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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

The character of the earth’s surface influences the uses to which it is put by mankind (Norton,

2010). The first attribute of the earth’s surface is its relief - elevation and slopes. Elevation refers to

heights of places above sea level (Mozie, 2011). Elevation influences human activities, from the

perspective of the relationship between height, slope aspect and temperature. Unequivocally, the basic

needs of man are ameliorated through the various uses to which land is put. Land is the most valuable

resource endowed to man by nature. Every landscape has specific topographic, soil and climatic

attributes which enhance or deter the use of that land. The utilization of any piece of land depends

greatly on the nature of the topography which determines moisture content, temperature and soil-rock

complex on that piece of land (Ayadiuno, Mozie and Ndulue, 2020).

Dredging is an excavation activity or operation usually carried out at least partly underwater,

in shallow seas or fresh water areas with the purpose of gathering up bottom sediments and disposing

them at a different location. This technique is often used to keep waterways navigable.

According to Robbins (2016), dredging is an excavation activity of operations usually carried

out at least partly under water, in shallow seas or fresh water areas with purpose of gathering up

bottom sediments and disposing them at a different location. He further asserted that dredging helps to

keep waterway navigable, and also a way of replenishing sand on some public beaches, where sand

has been lost because of coastal erosion. Walker, Hillman, Kendrick and Lavery (2011) defined

dredging as an activity that is done or carried out using a device, machine or vessel that is used to

excavate and remove materials from the bottom of a body of water, for example, a scoop is attached

to the rope or pole by which a man can draw sediments up from the bottom of a pond, or river. In the
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view of Watson, Revenga and Kura (2016), dredging involves the excavation and relocation of

sediments from lakes, rivers, estuaries or seabed and is a critical component of most major marine

infrastructure development along the coast.

Dredging is a worldwide excavation activity that involves removing sediment from a sea,

river, or lake bed and depositing it at a new location (Thomsen, McCully, Wood, Pace and White,

2009; Brunn, Gayes, and Eiser, 2015). They further reported that uses of dredged materials are vast

and include construction of ports, waterways, dykes, and other marine infrastructure, land

reclamation, flood and storm protection, extraction of the construction industry (e.g. for road

construction and buildings) and in environmental remediation of contaminated sediments.

Soil is a natural resource, and a consequence of natural process of weathering which is a key

constituent in the construction and allied industries are found in abundance in most oceans, rivers,

streams, flood plains and hills. The increased demand for sand has placed rivers where sand is found

vulnerable to the vagaries of anthropogenic activities. Among which uncontrolled and continuous soil

mining is the most disastrous because it portends great threat to the existing bionetwork and

waterways (Kondolf, 2014).

The dynamics of emerging urbanization with its attendant growth in population, settlements,

industrialization and associated changes have also contributed in the uncontrolled and

overexploitation of sand around in-stream locations.

The act and art of soil mining in the opinion and field experiences of researchers involves the

mining of the soil over open pits which most times occurs around inland dunes, river beds and

beaches. The actions of humans had impeded the functioning of river systems. Soil based on its

importance is a very useful and easily available construction material like gravel and clay but has fast

depletion rate and a stunted replenishing time. Rivers unlike land are usually the most evolving
 3

ecosystem due to its recharging system and prominence as a means of sustenance to marine flora and

fauna (Johnbull and Brown, 2017).

Soil is a low-priced readily available natural resource, a product of weathering, with

constituent parts of other minerals and rock mostly found in deserts and seashores (Mwangi, 2007,

Saviour, 2012). River sand basically are soil extracted from the banks and beds of rivers. But the

practice has been encumbered with rudimentary and unsustainable techniques in its mining which has

led to serious ecological conditions of the ecosystem of the mining sites and adjoining environment.

This has resulted in inequity and misplaced priority of the miners and owners of those sites which

causes more harm than good to all concerned (Johnbull and Brown, 2017).

River sand as the name implies is a natural resource found in abundance within and around

some coastal regions in the world but the processes and techniques of extraction have been given little

considerations in most developing countries in the Global South. The attention is required especially

in the recharge time, the environmental, social and economic challenges and the reference state. The

emphasis most times is placed on the income streams it generates, the tangible accruals derivable

from this resource and other short term benefits (Johnbull and Brown, 2017).

Most of the Rationale for dredging are that the processes of eutrophication, sedimentation and

pollution usually lead to collection and passage of rough, dirty and heavily polluted water, and this in

turn give rise to environmental health, social and economic concerns (Adebimpe and Oladejo, 2012).

Consequently dredging activities are carried out to help to reduce aquatic vegetation growth by

lowering the river bed below photic zone (the depth of water in a lake, river, sea or ocean, which is

exposed to sufficient sunlight to allow photosynthesis to take place). This in turn will help in dealing

with nutrient loading, increase the habitat of fishes and reduce the breeding ground for mosquitoes

(Njoku, 2010).
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International Association of Dredging Company (IADC) (2012) opined that population growth

and increasing number and size of infrastructure projects mean that demand for dredging, volume of

aggregate, and turnover will most likely increase. Since dredging impacts the marine environment,

sustainable management of the activity is required, based on in-depth understanding of how dredging

affects marine habitats and associated fauna and flora (Thrush and Dayton, 2012; David, Hitchcock

and Bell, 2014; Erftemeijer and Lewis, 2016). Globally, dredging activities certainly affect the global

economy and in fact still plays a huge role in global trade (Bob, 2015). IADC (2012), reported an

estimated 11.68 billion of dredging work. In Nigeria, dredging activities are a major environmental

problem (Abubaker, Alzubi and Alzyond, 2011). They further noted that mining industries and

dredging practices in particular are vastly known for their hazardous working condition and the

unstable nature of the earth-crust which minerals are extracted is causing threat to life and properties

of the society.

Despite the necessity of dredging for industrial development, its potential impacts on the

environment are particular concern as multiple potential stressors associated with dredging activities

are sediment stress (suspended and deposited), release of toxic contaminants, hydraulic entrainment

and noise pollution (Reine, Clerk and Dickerson, 2014; McCook, Schaffelke, Erftemeijer and Warne,

2015). The process of dredging creates spoils (excess materials), which are carried away from the

dredging area; dredging can create disturbance in aquatic ecosystem after with adverse impacts

(Bertha, 2009). He further claimed that dredging can create much effect on land. Dredging has a

number of undesirable geomorphic consequences, showing the vertical incision and bank

destabilization can occur from dredging activities (Mmom and Chukwu-Okeah, 2012).

Dredging as already stated entails the excavation of material from sea, river or lake beds and

its relocation elsewhere; it is a necessary activity in infrastructural development. Amongst others, it

improves navigable depths in ports, harbours and shipping channels, water and flood management,
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creation of new lands and habitats, and derivation of minerals from underwater deposits which is

crucial for sustainable development of nature resources, economic values and quality of life (Central

Dredging Association, 2009). Impacts of dredging on water column due to excavation and bottom

sediments removal include, increase in turbidity which is consequent to the resuspension of sediments

(Newell et al., 2018). Other impacts may result from the dredging of polluted areas with an associated

release of anoxic bottom sediments to the surface, leading to the oxidation of metal sulphides

(Caetano et al., 2013).

Biologically available cations are released in this process, a common phenomenon observed in

estuaries subjected to dredging (Monteiro et al., 2015; Vale et al., 2018). This mobilisation process

impacts estuarine water systems due to the persistent toxicity effects of a number of trace elements

(Pan et al., 2012; Cabrita et al., 2013). Emerging increase in anthropogenic pressures, including

dredging of estuarine systems, warrants the development of physical, biological and chemical

indicators of water quality and ecological change for effective policy implementations in aquatic

systems (Rogers and Greenaway, 2005). Phytoplankton are efficient and easily detectable indicators

of water and ecological change due to their sensitivity to several environmental stressors (Paerl et al.,

2017). Ecological impacts emanating from the dredging of vulnerable environments are damages to

flora and fauna, topographic and hydrological alterations coupled with water quality impairments.

Zooplankton, phytoplankton, benthic invertebrates and vegetation are other components of the aquatic

environment affected by dredging activities (Ohimain et al., 2012a; Ohimain et al., 2012b; Ade

Sobande and Associates, 2018).

The socio-economic functions of coastal environments are also often hampered by dredging

operations thus creating ecosystem imbalance. Sediment characteristics are a determinant factor in

contamination of dredged marine environments. This is due to the retention and adsorption of

contaminants to sediments by contaminants that have settled on the bottom of marine water beds (US
 6

Geological Survey, 2014). Mangrove zones bordering estuarine environments are characterized by

sediments and soils rich in iron sulphides (Ohimain, 2014). Exposing these sulphide-containing

sediments through dredging initiate oxidative reactions results in acidification of estuarine

environments (Sammut and Lines-Kelly, 2016). Acidifications of estuarine systems have been

implicated as the cause of death in fish, vegetation, and change in water quality, and contamination by

heavy metals (Ohimain, 2013a; Ohimain, 2013b). Although resuspension of sediments and

subsequent increased turbidity brought about by dredging enhances the attenuation of light thus

influencing phytoplankton abundance, this factor might not be critical to hinder phytoplankton

productivity in dredged areas (Burford and O’Donohue, 2016).

Land reclamation is one of the main areas of interest for the dredging industry. It comprises

dredging large amounts of sea sand transported over considerable distances to create a new land for

industrial or infrastructure purposes. Potential effects of dredging on the marine environment include

effects of the dredging process and disposal process. The reclamation site and dredging site both

undergo biological, physical and chemical impacts (Mostafa, 2012). Dredged material may cause

suspended solids during dredging as a result of substratum disturbance and during transport to the

surface, overflow from barges or leakage from pipelines during transport between dredged and

disposal sites. Dredging may affect the physical environment by changing the bathymetry, current

velocity and wave conditions (Jensen and Mogensen, 2017).

Light attenuation by suspended sediments affects the amount of light available to seagrass

plants, coral reef and several marine organisms. Turbidity should not only be expressed in terms of a

reduction of light but also by investigation of suspended solid concentrations (Bogers and Gardner,

2014). Cruz-Motta and Collins (2014) found that soft bottom macrobenthic assemblages might

respond quickly to the disturbance associated with the dumping of dredged material. Erfetmeijer and

Lewis (2016) presented a worldwide review of documented cases of dredging and sand mining
 7

operations in or near seagrass meadows. Seagrass beds, covering about 0.1–0.2% of the global ocean

floor, are highly productive ecosystems that play a key role in the coastal zones (Duarte, 2012).

A large number of reports documented adverse impacts on seagrass beds from dredging

operations yet there are several other (mostly recent) cases that reported no impacts on seagrass.

There appears to be an increasing awareness among dredging contractors and regulatory bodies on the

economic and ecological value of seagrass (Erfetmeijer and Lewis, 2016).

Recent large scale dredging and land reclamation works in Singapore covering area of 100 km2 are

likely to have caused damage to seagrass bed but this has not been documented. More recently, a

series of some of the largest land reclamation works in recent history have been conducted in Dubai,

UAE (Mostafa, 2012).

The reclaimed area is estimated to be about 200 km 2 (De Jong et al., 2015). Reclamationin

Bahrain resulted in adding about 91 km2 representing an increase of 11% of the total land area

(Naser, 2011). Some recent research documented the problems arising from land reclamation works

and industrial activities in the Arabian Gulf such as (Hamza and Munawar, 2009) and (Sheppard et

al., 2010).

Fettweis et al., (2011) studied the impact of continuous disposal of fine grained sediments

from maintenance dredging works on the suspended particulate matter (SPM) concentration during

dredging experiments at Port of Zeebrugge, southern North Sea. Their data revealed that the SPM

concentration near the bed was on average more than two times higher during the dredging

experiment.

In 1996, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) issued guidelines for coastal

development in Egypt. The main objective of these guidelines was to establish environmental

regulations mainly for the construction facilities along the Egyptian coastlines and introduce the basic

principles to investors in ecological sensitive areas (Abul-Azm and Rakha, 2012).

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Nigeria is a developing country whose urban cities, including Enugu State, are expanding at a

high rate, thus sand dredging will continue to be a major source for land reclamation purpose and

building materials for housing development. Consequently, soil dredging operations would still be

very much relevant to the construction industry in Enugu state in actualizing its mega city pursuit and

will remain so for several years. Agwu LGA which is a hilly area in Enugu state with several high and

low land variation has favoured soil dredging activities due to the abundance of sandy soil and other

forms of sands used for construction from her hills and fresh waters. These activities has several

positive and negative effect on the environment and the socio-activities of the natives of the study

area. This work is focused on evaluating the environmental and socio-economic effect of soil

dredging in Agwu LGA Enugu State.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Dredging has created a lot of problems and these include change in the aquatic ecosystem,

environmental pollution, flooding of coastal land and erosion, infrastructural damage, flooding of

coastal land and reduction in the population of aquatic lives useful to man (Fortes, 2011). Dredging

activities often disturb sediments reducing visibility and smothering reef organisms (Fortes, 2011).

Ohimain and Van Mensvoort (2014) asserted that dredging has been associated with widespread

hydrological changes as it may disrupt the dynamic interrelationship between environmental

components and socio-economic functions of these coastal areas, thus creating an imbalance in the

ecosystem. The extent at which dredging occurs in rivers, lakes, ponds, coastal regions is becoming a

treat (IADC) (2012). Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2013) reported that dredging activities

has potential to change the environment, as well as toxicant, the nutrients (elements), particularly

nitrogen and phosphorus which control the rate of marine plant growth, can be released from

sediments during dredging with a risk of triggering algae blooms. Dredging activities potentially

affect not only the site itself, but also surrounding areas, through a large number of impact factors
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such as turbidity, sedimentation, resuspension and release of contaminants effects can be immediate

or develop over a longer time frame and they may be temporary or permanent in nature (Wolanski and

Gibbs, 2014).

Dredging activities is one of the ways through which aquatic habitat is disturbed. Rivers and

Coast (2010) stated that the economic consequences of sand dredging may include declines in fishery

species populations and catch, impacts of increased turbidity or toxin release on aquaculture activities

and increased shoreline erosion due to boat wakes in previously non-boatable areas.

Increasing demand for sand for construction purpose and the supply gap created by dredging

on land has made river/sea sand dredging a major threat to aquatic habitat. According to Ramilan et

al. (2011), until recently, analysis of the performance of the agricultural sub-sector has tended to

ignore such negative externalities. The current emphasis on environmental issue makes it pertinent for

farmers to target improvements in both environmental performance and productivity. They submitted

that measuring the environmental performance of farms and integrating this information into farm

productivity calculations should assist in making informed policy decisions which promote

sustainable development.

While there are studies on effect of sand dredging on artisanal fishing in Nigeria, none of these

studies incorporate environmental factor in their analyses. Reinhard et al. (2019) identifies dairy

farms which were both technically and environmentally efficient by treating nitrogen surplus as an

environmentally detrimental input. The ill effects of dredging on health and environment are

enormous if not properly managed. Dredging and disposal of contaminated sediment can adversely

affect water quality, aquatic and terrestrial organisms.

This work is focused on discovering the various soil dredging activities in the study area and

evaluating their environmental and socio-economic effect, as from field observation, soil dredging
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activities have being noted around Lokpa nta, Mmaku, Mgbowo, Mpu and Agwu town itself to the

tune of about 10 trucks of excavated soil per day.

1.3. Objective of the study

The aim of the study is to examine the environmental and socio-economic effects of soil dredging in

Agwu LGA Enugu State. The specific objectives are to:

(i) Ascertain the level of soil dredging in Agwu LGA Enugu State;

(ii) Determine the factors influencing dredging activities in the study area;

(iii) Determine the effects of the dredging activities on water quality, aquatic and terrestrial

organisms in the study area.

(iv) Determine the economic effect of soil dredging on the study area.

1.4. Study Area

1.4.1. Location and Climate

The study area is Agwu Local Government Area of Enugu State, Southeastern Nigeria. It is located

between latitudes 60 00’ and 060 19’N and longitudes 070 23’ and 070 35’E. It is bound in the north

by Enugu North, in the west by Oji, in the east by Aniri Local Government Areas all in Enugu State

and in the south by Okigwe Local Government Area, in Imo State (Ndulue et al. 2021). Agwu Local

Governments is made up of eighteen (18) communities which are Agbogugu, Isu-Awa, Ituku, Ihe,

Ogbaku Ndiagu, Owelli Ogugu, Agbudu, Amaowelle, Mmaku, Ugbo, Obeagu, Mgbidi, Ugwueme,

Ugwuokpara, Agwu, Agwunta and Mgbowo (Mozie, 2011; Nwankwo, 2014). The study area falls

within the ‘Am’ climate of the Koppen’s classification. It receives an annual rainfall of 1750mm-

2000mm. The study area annual temperature range of 270 – 280 C. as a result of latitudinal position

of the study area, the angle of the sun’s ray is almost vertical all through the year and so, there is high

intensity of solar radiation. The hours of day light are also long because of long duration of solar

radiation all through the year. Therefore, the average monthly hour’s day light is almost constant.
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There are other factors that modify the actual amount of solar radiation received in the study area at

different times of the year. Absorption aside, selective scattering and diffuse reflection by the earth’s

atmosphere, the effect of cloud cover, rainfall and harmattan haze also help to modify the actual

amount if insulation received. The sensible temperature (temperature as it affects human body) is very

uncomfortable because the high temperature of over 210C is accompanied by high humidity of over

65 percent all the year round (Ndulue et al. 2021). This implies that there is comparatively little

evaporation of perspiration from the body, consequently people feel uncomfortable (Monanu, 2015).

In January, when the temperature is high, relative humidity is low because the wind affecting

the study area at this time is the dry continental Air mass. As from April, temperature decreases

steadily while relative humidity reaches its maximum. Between June and September; relative

humidity reaches a minimum at the same period. The relative humidity is due to the influence of

humid Maritime Air Mass. In the climate regions classification, Agwu has three (3) dry months with

less than 6cm rainfall a month (Inyang, 2015). Agwu which belongs to the fourth region has three

months instead of four, a probability of 33 per cent and more rain days (118) than Okigwe and Afikpo

respectively. This modification seems to be as the result of favorable Orographic influence on Agwu

which is on the windward slope of the Agwu escarpment (Ndulue et al. 2021).
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1.4.2. Study Area Map-

Fig. 1.1. Map of Agwu Local Government Area (Source: Ndulue et al., 2021).
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1.4.3. Geology, Relief and Drainage

The study area is underlain by the Agu –Ndeaboh shales formed during the Senonian stage consisting

of three subdivisions, namely: Coniacian, Santonian and Campanian (Umeji, 2012). The coniancian

sediments exhibit rapid face changes and the primary unit is typified by the Agwu shales. There is no

unconformity between the Eze-Aku shales (Turonian) and the Agwu shales (Umeji, 2012). These

shales constitute of the plains which are part of the Cross River plains. The Agwu sandstone

constitutes the cuesta structure. They are layered and fractured by tectonism. The study area is also

marked by extensive hills especially in the western flank and lowland in the eastern side; these hills

have steep slopes and could attain an altitude of about 350–400 meters above sea level with mean

slope angle of 150 and a modal class of 110 (Mozie, 2011; Nwankwo, 2014). It is drained mainly by

seasonal finger-like springs and streams. They dry up during the dry season (November to March) and

yield more water in the wet season (April to October). Most of the streams obtain their source from

top of the hills and flow downhill. In the rainy season runoffs are collected by the streams thereby

increasing their volume and velocity. Due to the muddy nature of the streams channels, the water is

usually colored after heavy downpour. The streams carry a lot of debris as they flow from their source

(hill top) to the settlement areas downhill (lower course) (Ndulue et al. 2021). The stream load

(debris) makes the water dirty therefore not suitable for domestic use. Many people that reside at the

very lower course of the streams are affected and they have to trek up to the middle course (foot of the

hills) to collect water (Nwankwo, 2014; Obeta and Nwankwo, 2015).

1.4.4. Soils and Vegetation

Shallow lithosol soils dominate the highlands whose parent material is of sandstone. On the

escarpment, the soil exhibit sandy loam characteristics. On the plains, the two dominant soil types are

alluvial and deep clayey soils because; it is the zone of maximum deposition (Nwankwo, 2014). The

study area is a transition zone between the guinea savanna and the rainforest. The dominant grass
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species are Hyparrhenium spp, Ctenium spp, Hyparrhenia Barteri and Andropogon spp. Forest are

ribbons along depressions and valleys. Common tree species found are Isoberlinadoka, Anona

senegalensis, etc. Grasses envelop the depression in the study area due to favorable soil and ground

water conditions (Nwankwo, 2014).

1.4.5. Economy

The major economic activity for majority of the population is subsistence farming and crops such as

cassava, yam, cocoyam, vegetables, maize, etc. are grown. Bush fallowing, mixed cropping and

shifting cultivation are some of their farming practices. Livestock rearing is also common among

some of the people. Palm wine extraction and stone quarrying are other economic activities also

undertaken in Agwu (Nwankwo, 2014). The major market in Agwu LGA is the Oye market. Various

farm products are traded in the market on wholesale and retail basis every four days. Many of the

people take their farm produce to sell in the market in exchange for other commodities they cannot

produce. People from Nkanu and Enugu urban also patronize the traders in this market especially for

cassava and vegetables (Nwankwo, 2014).

1.5. Plan of Project

This whole project is presented in five chapters. These are,

 Chapter one contains the background of study, statement of research problem, aims and

objective, map of the study area and the project plan.

 Chapter two comprises the literature review and theoretical framework.

 Chapter three covers the research methodology.

 Chapter four is the analysis and discussion.

 Chapter five is the concluding chapter comprising summary of findings

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CHAPTER TWO

2.1. Literature Review

There are various methods of mining sand, namely dry pit and wet pit mining (Hill and Kleynhans,

1999). Dry pit mining is a method used when sand is extracted above water table from a dry stream

bed and exposed bars using conventional bulldozers, scrapers and loaders. Wet pit mining involves

extraction of sand and gravel from below water table stream channel or a perennial river using

hydraulic excavator or dragline. Dewatering can be done in advance to allow easy excavation though

this depends on deposit thickness, permeability of the ground as well as after use and restoration

requirements. Bar skimming or scalping is a method used when only the top layer of soil is removed

by scraping without excavating below summer water table which is the level of underground water in

summer season (Hill and Kleynhans, 1999).

There is a great concern on the way the environment is disturbed by excessive removal of soil

for construction industry especially in urban development in Africa. Mwangi reported in Madyise

(2013) that for thousands of years, sand and gravel had been used to construct strong houses, roads

and dams in Africa since they are cheap and readily accessible resources. Today demand has

increased as socio-economic life of Africans has improved generally. Sand mining is common in most

African states but done both legally and illegally. Some emerging economies of the Global South

especially in Africa tend to concentrate developments more in urban centres. This has led to intensive

sand mining to meet the demand for sand by the construction sector for developments at the expense

of infrastructural deficit of the rural areas where the sand is mined.

As a readily available construction material, Mwangi in Madyise (2013) asserts that sand is the

foremost construction raw material that prevail in most African societies like Kenya because of the

availability of sand sources within and around some communities. Despite the pecuniary accruals

occasioned by sand mining, there are some adversative consequences trailing this activity in the
 16

Kenyan environment as it has brought a mix of both official and unapproved sand miners who besiege

and forage around recreational centres, dunes, beaches and riverbanks.

In South Africa, Hill and Kleynhans, (1999) assert that the process of granting mining permit

to extract sand and gravel is very strict even though it is viewed as income stream source. There is a

caveat that it has catastrophic ecological consequences because the entire process displaces the flora

and fauna within and distorts the ecosystem balance. This is an indication that there is conscious effort

to control and regulate the activities of prospective sand miners.

In the rendering of Lupande, (2012) sand mining was not a popular activity in Harare,

Zimbabwe until 2009 when the pace of construction activities revved up with the commencement of

infrastructural development. With this, development cooperatives were formed to seek permits from

the Environmental Management Authority for sand extraction and haulage for pecuniary gains which

had improved the social and economic status of those engaged in the activities. According to Mbaiwa

in Mdyise (2013) the economy of Botswana thrives mainly from natural resource extraction which

include: Gold, diamond, nickel, gravel and sand which accounts for one-third of the country’s Gross

Domestic Product. On the other hand, this has buoyed the economy greatly due to compliance and

strict enforcement of extant mining laws and proper control of mining activities by the relevant

authorities in charge. In a bid to exercise its regulatory powers over the activities of miners and

practice of natural resource extraction, the government of Botswana enacted the Natural Policy on

Natural Resources Conservation and Development in 1990 to protect the fragile ecosystem around

mining sites. This policy made it mandatory for prospective miners to get permit from the relevant

authority and must show evidence of detailed technique for extraction in addition to Environmental

Impact Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Management Plan (EMP). The idea behind these

conditions is to encourage sustainable natural resource extraction within the environment by all

parties involved (Johnbull and Brown, 2017).

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Lawal (2011) asserts that in some parts of northern Nigeria, communities and land owners

who are stakeholders: fisher folks, farmers and others whose sources of livelihood revolve around the

quarries grant mining rights to prospective sand miners without recourse to the environmental

consequences and imminent ecological disaster. The government agencies saddled with the

responsibility of implanting development control has shown ineptitude and this has resulted to

intensive uncontrolled sand mining around the quarries leading to ecosystem imbalance, depletion of

the sand and other derivatives associated with its extraction and serious environment.

The adverse outcome of sand mining far outweighs the positive impact because in most cases

arable lands are dug up to mine sand. This leaves the people with limited access to sources of

livelihood (Aromolaran, 2012).

2.2. Conceptual Review

2.2.1. Impact of Sand Mining

River sand Dredging is an excavation activity or operation usually carried out at least partly

underwater in shallow seas or fresh water with the purpose of gathering up bottom sediments and

disposing of them at different locations (Fatai, 2020). Dredger is any device, machine, or vessel that is

used to excavate and remove material from the bottom of a body of water (Branz von Mayer, 2011).

The process of dredging creates spoils (excess material), which are carried away from the dredged

area. Dredging can produce material for land reclamation or other purposes (usually construction-

related), and has also historically played a significant role in gold mining (Fatai, 2020).

Effects of sand dredging on aquatic habitat include habitat removal, removal of existing

benthic populations, burial of nearby benthos due to turbidity or side casting activities, increased

turbidity, and alterations to current patterns, sediment, water quality, salinity and tidal flushing. Direct

dredging effects to fish may include capture and killing by dredge equipment, disruption of normal
 18

foraging or spawning behaviours, and gill injury from exposure to local increases in turbidity (River

and Coast, 2010). Sand mining is a very crucial component of natural resource extraction and it has

consequences that are positive and negative.

2.2.1.1. Positive Impacts of Sand Extraction

The practice of natural resource extraction is a global phenomenon which Schaetzl asserts in Madyise,

(2013) that it involves income streams along all strata of the value chain; from the extraction to

haulage and end users. The incremental nature of global population has resulted in soaring demand for

natural resource extraction like sand and its allied derivatives due to its potential for pecuniary

benefits for the owner and the user alike.

The extraction of sand as a natural resource has contributed to the enhancement of several

cityscapes globally. There is no doubt that extracted sand and its allied derivatives are major

constituents of any form of development from infrastructure to physical development within the

environment in most developed and some developing economies (Chimbodza 2012 cited in (Madyise,

2013).

Riverbeds and waterways are cleared of silts and sediments in the process of extraction of sand

and its allied derivatives. This also helps to grade waterways, control the degree of inundation and

stabilize the rivers. This has made some waterways more navigable and encourage inland water

transport system, develop tourism potentials, generate revenue for governments and communities,

create employment and has reduced the pressure to engage in social vices and alleviate economic

hardship (Lawal, 2011).

Mining of sand and gravel had been done for road and cement aggregate for centuries

worldwide. According to Draggan in Madyise (2013), 50% of sand and gravel mined in USA is used

in construction to make concrete for roads, durable bricks, blocks, pipes construction fill and
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sometimes mixed with asphalt. In industry, 39% sand is used to make glass, 22% as foundry sand, 5%

as abrasive sand while 34% is for other uses.

Kondolf reported in Madyise (2013) supported the use of active channel deposits (gravel and

sand) as desirable for construction aggregates because they are durable, well sorted and frequently

located near market and transportation routes. Besides, sand and gravel being useful resources in

construction industry, the resources are useful tools in flood control and river stabilization, in

aggrading rivers since most reservoirs are not aggraded in developed countries. Sand mining helps to

de-silt rivers which contain a lot of sand (Chimbodza, 2012).

Puller (2009) discussed sand and gravel resources of Europe as large and their geographic

distribution, requirements and environmental restrictions for some uses. The resources are mixed with

bitumen to make roads, surfaces and gritting. Goddard viewed sand mining in Australia as important

specifically in construction of buildings and economic development with supporting discussions by

Kuttipuran when he discussed the importance of sand and gravel in Indian economy as cheap and

most accessible used in construction industry to build strong structures and road bases. Bagchi (2010)

realised that sand and gravel are useful in landscaping projects which beautify gardens in India. Sand

and gravel are important in construction and manufacturing industries when used in building, making

glass, electronic chips and ceramics. Sand mining underpins the development engine, so without sand

the construction industry will come to a halt (Pereira, 2012).

Most African states are still developing and benefit from use of natural resources such as sand

and gravel for economic development. Lawal (2011) indicated that Nigerians also benefit a lot from

sand and gravel mining which results in building of quality permanent structures from aggregates. The

demand for the resources increased in most Nigerian States by 1990s when individuals were getting

schemes for home ownership such as increase in salaries and house loans which were easily

accessible. Every citizen could afford to build a better house. This led to better socio economic life for

rural people. In Kenya, soil mining had led to development of better infrastructure (Madyise, 2013).
 20

This was supported by Mbaiwa’s report cited in Madyise (2013) as a positive impact of sand mining

in Botswana where more land had been used to develop infrastructure in form of shopping malls and

residential areas. Zimbabwe is not an exception in benefiting from sand and gravel through

infrastructural development (Lupande, 2012).

There is creation of employment for families at mining sites in Indian regions (Saviour, 2012).

Lawal (2011) noted that by year 2001 alone, a total of seven thousand, one hundred and thirty one

sand and gravel miners had been employed in Nigeria’s Niger State alone, according to statistics

provided by Mine Safety and Health Administration. Mwangi cited in Madyise (2013) supported this

positive impact of soil mining in Kenya when he highlighted that there is creation of employment to

locals above eighteen years as manual loaders at mining sites. In Botswana, it is noted the same

impact of employment creation to youth, both citizens and non-citizens seasonally at mining and

construction sites to load tipper trucks (Madyise, 2013). While in Zimbabwe, Lupande (2012) noted

creation of employment for youth who are licensed to mine sand and some to load the trucks as a

positive impact of mining.

Sand and gravel activities generate revenue and income to local governments and land owners

in Africa’s developing nations which reduce poverty. This was noted by Lawal (2011) in Niger State

of Nigeria where financial benefits from mining work shows that local government earn about eight

percent of total profits from business while the miner gets about ninety two percent of accrued

revenue.

2.2.1.2. Negative Impacts of Sand Extraction

Amid the positive impacts of natural resource extraction that thrives some economies globally, there

are some adverse consequences of this process. Channel incision done through head cutting and

hungry water techniques are mostly used for in-stream sand extraction. It entails skimming of bars

and unswerving excavation of pits leading to the distortion of the ecosystem, biodiversity loss,
 21

displacement and destruction of habitat for marine species of flora and fauna with eventual

degradation of the environment, loss of potential tourist attractions and attendant revenue accruals

(Madyise, 2013).

Furthermore, Bagchi (2010) assert that continuous in-stream mining of sand and its allied

derivatives increases the velocity of the river and damages the river banks. This further degenerates

into upstream and downstream erosion, alters the river course direction and reduces the alluvial and

groundwater tables and spans across the shoreline running into several kilometres.

In the rendering of Pereira, (2012) sand mining in some developing economies have resulted

into some precarious trends. This includes insecurity along waterways, incremental loss of potable

water, poor water quality, formation of suspended particulates and health challenges occasioned by

spills from plants and heavy duty machinery used for sand mining and other activities. There is a

major negative impact of sand and its derivatives extraction in some areas which is as a result of the

emergence and institutionalization of urban and rural gangs within the neighbourhoods. This

phenomenon has its spread effect on the youths with such polarity that there is fight for territorial

control between rival gangs around the sand mining sites (Madyise, 2013).

Saviour (2012) discussed pollution of water as a result of some physio-chemical and biological

parameters which characterise degradation of water quality by colouration when it turns from

brownish to reddish orange, lowering ph and increasing electrical conductivity. This is due to high

concentration of ions of sulphate (SO), iron (Fe) and other heavy toxic metals such as Zinc, Nickel,

Copper and low dissolved Oxygen (DO). When mined materials for example walls of open pits and

waste rocks are exposed to oxygen and water, acid can be formed leading to an acid mine then acid

mine drainage which run off into streams and rivers (Saviour, 2012). There is leaching of the acid into

the ground causing water pollution. The ph. increases to 4 affecting fish, aquatic plants and animals.
 22

Acid mine drainage may dissolve toxic metals like Copper (Cu), Aluminium (Al) and Iron (Fe). Iron

may coat bottom of rivers and become toxic to humans and wildlife (Saviour, 2012).

Stebbins (2006) highlighted destruction of soil structure and profile in American States due to

mining. Continuous mining causes complete removal of vegetation and destruction of topsoil and

subsoil resulting in a reduction in faunal population. Saviour (2012) discussed the destruction of

existing vegetation and soil profile significantly in topsoil affecting flora and fauna in Indian regions

as mining continues. Kuttipuran cited in Maydise (2013) supported this impact by noting that loss of

vegetation and ecosystems is common around and next to Indian rivers, an eyesore which gives an

offensive look to the natural beauty of the environment. Still in India, Pereira (2012) recognised that

there is destruction of mangrove forests due to illegal construction of storage docks, roads,

infrastructure for easy mining, storage and transportation of sand from the rivers. This has increased

vulnerability of land to floods in Mumbai. Aromolaran (2012) noted land degradation in agrarian

community by destroying the soil surface and structure as well as declining the nutrient status of

agricultural land. Lawal (2011) discussed environmental devaluation as a result of man’s activities

such as sand and gravel mining in Nigeria. There is loss of valuable fertile land and timber as well as

habitat alterations which disrupt ecosystems and destroy native species. Increase in turbidity affect

aquatic species, a major impact to fauna. Therefore, there is need for a preliminary investigation into

the type of vegetation occurring there and possible impacts before mining.

Gravel extraction and pit sand mining on open areas had left open pits around expanding urban

areas in United States of America (Madyise, 2013). Scenes of accidents involving children and

grazing animals are common due to the open pits left on bare ground in Nigeria (Lawal, 2011). Water

accumulates in the open pits during the rainy season and domestic animals drown in the pits.

Livelihoods of fishermen in India are threatened by sand barges which often destroy their nets

(Pereira, 2012). Loss of lives had also been recorded in India which impacted tourism, agriculture and

fishing potential. Bagchi (2010) reported on accidents as common in Palakkad District of India as
 23

children drown in water filled open pits when they try to swim, thus there is loss of recreational

potential for the land. Massive construction has led to excess mining which create pits and holes in

farms surrounding Harare (Lupande, 2012). Pits created by miners in Botswana pose a danger to

wildlife and livestock. Disturbance of land surface areas leave huge open pits difficult physically and

economically to rehabilitate after mining takes place (Madyise, 2013).

Bagchi (2010) gave other general impacts of general impacts of sand mining as a drop in water

table in Godavari River in the west of India which is leading to dry wells perennially and drought.

Villagers obtain the resource through tankers and pipes over long distances. There is environmental

degradation on open land and rivers as well as high evaporation from exposed river beds leading to

dry rivers and shortage of water for domestic purposes and animals.

Mining operations involve deforestation and biodiversity erosion. Madyise (2013) reported a

research by Ekosse to find the environmental impacts of mining in general to soils around mining

areas in Botswana. The research concentrated on areas around Kgwakgwe Manganese Mine.

Chemical properties of soils and leaves of plants around mining areas were investigated to determine

the effects of the mining activity. Demineralization and pollution of soils and the surroundings was

noted which lead to formation of dead zones. The soils become contaminated and stunted growth in

plants was noticed. Mining of sand near seas allow intrusion of sea water which is called salinisation

(Pereira, 2012). The Mines and Minerals Act (1999) of Botswana listed some of the environmental

impacts experienced due to legal and illegal sand mining and gravel extraction. These include

accidents due to open pits left uncovered on bare ground. Sand act as a reservoir to charge ground

water wells, so when removed, wells have to be dug deeper which increases water costs (Pereira,

2012). Generally, there is loss of employment to farm workers as agricultural land is destroyed to

pave way for mining while there is human rights violation to farmers.
 24

2.2.2. Environmental and Health Impacts of Dredging

The potential environmental effects of maintenance dredging can come firstly as a result of the

dredging process itself and secondly as a result of the disposal of the dredged material. Some of these

health and environmental effects should be taken into consideration before, during and after the

dredging process.

(1) Physicochemical changes in the component of the environment:

Dredging has been variously reported to cause changes in the physicochemical environment

(Umunnakwe et al., 2011). Post dredging studies have shown that pH, Conductivity, Nitrate,

Phosphate, Chlorine, Calcium, Magnesium, Lead, Iron, Zinc, Manganese, Copper, Aluminum and

Cadmium, for both surface and sediment samples; and alkalinity, turbidity, Dissolved Oxygen (DO),

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) for water samples only are likely to change following dredging

activities (Umunnakwe et al., 2011).

The assessment of the result of a dredging exercise in Warri River later revealed that the pH of

the dredged canal decreased from 7.2 to 4.0, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) station, partially dredged station

and dredged station decreased considerably from 6.0 mg/l to 0.4 mg/l, BOD increased from 1.0 mg/l

to 18.0 mg/l., (Adebimpe and Oladejo, 2012) while Nitrate and alkalinity values also decreased.

Result of post dredging monitoring revealed that water quality improved significantly after six

months, pH and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) appreciated while Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD depreciated to 5) values close to pre-dredging concentrations. All

these have implications for the interaction, growth and survival of the flora and fauna existing in the

dredge environment as well as public health of the residents near the dredging area. Dredging

virtually affects all components of the environment including zooplankton and vegetation (Adebimpe

and Oladejo, 2012).

 25

(2) A filthy environment

After a dredging, it will be observed that debris most especially excavated soil particles litter the bank

of the rivers and also especially the roadsides. This could be as a result of non-designation of specific

site for disposal of dredged materials. Within short period of time, residents in the area will turn the

areas with disposed dredged materials into domestic refuse dump sites. These makes the environment

filthy immediately after the completion of the dredging exercise, because these refuse dumps are

easily dispersed by wind and motor vehicles. In addition, hydrogen sulphide gas generated from the

refuse heaped on the excavated dredged materials gives the environment a bad odour (Adebimpe and

Oladejo, 2012).

(3) Potentials for increased prevalence of communicable diseases:

As a result of the filthy environment brought about by unplanned disposal of dredged materials and

indiscriminate refuse dumping at these sites, there could be an increase in the prevalence of

communicable diseases. These refuse collections could contaminate surface soil and underground

water, attract breeding of houseflies and act as sources of occurrences of diarrhoeal diseases such as

Typhoid and Cholera. The waste heaps can also serve as breeding sites for mosquitoes and

consequently increase the prevalence of vector borne diseases. Such breeding sites would have both

indirect and direct impact on the epidemiology of malaria in the city and the health systems,

especially in a malaria endemic area in Nigeria. Though dredging brings about an improvement in

flow of water and its speed, it may lead to an increase and change in pattern of the epidemiology of

diseases associated with fast flowing rivers such as onchocerchiasis (Adebimpe and Oladejo, 2012).

(4) Altered topography:

A post dredging worry in is that some of the excavated soil particles may be returned into the river,

mostly by activities of residents as they walk by the river banks and on bridges. However, the
 26

abandonment of the resulting dredged material could lead to a number of other environmental changes

including altered topography and hydrology, acidification and water contamination, which could

result in vegetation damage and fish kills (Adebimpe and Oladejo, 2012).

(5) Flood from high water speed:

After dredging, speed and movement of water becomes improved and flood was un-likely to occur in

the areas near the dredged areas within the city. However, far and remote areas distal to the dredge

areas could witness flood easily from high speed of water. Rural agricultural areas may not be left out

as farmland may be washed away by water. More so, some of these rural agrarian communities may

not be aware or earlier notified of the upcoming dredging exercise for which they could have

prepared. Houses along the banks of the rivers could have part of the solid structures surrounding their

house foundation washed away by water. These may lead to building collapse and its antecedent

effects of mortality and morbidity. Studies in Nigeria have shown that about 200 sq.km of wetland

was impacted as a result of dredging induced hydrological changes, coastal erosion and retreat in the

Niger Delta, thus putting pressure on quality and quantity of water available for human use

(Adebimpe and Oladejo, 2012).

(6) Water contamination with heavy metals:

After a dredging exercise, there is a possibility of river water as well as dredged solids contaminating

community water sources, mostly wells and tap water. Seepage of dredged contents into these water

sources is also possible and this could affect quality of water consumed by residents most especially

those who live along dredged rivers. Contamination with heavy metals and short-term increase in the

level of suspended sediment can give rise to changes in water quality which can also affect marine

flora and fauna, both favourably and unfavourably, such as increased turbidity and the possible

release of organic matter, nutrients and or contaminants depending upon the nature of the material in

the dredging area (Adebimpe and Oladejo, 2012).

 27

In humans, similar impact of dredged material disposal, largely depends on the nature of the

material (inorganic, organically enriched or contaminated) and the characteristics of the disposal area

(accumulative or dispersive areas). Release of toxic chemicals (including heavy metals and Poly

Chlorinated Biphenyls PCB) from bottom sediments into the water column is also a great possibility

and of significant concern (Adebimpe and Oladejo, 2012).

People may be exposed to soils contaminated with PCBs in low-lying areas adjacent to the

rivers that flood frequently, or to areas on the inside of large bends of the river, or backwater areas. A

study has shown that dredging in sensitive environments can be accompanied by ecological impacts

such as impairment of water quality from contamination by heavy metals. Common adverse health

effects from PCB exposures include nausea, headaches, eye and throat irritation, dizziness, loss of

balance, mood changes, neurological problems, eyes and skin irritation, shortened menstrual cycles

and cancers (Schantz, et al., 2001). Lead poisoning is a dangerous outcome for people exposed to

either organic or inorganic lead. Common presentations include weakness and fatigue, tingling

sensation and numbness in the arms or legs among other manifestations in the central nervous system.

These possible effects have neither been studied nor formally reported within the six months after the

dredging exercise in these areas (Adebimpe and Oladejo, 2012).

(7) Effects on Land Cover/Land Use (LC/LU).

The potential change in land cover and land use as a result of dredging, may bring about variety of

global changes affecting ecological systems and epidemiology of disease (Schantz, et al., 2001). Most

part of the water ways, rivers and streams in the metropolis are blocked by inadequate dumping of

excavated materials from dredged sites, indiscriminate dumping of domestic refuse and erection of

buildings along the river water ways. Since the area of land covered by the city still remain

unchanged, the land available for beneficial use becomes reduced in size, with negative implications

on agriculture, housing and nutrition (Adebimpe and Oladejo, 2012).

 28

2.3. Empirical Review

Watson, Ravenga and Kura (2006) conducted a study on Trawling and Dredging in Western Australia

and asserted that dredging involves the excavation and relocation of sediment from lakes, rivers,

estuaries or seabed and is a critical component of most major marine infrastructure development along

the coast. David, Hitchcock and Bell (2004) carried out a study on marine aggregate dredging in

Florida and reported that sediment plumes cannot be under estimated as it is a phenomenon that has

the capacity to extend the footprint of impact beyond the limits of the dredging activity itself. Copper,

Curtis, Hussain, Barrio Fajon, Defew, Nye and Paterson (2011) studied implications of dredging in

United Kingdom and claimed that changes in sediment composition can have implications for

residents and recolonizing fauna, resulting in the establishment of fauna community that differs from

the assemblage present before the dredging. They also asserted that marine aggregate dredging is to

identify those locations where it is more and less important to try to preserve sediment particle size

composition, and to determine whether there is a rational scientific justification for the active

restoration of sediment particle size composition at site of former marine aggregate dredging.

In their study on impact of dredging sea grasses in the Netherlands, Erftemeijer and Lewis

cited in Igwe, Ugovwarhe, Ejiofor, Menkiti and Okonkwo, (2017) reported that dredging and disposal

of dredged materials can lead a temporary decrease in water transparency, increased concentrations of

suspended matter and increased rates of sedimentation. They also opined that impacts can be

significant when dredging or disposal is done in the vicinity of sensitive marine environments, such as

coral reefs and sea grass bed. Cooper, Boyd, Eggleton, Limpenny, Rees and Vanstaen (2007), in their

study on marine aggregate dredging in England, and asserted that deposition of sediment from plums

created during dredging operations will likely inhibit recovery of benthic communities. Wilber and

Clarke cited in Igwe et al, (2017) did a research on suspended sediment and noted that dredging

released nutrients that led to depletion of oxygen from high phytoplankton production. Michael,
 29

Woodley, Todd and David (2015) conducted a study on suspended sediment in Vicksburg and

claimed that river channel maintenance relies on frequent dredging to keep the water ways navigable.

Nayar, Miller, Hunt and Goh cited in Igwe et al, (2017) were of the view that dredging of channel and

excavation of the banks exposed the underlying layer of historically contaminated sediments,

compromising partially decomposed organic matter from dredging activities, resuspension of

sediment partially accounted for higher concentrations of organic carbon in water column, in their

study on impacts of dredging in Singapore. A research by Nayar, Goh and Chou cited in Igwe et al,

(2017) on heavy metals from dredging in Singapore revealed that dredging operations potentially

released toxins into the marine environment. They further claimed that in Zeebrugge and Singapore,

dredging operations led to resuspension of particulate matter column that has elevated levels of lead,

copper, zinc and nickel recorded in phytoplankton.

Walker, Hillman, Kendrick and Lavery cited in Igwe et al, (2017) researched on ecological

significance of dredging in Western Australia and asserted that dredging in shallow near- shore waters

associated with significant conservation values, adverse effects on marine habitats due to direct

seabed disturbance and indirect effects could offset shipping movements and seabed shoreline

stability. A research by Desprez reported in Igwe et al, (2017) on impact of marine aggregate

dredging in France indicated that extraction of marine aggregate has its impact on the seabed as

dredging activity has conventionally targeted bottom substrate associated with benthic fauna. Rinaldi,

Wyzga and Surian (2005) conducted a study on sediment mining in Italy and claimed that channel

incision of alluvial river as a result of sediment depletion arising from dredging had series of

detrimental effects on the river channel, including ground water table lowering, flood flow increase,

the destabilization of infrastructures, sea water encroachment in the area. Michael, Woodley, Todd,

and David (2015) carried out a research on potential dredging impact in Vicksburg and reported that

dredging is a complex activity, and its impact on aquatic ecosystems is poorly understood, over long-

time scales. Mmom and Chukwu-Okeah (2012), in their study on sand dredging in Calabar, opined
 30

that increasing anthropogenic disturbances have imposed considerable impacts on river channel. They

further reported that high dredging activities had resulted to serious incision of the river channel

deepening the river bed and increasing velocity of flow. Muyideen, Abiodun and Ismaila (2013), in

their study on impacts of dredging in Awoyaya Lagos, claimed that dredging activity pollutes the

environment and the water source of the area, thereby endangering the life of people and aquatic

animal in the area.

Lawal (2011) examined sand and gravel mining activities both on land and in rivers as a

business venture in Minna Emirate Council of Niger State. Stakeholders from the mining activities

were listed as landowners of quarry sites who sold the sand and gravel to private and government

contractors. Local government authorities and Niger State where quarries are located, were also listed

as beneficiaries. The activities also involve farmers whose cultivating and grazing lands are destroyed,

wildlife community whose habitats are mined areas, aquatic community members as well as miners

themselves. Aromolaran (2012) carried out a study to examine effects of sand mining activities on

rural people living on agricultural land in Ogun State, Nigeria. Many people supported the good uses

of sand but the negative impacts on their land were more than the benefits. Lawal (2011) highlighted

that sand mining is rapidly becoming an ecological problem as demand increases in many states of

Nigeria’s industry and construction sectors. The mining is done both legally and illegally leading to

environmental devaluation.

Based on the review of the above literatures, there is a dearth in literature with regards to the

records of the sources of soil dredging sites and researches conducted on the impact of the soil

dredging on the study area especially on the environmental and the socio-economic impact. This study

examines the environmental and socio-economic effect of soil dredging in Agwu area council in

Enugu state.
 31

2.4. Theoretical Framework

The link between human livelihood activities like mining and the built environment conditions is

quite explicit but complex. While some of the livelihood activities actually support the growth of the

built environment majority of them impacts negatively on the conditions of the built environment.

Therefore, at theoretical level, the concern really is how to understand the link between Sustainable

Built Environment (SBE) and livelihood activities. The built environment comprises all man-made

material components such as buildings, institutions, markets, shopping malls, schools, commercial

outfits, roads, sidewalks, communication facilities, open spaces, drainages, bridges and other

infrastructure that are available in human communities (Aliu et al., 2021). Given these enormous

components, the built environment is critical to human progress and sustainable development which

according to the World Commission on Environment and Development’s Brundtland report is an

environmental, social, economic and ethical concept that seeks to achieve economic growth, social

equity and ecological stability simultaneously for the present generation and future generations

(World Bank, 2013; UNEP, 2019). Incidentally, these sustainable development agenda have been

transformed by the United Nations Organization (UNO) into global decisions which culminated in the

formulation of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) at the beginning of the twenty-first century in

2000 and sustainable development goals (SDGs) in 2015. While sand is a valuable resource for

human development, its process of extraction and transport threatens the built environment in many

ways. Sand mining increases land degradation, building collapse, deforestation, coastal erosion, noise,

property damage, dusts, water pollution, loss of aquatic biodiversity, alteration of coastal shorelines,

and flooding (Asante et al., 2014; Ako et al., 2014; Jonah et al., 2015; Asabonga et al., 2017;

Sincovich et al., 2018; Kohasi and Jose, 2018; UNEP, 2019; Da Silva et al., 2020; Koehnken et al.,

2020). All these go to show that if not well managed sand mining though a thriving livelihood could
 32

cause a huge threat to human habitat and community’s sustainability. Sustainability comprises three

components namely:

i. Physical environment

ii. Economic conditions and

iii. Social conditions.

All mainstream ideas about sustainability share three characteristics: first, sustainability

requires integrating policies related to economic development, environmental protection and social

justice; second, the interest of future generations is inviolable; and third, transparency and public

participation at all levels of decision-making from local to global scale are essential (Aliu, 2016;

Smets & van Lindert, 2016). Sustainable development therefore presupposes the sustainability of

natural and artificial resources including sand and the built environment. An aspect of sustainability

theoretically relates to the livelihood of the individuals and households in a community. The

livelihoods framework encompasses the skills, assets (both material and social), and the approaches

that are used by individuals and communities to survive (Asante et al., 2014). It is also viewed as a

framework for understanding the various factors that affect choices of human subsistence and how

these factors interact amongst themselves.

Theoretically, sustainable livelihood (SL) is characterized by all strategies and principles

geared towards improving the quality of human life, providing resources and life support services at

all times as the human society seeks to satisfy its needs of survival and well-being (Aliu et al., 2021).

The concept of SL is guided by some principles namely right to own, use or exploit resources without

damaging the environment; the need for all sectors of the economy (government, education, business)

and the community to work together to create a booming local economy and the need to set plans and

the implementation of goals and strategies for sustained economic development (Hilton, 1989; World

Bank, 2013). The attainment of sustainable livelihoods, economic growth, social equity and
 33

environmental stability leads to the attainment of sustainable built environment. From the review of

literature, it is notable that there is a dearth in literature on the geographical activities such as soil

mining and dredging activities of the Agwu localities, there impact on the livelihood of the populace

and the geology/vegetation of the town. The sustainability framework was used in this study to give

more insights to soil mining as a livelihood activity and its impacts on the social, economic and

environmental conditions in Agwu communities with soil mining activities.

 34

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Research Design

Research design is defined by Gwimbi and Dirwai (2003) as a structure or plan of the research which

provides glue that holds a project together, groups or samples, observations or measures, programmes

or treatments and other aspects of methodology. There are two types of research designs, qualitative

and quantitative. Qualitative is a descriptive approach when there is documentation of what is exactly

said, observing behaviour or even studying written documents. A qualitative researcher gets ideas

from people being studied. Data collected is presented in form of maps, photos, graphs or tables. An

example of a qualitative research design is a case study. Gwimbi and Dirwai (2003) defined a case

study as a strategy for doing research involving an empirical investigation of a particular

contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence. This

involves a study on its own right on a specific case with a conceptual framework. A case can be a

school, village, river or any phenomenon of interest. Case studies are important in decision making

and for policy makers.

According to Polit and Beck (2008), a quantitative research design is an explorative non

experimental, descriptive structure which involves quantifying relationships between variables. The

design deals with figures and quantities. The design involves precise measurements and statistical

analysis of data using computer packages. A good design should ensure that there is maximum

control over factors that affect adversely the reliability and validity of research results (Gwimbi and

Dirwai, 2003).

This chapter discusses the author’s methodology adopted for the study. It gives a detailed

account of the data collection processes employed to obtain data. The main objective was to develop
 35

a database on the environmental and socio-economic effect of soil dredging in Awgu LGA Enugu

State. This was done through visiting areas of extraction and key informants. The chapter clarifies

the research designs and data collection instruments used in the research. Both primary and

secondary data was collected and presented graphically using the descriptive research design.

Statistical Package for Social Science was used for quantitative data analysis for the data collected

using the questionnaire survey method. Background information and data was collected through field

visits by observations, taking measurements, and questionnaire surveys. Measurement of depth, width

of pits and widening of rivers at sampled collection points were taken. Secondary data was collected

through analysis of case studies and related researches in Africa and the whole world.

Data Types and Sources

Primary data of socio-economic variables were gotten from respondents within the study area via field

survey, key respondent interviews and the use of questionnaire survey. The environmental and socio-

economic data includes those collected from dredge sites, dredgers, adult community members, etc.

3.2. Sample and sampling procedures

Sampling was necessary to choose respondents before distributing the questionnaire. Polit and Beck

(2008) defined sampling as the process of selecting elements which are the basic unit from which data

and information will be collected to represent the entire population. Chimedza (2003) defined

population as a collection of all individual items or points under investigation. Sample size for this

study was sixty (60) respondents distributed among five sampled community sites (Agwu Town,

Mpu, Lokpa Nta, Mgbowo, Mmaku). The choice of sample size compared to the population size is to

limit the number of participants exposed to any related risk and we made sure to select participants

considering their ages, exposure to the effects of soil dredging or beneficiary of the dredging

activities. Two options of sampling considered were probability and non-probability. In this study,

non-probability sampling in particular convenience and purposive sampling designs were used.
 36

Purposive sampling was used to select the affected area because they meet researcher’s study

objectives while convenience sampling was used to select the respondents. Convenience sampling

allowed the researcher to select respondents who were readily available and willing to take part in the

study. According to Chimedza (2003), the disadvantage of such sampling is that some elements are

over represented while others are under-represented. Available elements may possess different

characteristics from those of population with regard to critical variables (Polit and Beck, 2008).

3.3. Research instruments

Various primary data collection tools were used to collect basic raw information. These were

questionnaire survey, interview, field observation and recording. A digital camera was used to

capture photographs from affected areas. Field measurements were done using a measuring wheel

and a 100m measuring tape with the help of a field assistant.

3.3.1 Questionnaire Survey

A questionnaire which consisted of both closed and open ended questions following literature review

and reference was made to the problem identified and objectives set. Gwimbi and Dirwai (2003)

realised that a well-designed questionnaire should meet objectives of enquiry, fit between contents

and research problem. It was developed to solicit information from key informants on their views

concerning sand dredging and the environmental and socio-economic impacts. It was used and

administered to the villagers in the affected areas of Awgu LGA Enugu State. A questionnaire survey

was chosen because it allows participants to give their views anonymously reducing bias. Polit and

Beck (2008) gave advantages of administering a questionnaire as it is easy to test validity and

reliability. It is flexible and may be applied to many different populations within a short time. Same

questions are repeated to get valid and reliable answers with minimal resources. Information is

quickly obtained and used for many purposes.

 37

The questionnaire was administered to determine a variety of aspects from respondents which

included beliefs, thoughts and knowledge about sand dredging, the environmental and socio-economic

impacts in their areas. During this study, the researcher visited sampled households to explain the

benefits of research and importance of their participation and involvement. A questionnaire was

introduced prior to answering and the researcher translated questions from English to Igbo language

for illiterate respondents.

The questionnaire was administered through a drop and pick survey. On distributing

questionnaires, the researcher repeated benefits and importance of answering questions truthfully

while assuring participants anonymity and confidentiality. It was administered only to adults above

twenty-one (21) years, to ensure unbiased response to the research questions because it is expected

that the selected age, participants must have benefited or been affected by the soil dredge activities.

The questionnaire had open and close ended questions comprising of four parts. Information

paragraph at the top was to introduce researcher, purpose and title of research. Contents of

questionnaire are discussed in the following table. Purposive sampling was used to select the affected

area because they meet researcher’s study objectives while convenience sampling was applied to

select the respondents. Convenience sampling allowed the researcher to select respondents who were

readily available and willing to take part in the study.

 38

Table 3.1: Layout of questions on questionnaire

PART QUESTIONS

A: Demographic data Questions 1-3 were on gender, age and position

of respondents in the village, data obtained

described sample characteristics and the type of

respondents the researcher is dealing with.

B: General questions on sand mining and gravel Respondents were to indicate where they lived in

extraction relation to mining areas, their involvement and to

establish any knowledge on mining activities.

C: Views on impacts of sand mining and gravel Questions were meant for subjects to give

extraction opinions on positive and negative impacts of

mining sand.

D: Solutions to sand mining and gravel extraction. Respondents were asked to suggest and

recommend on how to benefit from soil mining

while mitigating the negative effects.

3.3.2 Individual Interviews

Individual interviews were administered to various subjects to collect primary data. The key

informants were identified and interviewed on the principal parameters of investigating environmental

and socio-economic impacts of soil dredging. Inclusion criteria for the interviewee were based on

position and involvement in the dredging activity. The researcher designed structured questions

specifically for each individual to collect primary data. Complexity of questions depended on

position and level of education of each participant. Prior consent and appointments were done with
 39

the participants in designated offices and homes. Department of Mines Environmental and Licensing

Officers were interviewed in their offices. Those directly involved in dredging like drivers were

interviewed when found on sites of extraction.

There were visits to offices, homes and dredging sites in Agwu local government area to

interview key informants. The Licensing Officer was interviewed on the criteria used when issuing

dredging license if such existed, monitoring strategies and legislation in place to govern sand

dredging, and the type of punishments given to illegal dredgers. Department of Works and

Environmental Officer was interviewed on the importance of carrying out an Environmental Impact

Assessment before dredging, requirements of the constitution pertaining to sand dredging, possible

alterations to the environment and any methods put in place to rehabilitate the land. Village president

general and traditional chief’s questions were based on complaints from villagers and if prior

consultations are done by dredgers. Front loader and tipper truck drivers were interviewed on areas of

collection, frequency of collection per day, how they benefited and any awareness of possible impacts

of soil dredging activities.

3.3.3 Field observation and measurements

Primary data was collected from sampled points picked at random from areas surrounding Agwu local

government area where river sand and pit sand are dredged. Length, width and depth of pits and

trenches was measured and recorded on data sheet for comparison later. All the measurements were

collected by picking three disturbed sites, labelled alphabetically, e.g. A, B, C, and one undisturbed as

the control marked D. A one hundred metre measuring tape and a measuring wheel were used to take

measurements. A field assistant helped the researcher to take and record measurements on a record

sheet on each visit. A digital camera was used to take photographs of affected areas as evidence.
 40

3.3.4 Literature review and document analysis

Secondary data was collected from related researches and books. These were used to review

previously published literature dealing with the problem of soil dredging worldwide. More

information was obtained from analysis of documents to review what the government expects in terms

of environment use and conservation. Journals were considered to find recent information on soil

dredging. Data from existing records helped the researcher to come up with a historical background of

work done.

3.4. Reliability and validity

3.4.1 Reliability

A good research design should be valid and be able to produce reliable results. Gwimbi and Dirwai

(2003) defined reliability as the repeatability and consistency of the findings. A reliable measure does

not fluctuate randomly and is used to discover relationships between variables. In this research,

quantitative and qualitative designs were chosen to deduce the environmental and socio-economic

impacts of soil extraction. The split-half reliability method was used to establish the reliability of the

instrument for the study. Twenty copies of the questionnaire will be administered to twenty randomly

selected inhabitants of Nsukka (Edem ani and Eziani) in Nsukka LGA of Enugu State. As cited in

(Ogbuji and Iwuagwu, 2014), Ogbazi and Okpala explained that if the reliability coefficient is up to

0.60 and above, it will be judged reliable but if it is less than 0.60, it will be judged unreliable for the

study. The reliability of the instrument will be measured using Cronbach’s Alpha.

3.4.2 Validity

3.4.2.1 Internal validity

Polit and Beck (2008) defined validity as the ability of an instrument to measure a concept under

study and to be able to measure it accurately so that any observed differences are true and not the
 41

result of random or constant errors. Instrument validity determines whether an instrument accurately

measures that which it is supposed to measure. Gwimbi and Dirwai (2003) highlighted types of

validity as content that is how well an instrument represents all the components of variables being

measured. In this study, content validity was done by doing a thorough related literature search on

which the contents of questionnaire and interview guides were based.

Face validity refers to justification of the study. It is weak when having little practical or

theoretical relevance to the real world situation (Gwimbi and Dirwai, 2003). According to Polit and

Beck (2008), face validity is a judgment done to determine whether an instrument appears to measure

what it is supposed to measure. It considers if the tool is readable and checks clarity of the content.

This was done in this study through pilot testing when the questionnaire was administered to a group

of respondents before actual data collection to get a general impression about the kind of answers that

could be expected. Validity and reliability of questionnaire and interview guide questions was also

done by sending copies to relevant for checking and corrections by authorities. Gwimbi and Dirwai

(2003) defined analytical validity as ability to realise if correct data analysis methods were chosen to

avoid wrong conclusions. In the research, data analysis was done using both quantitative and

qualitative analysis tools like descriptive statistics and Statistical Package for Social Science. A

statistician was engaged to help with analysis of data.

In this research, to ensure validity of data generated, various methods of collecting data were

used. These were questionnaire survey, interview guides, field measurements and taking photographs

from dredging sites. Many methods were used because each contains its own set of assumptions,

strategies, strengths and weaknesses regarding the study of social world and the kind of data that can

be produced to increase knowledge. Use of various methods helped to improve quality of research

findings since conclusions from one method were used to check validity of results from another

method. In order to ensure face validity of the Instrument, draft copies of the questionnaires were
 42

given to three experts in the department of Geography, University of Nigeria Nsukka and the validity

of the instrument was established based on their judgment. They were requested to make corrections

and input in the drafted copies. Their suggestions and inputs were considered before producing the

final draft copies of the questionnaires. The final draft were given to the supervisor for his

contributions and approval.

3.5. Ethical considerations

3.5.1 Ethics

All research designs should consider ethics of participants and consider sensitivity of the issue.

Gwimbi and Dirwai (2003) defined ethics as the acceptable moral principles developed by individuals

or groups which govern the conduct of research with regard to sampled subjects, respondents and all

stakeholders of the research process. In carrying out a research it is the responsibility of the

researcher to protect the respondents from harm and provide them with adequate information on

importance of research and enable them to withdraw when they want to.

3.5.2 Permission for study

In the study permission was sort and obtained from the chief of the sample site area. Copies of

consent forms providing information on nature, purpose and research process, assuring respondents

confidentiality of data and information provided were made and issued to sampled respondents prior

to commencing the study. Respondents were given an option to complete the questionnaire or

decline. Interviewees were also given options to write down their answers and allocated more time as

a way of encouraging them to express themselves freely.

3.5.3 Respect for Human Dignity

Respect refers to an individual’s right to voluntarily take part in a study. Subjects are to be given full

information on nature of study and risks attached so that they can make informed choices to
 43

participate or not. Their decisions should not be influenced by other people or factors. Only when

these conditions are satisfied, then consent is obtained (Polit and Beck, 2008). In this research, all

subjects were informed verbally and through consent forms about the benefits of the study. On every

visit to dredging sites, the researcher was accompanied by the village leaders.

3.5.4. Freedom from harm

A research involving humans may cause physical, psychological, social or economic harm. A

researcher should ensure any harm to study subjects is minimised and that there is a balance between

risks and benefits (Polit and Beck, 2008). In this study, respondents were encouraged to participate

freely and voluntarily. Contributions and suggestions given were important to policy makers on what

can be done to conserve resources from environmental damage. They were given a chance to give

possible solutions to reduce negative impacts on agricultural fields and rivers.

3.5.5. Anonymity and Confidentiality

Anonymity refers to a situation when the researcher cannot link data to respondents. This is when

privacy is respected and respondents’ identities are kept anonymous. Justice is fair treatment of all

respondents (Polit and Beck, 2008). The researcher indicated clearly and stressed verbally on first

meeting that the subjects might choose not to write their names to maintain anonymity and

confidentiality. Visits to dredging and extraction sites were done in groups in company of village

leaders to increase security.

3.6. Data presentation and analysis tools

Quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods were used. Throughout the research, data was

collected through observations of affected sites, taking photographs, measurements of depth, width,

length of the river, pits and trenches. The services of a statistician were sought to analyse data in this

research process. Descriptive statistics was used to compare and contrast data collected on degree of
 44

extraction. The measurements and data collected from sampled points where pit sand and river sand

extracted were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Science. The demographic data of mean

age, distance of home from extraction site and the mean of involvement by villagers in extraction

activities was calculated. Data collected was further presented on tables, pie charts and histograms.

The information collected was used to suggest solutions and make recommendations for mitigating

negative impacts. Plates were used to show primary data collected on visits to sampled sites.

Secondary data was collected from related literature sources.

3.7. Summary

This chapter discussed methodology employed in data collection process on the research to find

environmental and socio-economic impacts of sand dredging extraction. This chapter also described

fully the overall plan of how the whole research was carried out including research designs used,

method of data collection and analysis of the results.

 45

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION

This chapter discusses results and findings of a research on environmental and socio-economic effect

of soil dredging in Awgu LGA Enugu State. Data was collected through individual interviews,

questionnaire survey, field measurements and observations. The researcher considered and sampled

some areas where pit sand, river sand and gravel are mined around Awgu LGA to investigate the

extent of the effects caused. Sixty (60) respondents were picked as a sample to take part in the

questionnaire survey. The questionnaire was shared randomly among the (60) respondent from areas

with notable soil mining activities using purposive sampling because they meet researcher’s study

objectives while convenience sampling was used to select the respondents. Convenience sampling

allowed the researcher to select respondents who were readily available and willing to take part in the

study. Interviews were conducted on people who are directly and indirectly involved in sand mining

and gravel extraction.

4.1 Demographic data of respondents

Respondents in this study were both males and females. The inclusion criteria for the questionnaire

survey was on any male or female above 21 years who was available in a sampled household and

voluntarily take part in the study.

4.1.1 Distribution of respondents by gender

Table 4.1: Distribution of respondents by gender

Gender Frequency Percentage

Male 45 75
Female 15 25
Total 60 100
 46

Table 4.1 shows 45 males and 15 females were considered for data analysis. The sample size for

the questionnaire survey was 65 but only 60 respondents were considered for the analysis of results

because five (5) questionnaires were discarded since it were incomplete. Of the 60 who formed the

final sample, 75% were males and 25% were females. More males were willing and interested in

taking part in the research because sand mining is a male dominated activity. Very few women are

involved in sand and gravel extraction and rarely visit the areas so are not aware of what exactly

happens at mining sites.

4.1.2. Distribution of respondents by age

Table 4.2: Distribution of respondents by age

Age Category Respondents

21 – 25 11

26 – 30 9

31 – 35 4

36 – 40 5

41 – 45 5

46 – 50 4

51 – 55 17

56+ 5
 47

Distribution of respondents by age

56+

51 - 55

46 - 50

41 - 45

36 - 40

31 - 35

26 - 30

21 - 25

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Series 1

Figure 4.1: Distribution of respondents by age

Figure 4.1 shows the modal age group, 51-55 years. This is because respondents in this age group

were readily available and willing to take part in the study since they are affected most when sand and

gravel are mined in or near their agricultural land. The median age group is 21 - 25 years. The data

shows that there were fewer respondents for each age group between 31 and 50 years because they

were not present in villages at the time of study and most reside in towns where they work. The 21-

25 age group had a high frequency and consisted of young literate adults who could understand the

questions and are aware of environmental issues.

4.1.3. Distribution of respondents by position in the village

Table 4.3: Distribution of respondents by position in the village

Position in the Village No. of Respondents Percentage

Chief 4 6.7
Town union 8 13.3
Youth Group 14 23.3
Woman Leader 4 6.7
L.G.A Authority 5 8.3
Ordinary Villagers 25 41.7
 48

Respondents by Position in the Village

7%
13% Chief
Town Union
42% Youth Group
Women Leader
L.G.A Authority
23%
Ordinary Villagers

8% 7%

Figure 4.2: Distribution of respondents by position in the village

Figure 4.2 shows positions of respondents in their villages. The sample represented most positions in

the villages including those in leadership. The modal class consists of ordinary villagers who form

majority of the populations and are mostly the owners of agricultural fields where sand and gravel are

mined. The respondents voluntarily took part in the study because they are the most affected members

of the society and were willing to suggest solutions and make recommendations to law makers.
 49

4.1.4. Distribution of respondents by distance of homestead from mining area

Table 4.4. Distribution of respondents by distance of homestead from mining area

Distance Frequency %

0 – 500 4 6.7

501 – 1000 6 10.0

1001 – 1500 8 13.3

1501 – 2000 15 25

2000+ 27 45

Distribution of respondents by distance of

homestead from mining area

7% 0 -500
10% 501 - 1000
1001 - 1500
45% 13% 4th Qtr
2000+

25%

Figure 4.3: Distribution of respondents by homestead distance from mining areas

Data collected and represented in Bar graph on Figure 4.3 shows that fewer people live near

mining areas. This is because the Land Tenure System of Agwu communities has residential areas

on one side far from rivers while agricultural fields and grazing lands are on the other side towards

the rivers. Mining of pit sand and gravel is mostly done on open bushy areas which can be grazing

land or crop fields while river sand is mined from rivers and streams. Villagers in Mmaku, Lokpa

nta, Mgbowo, Agwu and Mpu who are involved in small scale mining of sand and gravel for
 50

domestic purposes transport the resources using one tonne trucks or wheelbarrows.
 51

4.1.5. Distribution of respondents’ homes by distance from gravel roads used by trucks

Table 4.5: Distribution of respondents’ homes on distance from the gravel roads used by tipper trucks.

Distance from gravel Frequency Percentage

roads in metres

0-500 15 25.0

501-1000 14 23.3

1001-1500 7 11.7

1501-2000 6 10.0

Above 2000 18 30.0

Total 60 100

Table 4.5 shows that the modal class is 0-500 meaning many people live near gravel roads used by tipper

trucks transporting sand and gravel. Mmaku and Agwu villagers dominated this range because trucks

from both Mmaku river carrying river sand pass through gravel roads in the village. Pit sand and gravel

are also extracted from Mmaku and Mgbowo lands therefore more respondents are in 501-1000 metre

range. This means Mmaku villagers are affected more by air pollution in form of dust and noise

pollution as negative impacts of soil mining from tipper trucks passing day and night than Lokpa nta,

Mpu, Awgu, and Mgbowo villagers who were sampled. Few gravel roads from the river pass through the

village and this is why the respondents from the village dominated the 1501-2000 and above 2 kilometre

distance ranges. Trucks pass through the village when using main tarred road to Enugu town so less

villagers are affected by air pollution in form of dust and noise.

 52

4.1.6. Visits to sand and gravel extraction sites

Table 4.6: Visits to sand and gravel extraction sites

Visits to Mining Site Frequency %

Sometimes 10 16.7
Rarely 14 23.3
Yes 28 46.7
No 8 13.3

Visits to sand and gravel extraction sites

13% 17% Sometimes

Rarely
Yes
No
23%

47%

Figure 4.4: Respondents’ visits to extraction sites

Figure 4-4 shows that many villagers (46.7%) visit sand and gravel mining areas regularly for various

reasons. Most respondents who indicated that they visit extraction sites were men, fifty years and above

who go to the farming lands. There were many respondents below 30 years who indicated that they

never visit extraction sites. This is because it is most likely some are schooling and have little interest in

mining as an activity. Few respondents below thirty who indicated that they visit mining sites because

they are seeking or on part time jobs to load tipper trucks manually. Women dominated the sometimes

and rarely options probably because they are ever occupied by other duties in homes and are not

involved much in sand mining activities.

 53

4.1.7. : Activities of respondents at and around mining areas

Table 4.7: Activities of respondents

Activity Frequency Percentage

Get domestic water 9 15.0

Soil mining 7 11.7

Gardening 14 23.3

Farming 23 38.3

Others 7 11.7

Total 60 100

Data collected and displayed in Table 4.7 show that residents of Awgu Area Council visit gravel

extraction and sand mining areas regularly for various purposes. The main activities are farming and

gardening by mostly male mature respondents with 38.3% and 23.3% respectively. Soil mining is done

by few villagers (11.7%) as private businesses and for domestic purposes. Respondents gave other

activities (11.7%) as they visit mining areas for recreational and leisure purposes and on their way to the

fields. Five (5) respondents from the 21-25 age group and seven (7) from 26-30 age group indicated that

they visit mining areas when they are on part time jobs to load trucks manually.

Respondents who indicated that they do soil mining, had to explain what they use soil for. Twenty one

(7) respondents who indicated that they are involved in sand and gravel mining, 33.3% use it for

domestic purposes which include building houses and sales to local/truck buyers. When asked about

how often they collect soil and what they use for its transportation, some respondents informed the

researcher that they buy from the tipper trucks passing through the village at when they need it. Ten (7)

respondents indicated that they mine sand on small scale using only for domestic use, transporting with

wheelbarrows, loading with spades and hoes rarely.

 54

4.1.8. Approximate number of trucks transporting sand and gravel passing through the villages

daily

No. of trucks Per Day

5% 13%
15% 0-5
6.0 -10.0
11.0 - 15.0
16.0 - 20.0
18%
20+
48%

Figure 4.8: Number of trucks passing through the village per day

Figure 4.5 show that all respondents have observed tipper trucks passing through the village though they

could not state the exact number. About 48.3% respondents indicated that six to ten (6-10) trucks pass

through the villages which form the modal class. Illegal mining is done on weekends which made

observing and giving exact number of trucks difficult for Local government authorities. The conclusion

is that a lot of sand and gravel are mined every day by both legal and illegal miners.
 55

4.2 Questionnaire respondents’ general views on sand mining and gravel extraction

The study was carried out to find the environmental and socioeconomic effect of soil mining.

Respondents had realised both positive and negative impacts of the activity and were asked to give

general views on mining of soil as well as possible solutions and rehabilitation programmes that can be

implemented.

4.2.1 Advantages (positive impacts) of sand mining and gravel extraction

Respondents were asked to outline the advantages of extracting soil from the environment and these

were responses obtained:

Benefits to residents

Respondents are of the view that extraction of soil:

 Create employment for youth as drivers and loaders.

 Villagers buy river sand and gravel at cheap prices since they reside near mining areas.

 Many people are affording to build modern, durable and strong houses at cheap cost as sand and

gravel are readily available locally.

 There is development of the village and country in form of tarred roads, shopping malls and

modern infrastructure.

 A source of income to individuals who mine and sell sand and gravel or transport for people on

small scale using small trucks and wheel barrow.

 Moulding of bricks for sale is cheap in small scale businesses for individual villagers.

Benefits to the community

Respondents believe that the benefits of soil and gravel to the community include:

 Development of villages and better infrastructure.

 Source of income to Village Development Committees (VDC) to build houses for rental as
 56

well as selling sand and gravel confiscated from illegal miners by local police when raiding

mining areas and mounting road blocks.

 Cheap raw materials leading to construction of roads and houses at cheap cost.

 Growth of cities and towns in form of malls, schools, hospitals and residential areas and

creation of employment.

 Create rain water catchment points for watering livestock.

 Reduces river siltation, for fast water flowing and less stagnant water in pools.

Generally villagers are aware of sand and gravel extraction and benefits of the activities. Development of

infrastructure, use of cheap resources in building, employment creation and source of income for VDCs

were noted as positive impacts.

4.2.2 Disadvantages (negative impacts) of sand mining and gravel extraction

Respondents’ views on the activity

Respondents who participated in the study were asked to share their views about soil mining, these were

the responses:

 Tried to stop the activity in vain, now have given up on the issue and waiting for the police

and government authorities.

 Do not like the activity since it destroys the environment, vegetation, rivers, ecosystems,

crop fields, grazing lands leading to shortage of land.

 Miners should be stopped because this is not a good activity.

 Miners create deep gullies and cause deep pits which cause accidents for people and animals,

so must cover pits after mining.

 River sand mining leads to deepening of rivers, land degradation, destroy soil structure and

cause soil erosion.

 57

 Mining must be done in one area and avoid extracting from people’s fields.

 Sand and gravel extraction are good activities which lead to development of the country

but it is overdone and leads to destruction of the environment.

 Mining should be controlled and done only by licensed companies after getting

permission from local authorities.

 The activity will finish sand in rivers and cause floods during the rainy season.

 The activity disturb recreational activities for example fishing and swimming.

 Others indicated that there is no smooth flowing of water in rivers.

Respondents sampled from Agwu LGA villages showed disgruntlement over sand and gravel mining

activities. They felt that illegal mining practices are destroying the environment. The activities are

overdone on rivers and open areas, disturbing recreation such as fishing and swimming.

Negative effects of sand and gravel mining on people’s lives

Respondents were also asked to share their views on the effects of soil mining in their lives and gave the

following:

 Illegal miners are dangerous to farmers and villagers as they bring sharp objects and spades to

fight police and watch groups mostly at night (3.7%).

 Trucks from Agwu towns bring and dump waste such as used diapers, building rubble, empty

bottles in open areas and pits left after mining. Waste spread all over the villages which

become untidy and pollute the land (21.2%).

 Many ugly deep pits are left uncovered. During rainy season they will be filled with water and

become dangerous to people and livestock. These are breeding grounds for mosquitoes which

spread malaria (5%).

 Sand and gravel mining is increasing crime in the villages as many young people both citizens
 58

and non-citizens come to wait for trucks going to collect sand and gravel to be hired as

manual loaders but when not hired they resort to stealing at night (12.9%)

 Mining cause erosion, destroys grazing land and vegetation (5.4%).

 The activity cause shortage of water in rivers for watering livestock and disturb recreational

purposes like fishing, swimming (4.6%).

 Tipper trucks produce a lot of noise pollution mostly at night as illegal mining is between

18:00 and 06:00am when police are less active. Too much noise and impact causing cracks on

nearby houses and buildings (10.4%).

 Continuous movement of trucks cause air pollution in form of dust (11.2%).

 Movement of trucks destroy gravel roads (4.1%).

 Cause floods during the rainy season (3.3%).

 Mining deepens rivers and widens river banks (5.8%).

 Many road accidents are caused by slow moving tipper trucks and they also cause traffic

congestion (5%).

 Small stones from uncovered sand and gravel when being transported destroy windscreens

of cars following behind (2.9%).

 Others are of the view that mined river beds collapse which is dangerous to animals and

people (4.6%).
 59

Table 4.8. Negative impacts of mining observed by respondents

Negative impacts of mining Frequency %

Land Degradation 7 11.7
Deepening of Riverbanks 14 23.3
Soil Erosion 5 8.3
Deep pits with/without water 7 11.7
Land alteration 8 13.3
Loss of vegetation 10 16.7
Others 9 15

Negative impacts of mining observed by

respondents

Land Degradation
Others Land Degradation Deepening of Riverbanks
8%
Loss of Veg- 16% Deepening of
Soil Erosion
etation Riverbanks
17% 24% Deep pits with/without water
Land alteration
Loss of Vegetation
Land al- Others
teration Soil Erosion
14% 9%
Deep pits with/
without water
12%

Figure 4.9: Negative impacts observed by respondents

Figure 4.9 shows a list of negative impacts which were given in the questionnaire responses. Most

respondents indicated that they are aware of sand mining and gravel extraction going on in their areas so

they had observed the following impacts:

 Deepening of riverbanks (23.3%).

 Soil Erosion (8.3%)

 Deep pits with/without water (11.7%)

 60

 Alteration of the landscape (13.3%).

 Loss of vegetation (16.7%).

 Land degradation (11.7%).

 Other impacts observed by 15% of respondents include: livestock stuck in river beds

when drinking water, pollution of land as the drivers bring waste from Enugu and Agwu town and dump

in pits and open areas. Waste such as plastics and diapers are eaten by cattle. Building rabble, empty tins

and bottles dumped on open areas making the environment dirty. Destruction of grazing lands,

agricultural land and noise pollution from tipper trucks was also noted. Burnt tyres and engine oil

spilled on riverbeds and ground caused land pollution. Air pollution by dust from gravel roads used by

trucks. Children and livestock fall into open pits during rainy season. Influx of miners in villages

increase spread of Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV) and other sexual transmitted diseases.

Respondents are aware of negative effects of soil mining with majority (21.2%) complaining of

waste dumped on the open fields and in rivers. More impacts highlighted were land degradation,

pollution, road accidents and increase in crime rate. On the survey when some of the impacts noted were

listed, respondents indicated that majority (23.3%) had realised deepening of notably Mmaku River and

other riverbanks due to mining.

4.2.3. Accidents reported during soil mining

Table 4.9: Accidents reported during soil mining

Accidents reported during soil Frequency %

mining

YES 25 41.7
NO 15 25
DON’T KNOW 20 33.3
 61

Accidents reported during soil mining

DON’T KNOW
33% YES
YES
42% NO
DON’T KNOW

NO
25%

Figure 4.10: Number of accidents reported during sand and gravel mining

Figure 4.10. indicates respondents’ responses on accidents reported due to mining. Majority (41.7 %) of

the respondents who participated in the study are aware of accidents in both deep pits where soil is

extracted and on roads caused by trucks transporting it. Some (25%) argued that there are no accidents

caused by these trucks while (33%) indicated that they don’t know if there are accidents caused by

trucks or at mining sites.

Respondents discussed types of accidents that had been reported in their villages which included:

 Children attempting to swim and drown in deep pits left by miners (40%).

 Mined river banks fell on miners and they died (17.4%).

 Slow moving or speeding overloaded tipper trucks cause road accidents in the village and on

main tarred and gravel roads as well as causing traffic congestion (16.2%).
 62

 A lot of breakdowns from tipper trucks which are not road worthy (9%).

 Small stones falling from loaded trucks damaging other cars’ windscreens when transporting

uncovered sand and gravel (17.4%).

When asked about their reactions to these accidents caused by the miners, the respondents had

different views as follows:

 Residents are furious and want illegal miners to be jailed (18.9%).

 They are not happy and disturbed by the sand and gravel mining activities which destroy their

agricultural land, cause many accidents leading to death of people in the community (31.7%).

 Miners should ask for permission from village leaders and be given a limited and controlled

area to mine (20.1%).

 Villagers explained that they have reported to the village leaders and police so that such

activities can be stopped (14%).

 Complaints had been made to regional authorities and some residents threaten to strike by

throwing stones at trucks, blocking the gravel roads passing through the villages using tree

branches and stones (8.5%).

 Sand and gravel block main roads when trucks have accidents and are forced to off load

(6.8%).

Many residents indicated that they are aware and not happy with many accidents occurring involving

children, livestock and miners due to sand and gravel mining activities. The accidents are on roads and

in open pits left by miners. They feel there should be more police patrols, twenty four security and

public education specifically children on dangers of swimming in stagnant water.

4.2.4. Solutions and rehabilitation to sand and gravel mined areas

The study allowed the villagers to give suggestions on solutions to sand and gravel activities in their

areas. When asked about what they can recommend as the immediate solutions to the negative impacts
 63

of sand mining and gravel extraction, respondents gave suggestions at community, district and

national levels.

Solutions at community level

The following are some of the suggestions given by respondents to be done at community level to

reduce negative impacts of sand and gravel extraction:

 Respondents volunteered to form committees, clusters and watch groups to monitor,

supervise and guard mining areas with help of VDC (6.9%).

 Twenty four hour security to be employed to apprehend illegal miners on daily basis

(11.3%).

 Only miners with licences should be allowed into mining areas and stop illegal miners through

tight security (5.9%).

 Reuse and recycling of building material to reduce demand for river sand, pit sand and

gravel (2.5%).

 Tipper trucks should not be allowed to use gravel roads passing through villages but roads

outside residential areas to reduce dust causing air pollution (17.2%).

 Construction of soil conservation structures to reduce soil erosion (3.4%).

 Sand and gravel miners should pay royalties to the village leaders so that the community

benefit directly (9.4%).

 Consultations to be done by land boards with village leaders before permits are issued so that

they may be involved in surveying land and recommend on where to mine (15.3%).

 All community members must cooperate and report illegal miners to responsible authorities

instead of harbouring them (3.4%).

 All trucks transporting sand and gravel should pass through village leaders for inspection and

verifying licences since some miners use fake documents (5.4%).

 64

 Village leaders including chiefs must be involved in imposing punishments to illegal miners

and confiscate sand then sell it to benefit the whole community (14.3%).

 There must be regular formal meetings between miners and all stakeholders affected by the

activity to discuss the impacts and come up with a way forward to the issue (4.9%).

Solutions at District level

 Respondents suggested the following:

 Issuance of permits and licences to be strictly done on condition that miners will be

monitored by Land Board and ensure that pits are covered as rehabilitation (29.9%).

 Allow sand mining to be done only during certain seasons of the year but not in rainy season

(19.7%).

 Number of permits and licences issued must be very minimal (7%).

 The committees formed to guard and monitor mining should control and restrict number

of truck loads per day (3.8%).

 Restrict time of harvesting which should only be done during the day (13.4%).

 Sand and gravel mining must not be done on one area but alternating sites to reduce over

extraction which destroy the environment beyond rehabilitation (14.6%).

 Regular patrols must be done by Land Board, Department of Mines and police to restrict

some areas for example riverbanks, near schools, clinics or residential (8.3%).

 Land Board should compensate affected citizens (3.2%).

Solutions at national level

Respondents suggested the following to be done at national level to prevent or reduce the negative

impacts of soil extraction:

 Strict laws and legislature to prohibit and control mining, buying and selling of sand and gravel
 65

which include severe punishments like arresting illegal miners, heavy fines and penalties, long

imprisonment sentences such as up to 10 year jail term (24.3%).

 Controlling number of permits and licences issued (18.1%).

 Close monitoring and evaluation of the activity (4%), restrict mining in summer and during

rainy season (7.3%).

 Construction of separate gravel roads for tipper trucks to reduce traffic congestion,

accidents as well as noise and air pollution (6.8%).

 Mining should use dry pit method of mining (2.1%).

 Prohibit sand and gravel mining at night (9%).

 Covering sand and gravel on transportation to be a prerequisite (5.1%).

 Twenty four hour security on mining areas with help of Nigerian Police Force to scare off

illegal miners (1.7%).

 Regular meetings between Land Board, Department of Mines and village leadership to

discuss the soil mining activity and possible impacts (5.6%).

 Educate and inform public about the impacts and accidents caused by sand and gravel mining

through media for example television, radio and newspapers (7.3%).

 Heavy police patrols and road blocks on roads to and from mining areas to arrest illegal

miners and confiscate the soil (10.7%).

4.2.5. Rehabilitation programmes to soil mining

The study required villagers to suggest rehabilitation programmes which could be implemented in their

communities and on sand and gravel mining sites. Respondents suggested several rehabilitation

programmes that could be implemented in their areas which included:

 Covering of pits created by all miners as a way of rehabilitation (26.8%).

 66

 Replanting vegetation on mined areas to prevent further damage (20.5).

 Construction of special roads for tipper trucks to reduce accidents and pollution (12.6%).

 Perpetrators must be stopped from mining in residents’ fields without permission

(11.1%).

 Miners should be educated on short and long term negative impacts of continuous mining

from same areas through regular meetings (7.4%).

 Close monitoring and evaluation of mined areas (6.8%).

 Use of alternative resources to river sand and gravel such as crushed stone (2.1%).

 Prohibit dumping of waste by placing signs on all open areas (2.1%).

 Open a dumping site or landfill next to sand and gravel mining areas to reclaim land (2.6%).

 Fence abandoned pits and use them as water source for livestock (5.8%).

 Use of open pits as dumping sites and landfills (2.1%).

Several rehabilitation programmes were also given by the villagers which can be implemented in their

communities. Covering of pits created by mining was the general consensus of villagers because of the

problem of waste dumped in these pits. Respondents were very cooperative and willing to suggest on

what can be done to curb environmental damage caused by sand and gravel mining.

4.3 Interview respondents’ general comments on sand and gravel mining

Interviewing key people directly or indirectly involved in sand and gravel mining was one of the

methods used to compile data in the research. The researcher interviewed Mmaku chief on background

to mining and discovered that the activity started around 1992 when Mmaku and the neighboring

communities such as the Agwu town, Mgbowo and Lokpa nta started to expand at a faster rate. Miners

were extracting mainly river sand from Mmaku River for construction of suburbs. There were no
 67

consultations done with village leaders before mining. The activity now involves many people but

mostly illegal miners. Village leaders with help of local police patrol mining areas on several occasions

to confiscate sand from illegal miners. The soil is then sold by Village Development Committee to

communities and government departments at cheap price per wheelbarrow. The village leaders had

received complaints from villagers mostly on the damage to their land and dumping of waste in the

villages. Negative impacts highlighted were mining is done everywhere so water in rivers take wrong

route, destruction of vegetation, creation of dangerous deep pits and destruction of agricultural land.

Solutions suggested were need for 24 hour security with help of Nigerian Police force and the drafting of

the neighbourhood watch men to the mining areas including regular consultations and meetings between

Department of Mines and Natural Resources and village leadership.

In a separate interview with Department of Mines and Natural Resources’ Licensing officer, the

researcher discovered that the department is responsible for issuing all mining licences with validity of 6

months up to 5 years to most mining activities including sand and gravel. The conditions for getting a

licence include the company or individual obtaining a letter of surface rights with surveyed coordinates,

sketch map plan and total area to be mined from land board, and get clearance on the quality and

quantity of the resources. The company must apply for a waiver from Geological Surveys Department

then a licence from Department of Mines and Natural Resource.

Department of Mines is aware of illegal mining in the country. Officers from the Department

always inspect and raid mining areas, mount road blocks with help of police, conduct and consult

villagers for information, as well as confiscating trucks and sand. There are penalties to illegal mining

and those who have licences but mine outside boundaries. Penalties depend on how frequent the miner

does it, amount of sand extracted, how sensitive the area of extraction is and extend of destruction to the

environment.

The officer explained that there are laws to govern mining activities such as the need for an

Environmental Impact Assessment report from Department of Environmental Affairs before a licence is
 68

issued. The miner must include in his plan, an environmental reclamation plan, methods of mining, how

to access the mining area from one side to reduce damage to the environment.

Positive environmental impacts noted were creation of employment, utilisation of resources, low

cost of construction using cheap and readily available resources and sand mining can be done with less

investment. Negative impacts given were permanent environmental damage, destruction of river banks

and ecosystems, contamination and scarcity of water, naked riverbed and deep pits causing accidents to

livestock and children. Solutions to illegal mining included close monitoring, cancellation of licence,

heavy penalties like long jail term for mining on sensitive areas such as a school and confiscation of

vehicles. Public awareness and education is necessary. There is need for identifying alternative sources

to river sand, a most sensitive resource for example use of sand bearing rocks.

In an interview with Department of Mines Environment officers, the EIA and Mines and

Minerals Acts were highlighted as some of the policies protecting the environment from damage due to

mining. EIA is done by the Department of Environmental Affairs who give the final clearance, then

Mines department review and give advice on the reports. Positive impacts noted were revenue collection

and infrastructure development. Negative impacts included destruction of vegetation and environment,

widening of river banks increasing chances of flooding, deep pits not rehabilitated and pollution due to

dust. Solutions included the need for finding alternative sources to river sand such as crushed stone from

quarries.

In an interview with the Village Development Chairperson, he suggested that miners should meet

with the village leaders to get permission. VDC then writes a letter of acceptance to land board for a

certificate to be issued before the mining area is allocated and paid for. There is need for consultation

before mining rights are given then close monitoring during the activity. Positive impacts given were

development of roads and villages. Negative impacts included accidents involving miners and children,

destruction of agricultural land. Solutions noted were miners must mine up to acceptable depth and the

law of mining should be followed which state that 2.5 metres should be left on both sides of the river
 69

bank and mining should be done in the middle of the river. Close monitoring and rehabilitation of the

land is a prerequisite.

Tipper truck drivers were interviewed when found at mining sites. They indicated that collection

points depended on where they are to deliver the soil. River sand is highly demanded and transported

most which can be 4-5 loads per day on average depending on distance to the contract site. Clients are

mostly individuals building residential homes and even companies. Charges per load depend on

individuals, type of soil, size of truck and distance to delivery point. Pit sand and gravel loads are

cheaper than river sand. The charges range from N30, 000 to N50, 000 per load. Positive impacts noted

were source of income and construction of roads and houses. Negative impacts were river beds are

deepening and shortage of water for livestock. Generally, they recommended other miners not to overdo

it in one area.

Residents were also picked at random to share their views on sand and gravel mining. Mpu,

Mgbowo and Lokpa nta land farmers expressed bitterness at the activities of illegal sand miners. The

miners are violent, always overpower the farmers. In revenge, farmers team up to puncture the miners’

trucks. The areas have belts of high quality sand attracting more miners. Impacts noted were depletion

of farm and river sand and there is nothing to hold water for livestock. In a separate interview, a resident

of Mmaku complained of illegal gravel mining in her farm mostly at night. The villager indicated that

mining in the farm started in 1999 when a small area was given off by land board for mining. The

activity became uncontrollable and illegal miners collect sand from the field day and night. The issue

had been reported to responsible authorities at district level for possible solutions and rehabilitation of

the land.

4.4 Field measurements and observations

The researcher visited and sampled soil extraction areas to observe and take measurements within six

visits. However, the visits to mining sites were not consistent within the first two months between

September 2022 and December, 2022 due to lack of people to accompany the researcher because it was
 70

festive season and lack of transport fair. There after visits were done every fortnight. For each

component, 4 sites were sampled that is A, B, C where mining is going on and D undisturbed area as the

control.

GRAVEL EXTRACTION SITE A

Table 4.10: Field measurements from gravel extraction Site A

Fortnight 1 2 3 4 5 6

Date 14/09/22 29/09/22 10/10/22 24/10/22 10/11/22 24/11/23

Pit depth(m) 40.8 40.85 40.9 40.9 42.1 42.3
Pit width(m) 38 39 39.3 39.4 39.9 41.2
Pit length(m) 185 187 187 209 211 212
Water present Yes No Yes No No No
Trucks/miners No No No No No No
present
Dumped Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
waste present

Mining in No No No No No No
progress

Table 4.10 above shows the field measurements collected in six visits from sampled gravel extraction

point A (Lokpa nta). Depth of pit was showing a slight increase on each visit to give a difference of

1.5m when the initial depth was 40.8 m and final depth was 42.3 m. The width showed an increase of

3.2m while the length of pit increased from 185m to 212m in six visits. General increase in size of pit

was due to erosion since there

 71

Plate 1. Eroded open pit on sampled Site A

Plate 1 Shows sampled gravel extraction Site A (Lokpa nta). The researcher observed that no more

mining is going on as the depth, width and length were increasing due to erosion. The area is now a huge

dumping site for waste by illegal miners from Enugu and Agwu Town which is done at night and violent

when approached.

SITE B

Table 4.11: Field measurements from gravel extraction Site B (Mmaku)

Fortnight 1 2 3 4 5 6
Date 14/09/22 29/09/22 10/10/22 24/10/22 10/11/22 24/11/23
Depth of pit (m) 20 20.2 29.1 33.9 35.3 37.6
Width of pit (m) 81 105 117 125 127.1 129.6
Length of pit 140 164 181 192 193.2 194.8
(m)
Water present No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Trucks/miners No No No No No No
Dumped waste No No No No No No
Other Fresh Branch Empty Spilled No Spilled
wheels to fuel oil, empty waste oil, fresh
things observed prevent container containers observed wheels
sinking s
 72

Measurements in Table 4.11 show that the depth of sampled pit was increasing on every visit. During

first week, 20m was recorded as the depth and this increased to 37.6m in 6 visits, while the width of pit

increased from 81m to 129.6m and the length from 140m to 194.8m. The approximate volume of gravel

extracted considering the measurements obtained in the first visit was 226800 cubic metres. This

increased to 949252 cubic metres by the sixth visit, showing that an approximate 722452 cubic metres of

gravel had been removed from the site. Results showed that mining was still going on though no trucks

were seen on the site. Data collected from interviews, revealed that illegal miners extract gravel at night.

Plate 2. Tree branches on ground to prevent sinking on sampled Site B (Mmaku Site)

Plate 2 shows sampled site B where gravel is extracted. Fresh track wheels, empty fuel containers and

tree branches cut and placed on ground to prevent sinking were observed and noted as evidence of

mining in progress. The pit is deepening and widening as a result of continuous mining. Soil erosion is

also taking place on the sides of the pit.

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SITE C

Table 4.12: Field measurements from gravel extraction Site C

Fortnight 1 2 3 4 5 6
Date 14/09/22 29/09/22 10/10/22 24/10/22 10/11/22 24/11/23
Depth of pit (m) 5.7 6.1 6.8 7 8.8 9.3
Width of pit (m) 171 175 187 194 197 197.8
Length of pit (m) 198 211.5 225 229 231 231
Water present Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Trucks/miners No No No No No No
Dumped waste No No No No No No
Other things Heaps of Cut Wheel Dumped Stock Fresh
observed gravel Branches tracks tyres piling of tracks
gravel

Mining in Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

progress

Table 4.12 shows field measurements on depth, width and length of pit on sampled Site C. Pit depth

increased from 5.7m to 9.3m within 6 visits. Width of pit increased from 171m to 197.8m while length

increased from 198m to 231m. Approximate volume mined at the first visit was 192990.6 cubic metres

which increased to 424933.7 cubic metres by the sixth visit, giving an approximate volume of 231943.1

cubic metres which had been removed. On every visit there was a change in size of pit, a sign of mining

in progress. The sampled point is shown on Plate 3 below.

 74

Plate 3. Stock piling and tree branches on ground, Site C (Mgbowo)

Mining in the sampled site was in progress as fresh tree branches on the ground, fresh wheel tracks and

heaps of stock piled gravel were seen as evidence. No miners were seen on the sampled site but the pit

was increasing in length and depth due to continuous mining. The researcher concluded that mining is

done at night.
 75

SITE D

Plate 4. Undisturbed land (Control site at Mpu)

Land was flat with natural vegetation but now a dumping site for all types of waste. Gravel is mined

from open areas and is less expensive than river sand because it has less uses. It is required mostly in

making foundations, demand for resource is lower.

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RIVER SAND MINING SITE A

Table 4.13: Measurements from river sand mining Site A (Mmaku)

Fortnight 1 2 3 4 5 6
Date 14/09/22 29/09/22 10/10/22 24/10/22 10/11/22 24/11/23
River depth (m) 16 17.5 19 19.9 20.1 21.8
River width (m) 125 129 133 135 135.2 135.9
Pit length (m) 10 11.3 12.1 13 13.9 14.4
Water present Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Trucks/miners No Yes Yes Yes No No
Dumped waste Riverbed, Yes Yes Yes Tyres Burnt
banks and oil tyre
Other Access Trucks Trucks Trucks Access Truck
road, fresh and and and road, stuck
things observed wheels manual manual manual branches
loaders loaders loaders of trees

Mining going on Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Table 4.13 shows that river depth increased from 16m to 21.8m at the sampled site A within six visits.

River width increased from 125m to135.9m while the pit length where sand was mined increased from

10m to 14.4m. Deductions from data collected show that the river was widening and deepening at

sampled site. Miners extracted river sand on the walls of the river as they preferred high quality river

sand from inner layer as seen on Plate 5.

 77

Plate 5: Extraction of river sand from inner layer on Site A (Mmaku).

Continuous extraction of river sand from banks had resulted in accidents and death of miners as revealed

by interview results. Mining was in progress at sampled Site A. On several visits, manual loaders were

found loading trucks but would always escape when researcher visited the area accompanied by local

police.

More evidence of mining was trucks loading on five occasions, access roads into the river

and branches of trees to prevent sinking into wet ground. Rivers are widening and deepening as miners

extract continuously from banks.

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SITE B

Table 4.14: Field measurements from river sand mining Site B (Lokpa nta)

Fortnight 1 2 3 4 5 6
Date 14/09/22 29/09/22 10/10/22 24/10/22 10/11/22 24/11/23
River depth (m) 11 13.9 14.3 14.6 14.9 15.2
River width (m) 55 71 83 84.2 85 85.8
Pit length (m) 7 7.3 7.9 8.3 8.4 8.9
Water Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Trucks/miners No No Yes Yes No No
Dumped waste Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Other Animal Spilled Truck Burnt Spilled Oil,
stuck oil stuck tyres oil empty
things observed contain
ers
Mining Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

in
progress

Table 4.14 shows that river depth at sampled point increased from 11m to 15.2m in 6 visits, an increase

of 4.2 m. Width of river increased from 55m to 85.8m, an increase of 30.8m. Length of pit where sand

was collected increased from 7m to 8.9m. Animals were stuck and drowning due to loosed sand

particles. More evidence of mining observed included truck stuck on river bed, spilled oil and burnt tyres

on river bed as seen on Plate 6.

 79

Plate 6. Soil dredge site on river bed from Site B (Lokpa nta)
 80

SITE C

Table 4.15: Field measurements from river sand mining Site C (Mgbowo)

Fortnight 1 2 3 4 5 6
Date 14/12/12 13/01/12 10/02/12 24/02/12 10/03/12 24/03/13
River depth (m) 25 37 45 46.3 47.1 47.3
River width (m) 74 74.1 74.6 74.9 75.3 75.5
Pit length (m) 43 60 77 79.9 81.2 81.7
Water present Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Trucks/miners No Yes No No Yes No
Dumped waste Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Other Dumped Dumped Exposed River River Fresh
tyres tyres, rocks, extension extension tracks of
things observed branches tracks tree , signs wheels,
on tracks branches branches
of
erosion
Mining going on Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Table 4.15 show measurements of depth and width of the river and length of the pit created by the

miners. On the first visit, river depth at sampled point was 25 metres and this gradually increased to 47.3

metres by the sixth visit. River width on sampled point increased from 74 metres to 75 metres. A long

river extension was developing and increasing in length on every visit from 43 metres to 81.7 metres by

the sixth visit as seen on Figure 4.16 below. Miners continuously extract sand on river banks in search of

inner layer with high quality sand. The river extension had been increased by erosion Mining was in

progress as fresh wheel tracks c, tree branches and dumped tyres on river bed were recorded as evidence.
 81

Plate 7. River extension due to mining

Tree roots on riparian zone are exposed due to continuous mining. Interviewees revealed that

miners prefer inner layer and recently river banks collapsed at night killing three miners.
 82

SITE D

Plate 8: Undisturbed land (Control at Mpu community)

There are no alterations on river channel. Depth and width of the river are not increasing due to

mining but erosion as water flows during the rainy season. There is natural vegetation on river

banks and water flows normally.

Interviews conducted with truck drivers and loaders, revealed that river sand is mined
 83

most as compared to pit sand and gravel. River sand highly demanded with many uses in

construction and strengthening structures which makes it the most expensive soil component.
 84

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The research was carried out to investigate and expose environmental and socio-economic

effects of soil mining in Agwu local government area where the resources are extracted for

development of the city. The major objectives were to assess and find out the soil component

mined most, expose positive and negative impacts of sand and gravel mining as well as

recommendations to the responsible authorities at community, district and national levels.

5.1 Conclusion

The study on the environmental and socio-economic effects of soil mining in Agwu local

government area revealed both positive and negative effects. It highlighted the views of affected

people through questionnaires and interviews. Majority of the respondents were not happy with

environmental degradation, accidents caused, waste disposed by miners, threats from illegal

miners and general damage to the ecosystems.

The research justified that there are both positive and negative environmental and

socioeconomic impacts to soil mining. It revealed that river sand is the soil component mined

most in construction industry because of its strength as a resource and has many uses which

include building strong structures, plastering, making foundations and bricks. The researcher

discovered that pits at extraction sites were increasing on every visit while rivers at sampled

areas were widening and deepening. Method of mining commonly used is open pit. There are

two main methods of loading being used by miners which are the use of front end loaders by

licensed miners while illegal miners mostly prefer the cheaper way of hiring manual loaders who

use shovels and barrow.

Soil mining is a very important activities for economic development in both developed
 85

and developing world. Generally, mining disturb land surface areas, leaving huge open pits

which are difficult physically and economically to rehabilitate at the time mining cease.

Excessive mining leads to depletion of resources on both riverbeds and open lands. There is need

for laws across the globe by high level decision makers to enforce solutions to environmental

problems and implement all the stated recommendations.

5.2 Recommendations

The author listed and included recommendations to both the decision makers who are directly

involved in the review of soil mining activities to make informed decisions when issuing licences

and to miners considering the rate of illegal mining in the country. More recommendations are

on areas which need further research.

5.2.1 Recommendations to decision makers

 The Nigerian government through the Department of Mines and Natural Resources should

call for a high level decision making forum involving all stake holders to discuss the

problem of illegal sand and gravel mining and come up with immediate solutions which

curb environmental damage.

 Effective legal framework, strict laws and legislature are important as Department of

Mines and Natural Resources with help of police force and village leadership must impose

heavy fines including long jail terms to miners who extract without mining rights and

licences. This is possible if trucks transporting sand and gravel pass through community

leaders for inspection and verifying genuine permits to reduce use of fake documents.

Confiscation of tipper trucks from illegal miners is necessary as a way of banning illegal

mining.

 It is important to have an Environmental Impact Assessment Management and Monitoring

 86

Program. Close monitoring ensures that there is proper mining.

 Deployment of 24 hour security to guard mining areas and apprehend illegal miners with

help of village watch groups and clusters. Only licensed miners will be allowed into

extraction sites and illegal miners will not have access. All residents must be involved in

apprehending and reporting illegal miners to authorities instead of befriending them.

 Mining operations must be conducted in a manner that minimises or eliminates adverse

impacts on both in stream and riparian components of ecosystems comprising of biota and

habitats.

 Authorities are to strengthen laws on not allowing people to enter vulnerable areas through

close monitoring of the mining activities in all areas.

 Regular inspection and roadblocks by Nigerian Police Service officers through mounting

regular roadblocks next to mining areas and along roads used by trucks, setting speed traps

on speeding trucks. Inspections of trucks which are not road worthy must be part of the

operations.

 The Department of Mines and Natural Resources should evolve a policy compelling

miners to reinvest and repair old disused mine sites to reduce occurrence of landslides.

 Surface rights rent should be affordable to all miners to allow them to spend part of the

money on repairing environmental damage due to mining operations.

 Department of Mines and Natural Resources, District Authorities and Land Boards should

ensure that farmers whose land is mined, livestock drowning in open pits and cattle dying

from measles after eating dumped waste are compensated directly or indirectly by illegal

miners.

 Sign boards prohibiting illegal mining must be placed next to all mining and surrounding

areas prohibiting illegal mining, dumping of waste, oil spillages and burning tyres and
 87

punishment accompanying such offences.

 Mining Licences issued must allow harvesting river sand on braided river systems,

abandoned stream channels, terraces and inactive channels. Mining activities should never

be done on straight, meandering or split rivers.

 Reuse and recycling of old building material must be encouraged by authorities as a way of

reducing over extraction and dumping of waste on the environment.

 Restriction of mining time and days to normal working hours that is 07:30-16:30 on week

days is important to reduce illegal mining when there is tight security.

 Ministry for Roads and Transport with help of Nigerian Police Service should restrict

tipper trucks transporting sand and gravel from using gravel roads passing through the

villages. Constructing temporary roads out of villages to reduce air and noise pollution is

necessary.

 Authorities are to restrict heavy front end loader equipment on riverbed which compact the

ground and bring water tables near surface.

 Department of Mines and natural resources should educate the public including miners on

the negative impacts of continuous mining through media such as national television, radio

and national newspaper, Daily News.

 Regular meetings and consultations with affected communities are important to call for

their involvement in mining activities. Part of royalties can be paid to Village

Development Committees/ Town Development Committee, so that villagers can directly

benefit from mining activities in their areas.

 88

5.2.2 Recommendations to miners

 All miners must draft and submit an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) in advance

to ensure that potential negative impacts of their mining projects are assessed and

incorporated into development plan. This becomes a prerequisite to get a permit.

 Consultations and seeking permission from interested and affected communities before

mining is important as sand miners should consult chiefs, sub chiefs and Village

Development Committees so as to control the size of area mined and reduce damage to the

environment. Regular meetings between Department of Mines and Natural Resourses,

Land board officials and village leadership can be a good platform for consultations. The

village leadership will be involved in surveying and recommending the areas to be mined

far from crop fields and grazing lands.

 Miners must change mining areas and not extract from same area continuously but

alternate sites to reduce over extraction and environmental damage beyond rehabilitation.

Mining should not be done near schools, clinics, residential or any sensitive areas like

destroyed rivers.

 Limiting amount of sand and gravel mined per day will help to control depth of mining.

Miners should leave 0.5 metres sand bed in situ to reduce sand depletion. The security

deployed can monitor the number of trucks loaded per day.

 Controlling time of mining: not to be done throughout the year but during dry season,

avoiding rainy season. This is necessary to give the land time to rehabilitate and recover.

Mining time must be restricted to day time only.

 Mining should be done approaching the floodplain from one side to minimise crossing

riverbed with heavy machinery. Access to river can be determined by steepness and

vegetation available to avoid damaging flora. If the channel is too deep, construct access
 89

ramps.

 Access roads from public roads must be parallel to the river banks to restrict water flowing

along the tracks during rainy season from forming gullies.

 Haulage roads must be a minimum of 100 metres from the banks.

 Covering sand and gravel with nets: when transporting the resources to be a prerequisite to

reduce damage of other motorists’ windscreens from falling stones.

 Miners must follow the law of mining where no sand is to be extracted within 2.5 metres to

5.0 metres from the banks mostly if the river is meandering, or split.

 All miners must cover and refill pits after mining as reclamation since mitigation and

restoration must occur concurrently with extraction activities to conserve biotic integrity of

ecosystems.

 Reclamation of contaminated soils around all mining areas must be done by the miners.

Stockpiling to be avoided on riverbeds and open areas.

 Miners must plant and establish appropriate vegetation to reduce erosion on reclaimed

land.

 Compensation of farmers: whose animals drown in pits and die from measles after eating

waste should be done by the miners.

 All miners must use dry pit method of mining in all their extraction activities since depth

of mining can be controlled. The method should not be used on one area for too long but

alternate areas of mining.

5.2.3 Recommendations for further research

The study was not exhaustive and the researcher observed that more research on the topic is

necessary in the following areas: Interviews are to be done with more people from various
 90

departments.

 Questionnaire survey should be revisited, refined and administered to people in other

villages in the state.

 More research must be done during both rainy and dry seasons to compare results.

 More time, for example a year can be allocated to doing the research so as to cover more

areas.

 More sampled points in various rivers and open areas countrywide are to be used to

determine the extent of environmental damage.

 91

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