The Origin of the Universe

 Big Bang Theory states that the universe started as a singularity that exploded. This explosion resulted
to the formation of all the matter in universe.
 Steady State Theory discusses that the universe has always been there and will always be present.
Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle,
 Oscillating Universe Theory also referred to as the Pulsating Theory discusses that the universe is
expanding and will contract once all the energy after the Big Bang is used up. The collapsing of the
universe will then lead to the formation of a new universe. This theory, proposed by Richard Tolman,
can be described as the combination of the Big Bang and the Big Crunch
 Supernova Theory explains that universe comes from an explosion of stars.
 Accretion Theory explains the process of small clumps of dust gathering together to gradually form
planetesimals by gravity.

The Big Crunch Theory says that, one day, the universe will stop growing. Then, it will will collapse into a tiny
point, right where it began.

The Origin of the Solar System

The Nebular Theory explained that the Solar System originated from a nebula that was disrupted by a nearby
supernova. Emmanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant and Pierre- Simon Laplac

The Encounter Theory suggests that the Solar System formed as a result of a near collision between a passing
star and the Sun. georges Leclerc, comte de buffon

The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis stating that the Solar System started
from a nebula that was disrupted which led to the formation of protoplanets. carl von weizsacker, Gerard
kuiper

The Four subsystems of Earth (atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.)

 Atmosphere makes up of all the gases in our planet.

 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 0.9% Argon, 0.10% trace gases
 The troposphere extends to about 14.5 km above the Earth's surface. It is the lowest
layer where the weather forms.
 The stratosphere is found 14.5 to 50 km above the Earth's surface. The ozone layer that
protects the Earth from the Sun's harmful UV radiation is found in this layer.
 The mesosphere extends from 50 to 85 km above the Earth's surface. It protects the
Earth from the impact of space debris.
 The thermosphere is found 85 to 600 km above the Earth's surface. It has charged
particles that are affected by the Earth's magnetic field.
 The exosphere is the farthest layer.

 Geosphere includes all the soil, rocks, and minerals present in the crust to the core of the Earth.
  Crust, Mantel, Outer Core, Inner Core
 Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on Earth in any form: water vapor, liquid water, and ice.
 It is comprised of 97.5% saltwater and 2.5% freshwater
 Biosphere is comprised of all living things and the areas where they are found. It includes all microbes,
plants, and animals.

Matter and energy move and cycle between the four different subsystems to make life on Earth possible

What makes earth habitable

1. Temperature
2. Water
3. Atmosphere
4. Energy
5. Nutrients

Minerals is defined as a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and an ordered
internal structure. Minerals can be identified based on their physical and chemical properties

Physical Properties

1. Crystal Habit = overall shape and pattern. Equant cube, elongate needle like parang pencil, platy flattened

2. Luster = reflection/ differences in the opacity and transparency/ how light reflects

3. Cleavage and Fracture = tendency to break

4. Hardness = diamond pinakahardest, talc pinakamahina

5. Color = most noticeable but the least reliable clues of a minerals identity

6. Streak = color of a mineral when it is broken up or powdered.

Additional Properties

- Specific Gravity
- Taste Odor Feel
- Magnetism
- Reaction with Acid
- Striations

Chemical Properties
Silicates – silicon ex magnesium and iron

Oxides – combination of a metal and oxygen ex sapphire and ruby

Sulfides – made with sulfur, They tend to be heavy and brittle.

Sulfates – made with sulfur and oxygen, It is a large group of minerals that tend to be soft, and translucent.

Halides – Halogen elements like chlorine bromine fluorine. They are very soft and easily dissolved in water.

Carbonates- made of carbon oxygen and a metallic element

Phosphates – formed when other minerals are broken down by weathering

Mineraloid – It is the term used for those substances that do not fit neatly into one of these eight classes.

Rocks are classified according to how they are formed. From the diagram above, we can see that:

1. Igneous rocks or magmatic rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or lava.

Intrusive rocks, or plutonic rocks, are igneous rocks formed underneath the earth.

Extrusive rocks, or volcanic rocks, are igneous rocks formed on the surface of the earth. They are cooled lava,
which are molten rocks ejected on the surface through volcanic

2. Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks that are exposed to extreme heat and pressure in the
Earth’s interior, a process called metamorphism.

Metamorphic rocks can be classified as foliated or non-foliated based on texture.

Foliated metamorphic rocks have layered or banded appearance produced by exposure to high temperatures
and pressures. Examples include slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss.

In contrast, non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have layered appearance. o Examples include marble,
quartzite, and anthracite.

3. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments, a process called
lithification.

Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of sediments from preexisting rocks

Non-clastic sedimentary rocks can be biological, chemical, or a combination of both.

Biological sedimentary rocks are lithified accumulation of dead organisms.

Remember:
Protostar – an early stage in the formation of a star

Dark Energy – a source of anti – gravity

Dark matter – matter that has gravity but does not emit light.

Baryonic Matter – Ordinary matter consisting of PENPSGOB

Nuclear Burning = Nucleosynthesis leads to the formation of chemicals such as hydrogen and helium

Red shift – Galaxies are moving away from each other