IGCSE​ ​Double​ ​Award​ ​Extended​ ​Coordinated​ ​Science

Biology​ ​9.4​ ​-​ ​Variation​ ​and​ ​Selection

Data​ ​Types

You​ ​need​ ​to​ ​know​​ ​the​ ​two​ ​types​ ​of​ ​data​ ​(and​ ​relate​ ​them​ ​to​ ​phenotypic​ ​variation)
- Discrete​ ​data​​ ​(discontinuous)​ ​and​ ​continuous​ ​data

Discrete,​​ ​or​ ​discontinuous​​ ​data​​ ​is​ ​data​ ​that​ ​has​ ​a​ ​limited​ ​number​ ​of​ ​distinct​ ​groups
- This​ ​means​ ​when​ ​you​ ​graph​ ​it,​ ​it​ ​will​ ​be​ ​a​ ​bar​ ​chart​ ​or​ ​a​ ​pie​ ​chart

Discrete​ ​data​ ​in​ ​phenotypes​ ​include:

- Blood​ ​types
- (there​ ​are​ ​4​ ​distinct​​ ​groups​ ​:​ ​A,​ ​B,​ ​AB,​ ​and​ ​O)
- Eye​ ​colour
- (​limited​​ ​number​ ​of​ ​distinct​ ​groups​ ​:​ ​brown,​ ​blue,​ ​grey​ ​etc.)

Note​ ​that​ ​all​ ​discrete​ ​phenotypes​ ​are​ ​purely​ ​genetic​ ​factors

- Blood​ ​type​ ​and​ ​eye​ ​colour​ ​are​ ​only​ ​determined​ ​by​ ​your​ ​DNA
- Environment​ ​cannot​ ​change​ ​it

Continuous​ ​data​​ ​is​ ​data​ ​that​ ​has​ ​range​ ​(infinite​ ​number)​ ​of​ ​data​ ​between​ ​two​ ​extremes
- Infinite​ ​number​ ​of​ ​data​ ​points​ ​means​ ​basically​ ​the​ ​data​ ​can​ ​be​ ​measured​ ​in​ ​decimals
- Meaning​ ​that​ ​it​ ​will​ ​be​ ​graphed​ ​by​ ​a​ ​line​ ​graph​ ​or​ ​a​ ​scatter​ ​graph

Continuous​ ​data​ ​in​ ​phenotypes​ ​include:

- Height
- You​ ​can​ ​have​ ​any​ ​value​ ​of​ ​height​ ​between​ ​extremes
- Weight
- Just​ ​like​ ​height,​ ​any​ ​value​ ​between​ ​extremes
- Skin​ ​tone
- You​ ​cannot​ ​divide​ ​skintone​ ​into​ ​exact​ ​groups

For​ ​continuous​ ​data,​ ​notice​ ​that​ ​these​ ​phenotypes​ ​can​ ​be​ ​a​ c
​ ombination​ ​of​ ​genetic​ ​and​ ​environmental​ ​factors​.
Weight​ ​for​ ​example,​ ​can​ ​be​ ​determined​ ​by​ ​both​ ​genetic​ ​and​ ​environmental:
- Genetic​ ​factors​ ​can​ ​include​ ​low​ ​metabolic​ ​rates​ ​etc.
- Environmental​ ​factors​ ​can​ ​include​ ​diet​ ​and​ ​exercise.

However​ ​some​ ​data​ ​are​ ​purely​ ​environmental​ ​too,​ ​like:

- Accent
- Language​ ​etc.

These​ ​differences​ ​in​ ​phenotypes​ ​are​ ​called​ ​variation​.

 Mutation

You​ ​need​ ​to​ ​know​​ ​what​ ​mutation​ ​is​ ​and​ ​how​ ​it​ ​can​ ​be​ ​caused

Mutation​​ ​can​ ​also​ ​be​ ​a​ ​source​ ​of​ ​variation,

Usually​ ​variation​ ​occurs​ ​as​ ​a​ ​result​ ​of​ ​sexual​ ​reproduction​ ​or​ ​environmental​ ​change

A​ ​variation​ ​by​ ​mutation​ ​is​ ​caused​ ​by​ ​a​ ​change​ ​in​ ​gene​ ​or​ ​a​ ​chromosome.

Mutation​ ​can​ ​be​ ​caused​ ​by:

- Chemicals
- An​ ​error​ ​in​ ​cell​ ​division
- Ionising​ ​radiation

Ionising​ ​radiation​​ ​includes​ ​the​ ​three​ ​most​ ​energetic​ ​electromagnetic​ ​waves​ (​ more​ ​in​ ​unit​ ​P9)
- Gamma​ ​radiation​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​[most​ ​ionising]
- X-radiation​ ​(X-ray)
- Ultraviolet​ ​(UV)​ ​radiation​​ ​ ​ ​[least​ ​ionising]

- They​ ​have​ ​enough​ ​energy​ ​to​ ​ionise​​ ​(​remove​,​ ​or​ ​strip​ ​off,​ ​electrons​)​ ​atoms​ ​-​ ​to​ ​become​ ​ions
- When​ ​atoms​ ​becomes​ ​ions​ ​they​ ​change​ ​their​ ​behaviour

- When​ ​a​ ​DNA​ ​molecule​ ​is​ ​hit​ ​by​ ​ionising​ ​radiations,​ ​it​ ​changes​ ​its​ ​genes​ ​(mutates)​ ​and​ ​the​ ​outcomes​ ​can​ ​be:

- Positive​ ​change
- Maybe​ ​a​ ​gene​ ​chances​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​a​ ​more​ ​useful​ ​version​ ​of​ ​a​ ​protein

- No​ ​change
- This​ ​is​ ​what​ ​happens​ ​most​ ​of​ ​the​ ​time

- Negative​ ​mutation
- A​ ​gene​ ​might​ ​be​ ​changed​ ​to​ ​start​ ​producing​ ​a​ ​malfunctioning​ ​protein
- e.g.​ ​sickle​ ​cell​ ​anaemia​ ​(produces​ ​malfunctioning​ ​red​ ​blood​ ​cells)
- Or​ ​a​ ​very​ ​extreme​ ​negative​ ​mutation,​ ​cancer
- Cancer​ ​cells​ ​are​ ​essentially​ ​mutated​ ​cells​ ​that​ ​no​ ​longer​ ​function​ ​properly
- All​ ​it​ ​does​ ​is​ ​infinitely​ ​divide​ ​and​ ​use​ ​up​ ​all​ ​the​ ​resources

- When​ ​a​ ​gamete​ ​(a​ ​sex​ ​cell)​ ​is​ ​mutated,​ ​the​ ​mutation​ ​is​ ​inherited.
 Natural​ ​Selection

You​ ​need​ ​to​ ​know​​ ​how​ ​natural​ ​selection​ ​works

Natural​ ​selection​,​ ​or​ ​“​survival​ ​of​ ​the​ ​fittest​”​ ​is​ ​a​ ​theory​ ​proposed​ ​by​ ​Charles​ ​Darwin,
- “The​ ​different​ ​survival​ ​and​ ​reproduction​ ​of​ ​individuals​ ​due​ ​to​ ​their​ ​different​ ​phenotypes”

The​ ​most​ ​“fit”​ ​individuals​ ​will​ ​survive​ ​and​ ​have​ ​the​ ​highest​ ​chances​ ​of​ ​reproducing​ ​and​ ​passing​ ​on​ ​their​ ​“fit”​ ​genes.
- “Fit”​ ​here​ ​means​ ​most​ ​adapted​ ​to​ ​the​ ​environment

- Taking​ ​giraffes​ ​as​ ​an​ ​example:

1. At​ ​first​ ​there​ ​are​ ​many​ ​different​ ​giraffe​ ​individuals,​ ​of​ ​varying​ ​neck​ ​lengths
- Meaning​ ​some​ ​have​ ​the​ ​genes​ ​for​ ​long​ ​necks​ ​and​ ​some​ ​have​ ​the​ ​genes​ ​for​ ​short​ ​necks
2. After​ ​time​ ​the​ ​leaves​ ​(food)​ ​in​ ​the​ ​lower​ ​trees​ ​have​ ​been​ ​depleted​ ​(change​ ​in​ ​environment)
- This​ ​means​ ​only​ ​the​ ​giraffes​ ​with​ ​longer​ ​necks​ ​can​ ​eat​ ​food
3. The​ ​giraffes​ ​with​ ​short​ ​necks​ ​will​ ​die​ ​and​ ​will​ ​not​ ​be​ ​able​ ​to​ ​reproduce
4. Only​ ​the​ ​giraffes​ ​with​ ​long​ ​necks​ ​(better​ ​adapted​ ​for​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​-​ ​more​ ​“fit”)​ ​will​ ​survive
- Meaning​ ​they​ ​can​ ​reproduce​ ​and​ ​pass​ ​on​ ​their​ ​“long​ ​neck”​ ​genes
- Produces​ ​“fitter”​ ​offsprings
5. Over​ ​long​ ​periods​ ​of​ ​time,​ ​this​ ​process​ ​will​ ​repeat
- Only​ ​the​ ​giraffes​ ​with​ ​the​ ​longest​ ​of​ ​the​ ​longest​ ​necks​ ​will​ ​survive
6. In​ ​the​ ​end,​ ​the​ ​whole​ ​population​ ​of​ ​giraffes​ ​will​ ​have​ ​the​ ​gene​ ​for​ ​long​ ​necks

Natural​ ​selection​ ​is​ ​the​ ​key​ ​to​ ​evolution​:

- The​ ​change​ ​in​ ​heritable​ ​traits​ ​of​ ​a​ ​population​ ​overtime

- Only​ ​the​ ​best​ ​“genes”​ ​survive​ ​and​ ​overtime​ ​all​ ​of​ ​the​ ​population​ ​will​ ​have​ ​that​ ​gene
- Because​ ​all​ ​the​ ​individuals​ ​without​ ​the​ ​gene​ ​did​ ​not​ ​survive​ ​to​ ​reproduce.
- The​ ​resulting​ ​species​ ​will​ ​have​ ​better​ ​genes​ ​and​ ​hence​ e ​ volved​ ​to​ ​better​ ​suit​ ​their​ ​habitats

If​ ​this​ ​process​ ​happens​ ​with​ ​a​ ​single​ ​species​ ​which​ ​is​ ​subjects​ ​to​ ​two​ ​different​ ​environments:
- e.g.​ ​starting​ ​with​ ​the​ ​same​ ​“bear”,​ ​one​ ​is​ ​taken​ ​to​ ​the​ ​arctic​ ​and​ ​one​ ​is​ ​taken​ ​to​ ​the​ ​jungles
- By​ ​natural​ ​selection,​ ​they​ ​will​ ​start​ ​to​ ​evolve​ ​differently​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​environment
- If​ ​the​ ​species​ ​have​ ​separately​ ​evolved​ ​and​ ​can​ n ​ o​ ​longer​ ​reproduce​ ​with​ ​each​ ​other​​ ​(cannot​ ​interbreed)
- They​ ​have​ ​evolved​ ​into​ ​two​ ​different​ ​species
- This​ ​is​ ​called​ ​speciation
You​ ​need​ ​to​ ​know​​ ​how​ ​natural​ ​selection​ ​can​ ​be​ ​harmful​ ​to​ ​humans

Natural​ ​selection​ ​works​ ​to​ ​allow​ ​the​ ​species​ ​to​ ​survive​ ​further​ ​and​ ​become​ ​stronger
- What​ ​if​ ​natural​ ​selection​ ​happened​ ​with​ ​bacteria?
- This​ ​means​ ​only​ ​the​ ​strongest​ ​bacteria​ ​will​ ​survive​ ​(which​ ​is​ ​bad​ ​for​ ​us)

For​ ​example,​ ​humans​ ​use​ ​antibiotics​ ​to​ ​kill​ ​bacteria

- This​ ​will​ ​kill​ ​off​ ​most​ ​of​ ​the​ ​bacteria
- BUT​ ​some​ ​bacteria​ ​that​ ​have​ ​different​ ​genes​ ​can​ ​survive​ ​the​ ​antibiotic
- (maybe​ ​producing​ ​a​ ​protein​ ​that​ ​somehow​ ​destroys​ ​the​ ​antibiotic​ ​molecule)
- This​ ​means​ ​the​ ​only​ ​surviving​ ​bacteria​ ​will​ ​have​ a
​ ntibiotic​ ​resistant​ ​genes
- They​ ​will​ ​proceed​ ​to​ ​reproduce​ ​and​ ​soon:
- The​ ​specific​ ​antibiotic​ ​will​ ​no​ ​longer​ ​work​ ​on​ ​the​ ​whole​ ​of​ ​the​ ​bacteria​ ​population
- Meaning​ ​humans​ ​have​ ​to​ ​find​ ​a​ ​new​ ​cure​ ​etc.

Artificial​ ​Selection

You​ ​need​ ​to​ ​know​​ ​what​ ​artificial​ ​selection​ ​is​ ​and​ ​how​ ​it​ ​is​ ​useful​ ​to​ ​humans

Artificial​ ​selection​​ ​works​ ​in​ ​the​ ​same​ ​way​ ​as​ ​natural​ ​selection
- But​ ​instead​ ​of​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​killing​ ​off​ ​the​ ​weaker​ ​genes​ ​and​ ​leaving​ ​the​ ​stronger​ ​genes​ ​to​ ​reproduce,
- Humans​ ​“pick​ ​out”​ ​the​ ​stronger​ ​genes​ ​and​ ​breed​ ​them

For​ ​example,​ ​if​ ​farmers​ ​wanted​ ​to​ ​grow​ ​tomatoes,​ ​at​ ​first​ ​there​ ​will​ ​be​ ​many​ ​different​ ​tomatoes
- After​ ​growing​ ​them,​ ​some​ ​will​ ​have​ ​grown​ ​taller,​ ​or​ ​have​ ​grown​ ​larger​ ​tomatoes
- The​ ​farmer​ ​“selects”​ ​those​ ​tomatoes​ ​and​ ​breeds​ ​them
- The​ ​offsprings​ ​of​ ​the​ ​larger​ ​tomatoes​ ​will​ ​have​ ​the​ ​genes​ ​for​ ​larger​ ​products
- And​ ​cycle​ ​continues

Artificial​ ​selection​ ​is​ ​useful​ ​for​ ​humans​ ​as​ ​it​ ​maximises​ ​the​ ​product​ ​output​ ​(more​ ​economically​ ​efficient)
- e.g.​ ​same​ ​no.​ ​of​ ​tomato​ ​plants​ ​but​ ​larger​ ​fruits

Same​ ​theory​ ​works​ ​with​ ​animals

- Chickens​ ​are​ ​artificially​ ​bred​ ​to​ ​give​ ​larger​ ​chickens​ ​with​ ​more​ ​meat​ ​etc.
- Modern​ ​chickens​ ​are​ ​almost​ ​4​ ​times​ ​as​ ​large​ ​as​ ​older​ ​chickens
The​ ​syllabus​ ​says​ ​you​ ​should​ ​be​ ​able​ ​to,​ ​(SO​ ​check​ ​if​ ​you​ ​can):
- State​ ​that​ ​continuous​ ​variation​ ​is​ ​influenced​ ​by​ ​genes​ ​and​ ​environment,​ ​resulting​ ​in​ ​a​ ​range​ ​of​ ​phenotypes​ ​between​ ​two
- extremes,​ ​e.g.​ ​height​ ​in​ ​humans.
- State​ ​that​ ​discontinuous​ ​variation​ ​is​ ​caused​ ​by​ ​genes​ ​alone​ ​and​ ​results​ ​in​ ​a​ ​limited​ ​number​ ​of​ ​distinct​ ​phenotypes​ ​with
no​ ​intermediates,​ ​e.g.​ ​A,​ ​B,​ ​AB​ ​and​ ​O​ ​blood​ ​groups​ ​in​ ​humans.
- Define​ ​mutation​ ​as​ ​a​ ​change​ ​in​ ​a​ ​gene​ ​or​ ​chromosome.
- Outline​ ​the​ ​effects​ ​of​ ​ionising​ ​radiation​ ​on​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​mutation.

- Describe​ ​variation,​ ​and​ ​state​ ​that​ ​competition​ ​leads​ ​to​ ​differential​ ​survival​ ​of,​ ​and​ ​reproduction​ ​by,​ ​those​ ​organisms​ ​best
- fitted​ ​to​ ​the​ ​environment.
- Define​ ​natural​ ​selection​ ​as​ ​the​ ​greater​ ​chance​ ​of​ ​passing​ ​on​ ​of​ ​genes​ ​by​ ​the​ ​best-adapted​ ​organisms.
- Explain​ ​the​ ​importance​ ​of​ ​natural​ ​selection​ ​as​ ​a​ ​possible​ ​mechanism​ ​for​ ​evolution.
- Describe​ ​the​ ​development​ ​of​ ​strains​ ​of​ ​antibiotic​ ​resistant​ ​bacteria​ ​as​ ​an​ ​example​ ​of​ ​natural​ ​selection.
- Describe​ ​the​ ​role​ ​of​ ​artificial​ ​selection​ ​in​ ​the​ ​production​ ​of​ ​varieties​ ​of​ ​animals​ ​and​ ​plants​ ​with​ ​increased​ ​economic
importance.