving Codec may again convert
digital signals to analog for handling
over to the receiving modem.
• The receiving modem demodulates the
signal and hands over digital data to the
receiving ISP.
• This whole process indicates that a
conversion between digital and analog
signals is a requirement of a
communication system.

Digital Transmission of Analog Data

Data Encoding Techniques
Encoding:
• Digital data to digital signal
• Analog data to digital signal
Modulation:
• Digital data to analog signal
• Analog data to analog signal

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
Digital Data, Digital Signals
• Line Coding Schemes
• NRZ
• NRZ-L
• NRZ-I
• RZ
• Manchester
• Differential Manchester
• Block Coding Schemes
• 4B/5B
• 8B/10B
• Scrambling
Analog Data, Digital Signals [codec ]
• Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) [T1 ]
• Delta Modulation

Line Coding
• Line coding converts a string of
1’s and 0’s (digital data) into a
sequence of signals that denote
the 1’s and 0’s.
• For example a high voltage level Effect of lack of synchronization

(+V) could represent a “1” and a
low voltage level (0 or -V) could
represent a “0”.

Five categories of Line coding
• Unipolar - the signal levels are on one side • Bipolar - there are three voltage
levels: positive, negative, and zero. The
of the time axis, either above or below. voltage level for one data element is at
Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was zero, while the voltage level for the other
designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) element alternates between positive and
scheme in which the positive voltage negative. Examples are Alternate Mark
defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines Inversion (AMI) and Pseudoternary.
bit O. • Multilevel - The desire to increase the data
speed or decrease the required bandwidth
• Polar - the voltages are on both sides of has resulted in the creation of many
the time axis. In polar NRZ encoding, we schemes. The goal is to increase the
use two levels of voltage amplitude. For number of bits per baud by encoding a
example, the voltage level for 0 can be pattern of m data elements into a pattern
of n signal elements. Examples are 2BIQ
positive and the voltage level for 1 can be and 8B6T.
negative.
• Multitransition / Multiline- MLT-3, a
• We can have two versions of polar scheme that maps one bit to one signal
NRZ: NRZ-L and NRZ-I. element.
• Other examples are:
 Return to Zero (RZ)
 Biphase: Manchester and Differential
Manchester.

Unipolar Scheme Unipolar NRZ scheme
• All signal levels are on one side of the time axis

– either above or below
• NRZ – Non Return to Zero scheme is an example
of this code. The signal level does not return to
zero during a symbol transmission.
Non-Return-To-Zero (NRZ)
• NRZ codes share the property that voltage level
is constant during a bit interval.
Loss of clock synchronization due to lack of any
• High level voltage = bit 1 transition in consecutive 0’s
• Low level voltage = bit 0
• A problem arises when there is a long sequence
of 0s or 1s and the voltage level is maintained at
the same value for a long time. This creates a
problem on the receiving end because now, the
clock synchronization is lost due to lack of any
transitions and hence, it is difficult to determine
the exact number of 0s or 1s in this sequence

Polar Schemes Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I
• The voltages are on both sides of the time axis.

• Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two voltages.
E.g. +V for 1 and -V for 0.
Two Variations:
NRZ-Level: In NRZ-L encoding, the polarity of the
signal changes only when the incoming signal changes
from a 1 to a 0 or from a 0 to a 1.
 1 negative voltage
Difference between Unipolar and Polar NRZ
 0  positive voltage
NRZ-Inverted: In NRZ-I encoding, the transition at the
beginning of bit interval is bit 1 and No Transition at
beginning of bit interval is bit 0 or vice versa
 1  existence of a signal transition at the beginning of the
bit time (either a low-to-high or a high-to-low transition)
 0  no signal transition at the beginning of the bit time

Biphase encoding:
Manchester:
Transition from high to low in
middle of interval represents 1
Transition from low to high in
middle of interval represents 0.
Differential-Manchester:
Always a transition in middle of
interval.
 No transition (lack of transition) at
beginning of interval represents 1
 transition at beginning of interval
represents 0.
Manchester Encoding Differential Manchester Coding
 Each bit is transmitted in a fixed time (the
"period").
1  absence of transition at the beginning of the bit interval
 A 0 is expressed by a low-to-high transition,
a 1 by high-to-low transition (according to
0  presence of transition at the beginning of the bit interval
G.E. Thomas' convention)
 (In the IEEE 802.3 convention, the reverse is
true).
 The transitions which signify 0 or 1 occur at
the midpoint of a period.
 Transitions at the start of a period are
overhead and don't signify data.

Example:
Represent the bit sequence 01001110 using both Manchester and differential Manchester encoding on the same vertical axis.
Assume that a positive to negative transition represents a zero in the case of Manchester encoding, while the presence of a
transition means binary zero in Differential Manchester.

Block Coding Schemes – 4B/5B
• 4B/5B - A block coding technique in Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme
which 4 bits are encoded into a 5-bit
code.
• The four binary/five binary (4B/5B)
coding scheme was designed to be used
in combination with NRZ-I.
• Here we convert 4-bits to 5-bits,
ensuring at least one transition in them.
The basic idea here is that 5-bit code
selected must have:
• one leading 0 Substitution in 4B/5B block coding
• no more than two trailing 0s
• Thus it is ensured that we can never
have more than three consecutive 0s.
Now these 5- bit codes are transmitted
using NRZ-I coding thus problem of
consecutive 1s is solved.

Block Coding Schemes – 4B/5B
• Table shows the corresponding pairs used 4B/5B coding as used in FDDI LANs (Fiber
in 4B/5B encoding. Distributed Data Interface)
• The first two columns pair a 4-bit group
with a 5-bit group.
• A group of 4 bits can have only 16
different combinations while a group of 5
bits can have 32 different combinations.
• This means that there are 16 groups that
are not used for 4B/5B encoding.
• Some of these unused groups are used for
control purpose; the others are not used at
all.
• The latter provides a kind of error
detection. If a 5-bit group arrives that
belongs to the unused portion of the table,
the receiver knows that there is an error in
the transmission.

ANALOG –TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Pulse Code Modulation
• A PCM encoder performs three
functions:
 sampling
 quantizing
 encoding
Sampling
• Sampling is the reduction of a
continuous signal to a discrete
signal.
• Sampling is the process of
reading the values of the
filtered analog signal at
discrete time intervals.
• . It results in a sample, which is
discrete (digital) in time but SAMPLING
continuous (analog) in
amplitude.
• Sampling rate, i.e. samples
taken per second, is an
important factor while doing
sampling.

Quantization Encoding
• Quantization is the process of assigning a • Encoding is the process of
discrete value from a range of possible representing the sampled values as
values to each sample obtained. a binary number in the range 0 to n.
• The number of possible values will depend
on the number of bits used to represent
each sample. Common PCM samples are of
8, 16, 20 and 24 bits wide.

Delta Modulation
• PCM is a complex technique. Delta
modulation has been developed to
reduce the complexity of PCM.
• A delta modulation (DM or Δ-
modulation) is an analog-to-
digital conversion technique used
for transmission of voice
information where quality is not of  Delta Modulation attempts to represent an analog
primary importance. signal with a resolution of 1 bit.
• PCM finds the value of the signal  This is accomplished by successive steps, either up or
amplitude for each sample; DM down, by a preset step size. In delta modulation, we
finds the change from the have the following rules for output:
previous sample. If the input signal is higher than the current
• In delta modulation, the reference signal, increase the reference by Δ, and
transmitted data are reduced to a output a 1.
1-bit data stream. If the input signal is lower than the current
reference signal, decrease the reference by Δ, and
output a 0.

DIGITAL TO ANALOG ENCODING ASK encoding
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK) / AMPLITUDE

MODULATION
 In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied to create signal elements i.e.
the strength of the signal is varied to represent
binary 1 or 0. Noise usually affects the amplitude;
 Both frequency and phase remain constant while
the amplitude changes. therefore, ASK is the encoding method most
 Bit duration is the period of time that defines one affected by noise.
bit. The peak amplitude of the signal during each ASK transmission is highly susceptible to
bit duration is constant and its value depends on
the bit (0 or 1). noise interference.
 The speed of transmission during ASK is limited by
the physical characteristics of the transmission
medium.
FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK) / FREQUENCY MODULATION
• In frequency shift keying (FSK), the
frequency of the carrier signal is varied
to represent data i.e. binary 1 or 0.
• The frequency of the modulated signal
is constant for the duration of one
signal element, but changes for the next
signal element if the data element
changes
• Both peak amplitude and phase remain
constant for all signal elements.
• FSK avoids most of the noise problems
of ASK, because the receiving device is
looking for specific frequency changes
over a given number of periods, it can
ignore voltage spikes.
• The limiting factors of FSK are the
physical capabilities of the carrier.

PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK) / PHASE MODULATION
• In phase shift keying (PSK), the
phase is varied to represent binary 1
or 0 (signal elements).
• Both peak amplitude and frequency
remain constant as the phase
changes.
• For example, if we start with the
phase of 0 degrees to represent
binary 0, then we can change the
phase to 180 degrees to send binary
1.
• The phase of the signal during each
bit duration is constant and its value
depends on the bit (0 or 1).

4-PSK
PSK is not susceptible to the noise degradation that
affects ASK, nor to the bandwidth limitations of FSK.
This means that smaller variations in the signal can be
detected reliably by the receiver.
Therefore, instead of utilizing only two variations of a
signal, each representing one bit, we can use four
variations and let each phase shift represent two bits.
The constellation diagram for the signal is given in
figure.
4-PSK characteristics
 A phase of 0 degrees represents 00;
 90 degrees represent 01;
 180 degrees represents 10;
 and 270 degrees represents 11.
 This technique is called 4-PSK or Q-PSK. The pair of bits
represented by each phase is called a dibit.
We can transmit data two times as fast using a 4-PSK as
we can use a 2-PSK
8-PSK
We can extend this idea to 8-PSK. Instead of 90 degrees,
we now vary the signal by shifts of 45 degrees. With 8
different phases, each shift can represent three bits.

QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM)
• Combination of ASK and PSK gives us a good
solution, as we can have x variations in phase and y
variation in amplitude, giving us x times y possible
variations and the corresponding number of bits
per variation.
• Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) does
just that. The term quadrature is derived from the
restrictions required for minimum performance
• Possible variations of QAM are numerous.
• Theoretically any measurable number of changes in
amplitude can be combined with any measurable
number of changes in phase.
• Figure shows two possible configurations, 4-QAM
and 8 - QAM.
• In both cases, the number of amplitude shifts is
fewer than the number of phase shifts.
• Because amplitude changes are susceptible to noise
and require greater shift differences then do phase
changes, the number of phase shifts used by a
QAM system is always larger than the number of
amplitude shifts.

SUMMARY
1. Signals travel from transmitter to receiver via a path. This path, called the
1. In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is
medium, can be guided or unguided.
used for synchronization.
2. A guided medium is contained within physical boundaries, while an unguided
medium is boundless. 2. The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is 2 times that of NRZ.
3. Twisted pair, Coaxial cable, and Optical fiber are the most popular types of 3. Block coding provides redundancy to ensure synchronization and inherent error detection.
guided media. Block coding is normally referred to as mB/nB coding; it replaces each m-bit group with an n-
4. Twisted pair cable consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together. bit group.
5. Coaxial cable consists of a shielded copper wire covered with an insulator, a 4. In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a pattern of n signal elements in
metallic conductor (shield), and a plastic cover.
which 2m ≤ Ln.
6. Fiber optic cables are composed of glass or plastic inner core surrounded by
cladding, all encased in an outside jacket. It carries data signals in the form of 5. B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive zeros with 000VB0VB.
light. 6. Scrambling provides synchronization without increasing the number of bits. Two common
7. Fiber optic transmission is becoming increasingly popular due to its noise scrambling techniques are B8ZS and HDB3.
resistance, low attenuation, and high bandwidth capabilities.
7. The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data (digitization) is
8. Radio waves and microwaves use unguided media and are usually propagated
called pulse code modulation (PCM).
through the air.
8. PCM involves sampling, quantizing, and line coding.
9. Terrestrial microwaves use line-of-sight propagation for data transmission.
Repeaters are used to increase the distance a microwave can travel. Satellite 9. Other sampling techniques have been developed to reduce the complexity of PCM. The
communication uses a satellite in geosynchronous orbit to relay signals. simplest is delta modulation. PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for each sample;
10.Line coding is the process of converting digital data to a digital signal. DM finds the change from the previous sample.
10. Digital-to-analog encoding is the representation of digital information by an analog signal. It

11.l Manchester and Differential Manchester encoding are the most popular polar
is the process of changing one of the characteristics (amplitude, frequency and phase) of an
encoding methods. analog signal based on the information in digital data. This kind of modification is called
modulation (or shift keying) and the information signal is called a modulating signal.
12.In NRZ-L, the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. In NRZ-I,
the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value of the bit.
SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES
1. Andrew S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks”, Pearson Education.
2. Behrouz A. Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking”, Tata McGraw Hill.
3. William Stallings, “Data and Computer Communications”, PHI.
4. Leon-Garcia, Widjaja, “Communication Networks – Fundamental Concepts and Key Architectures”, Tata
McGraw Hill.
5. Michael A. Gallo, William M. Hancock, “ Computer Communications and Networking Technologies”, Cengage
Learning.
6. James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, “ Computer Networking, A Top-Down Approach Featuring the Internet”, third
edition, Pearson Education.
7. Relevant Websites: Online Resources and Web References.

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Data Communication and Computer

TRANSMISSION MEDIA, ENCODING & MODULATION

Dr. SHUCHITA UPADHYAYA BHASIN

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