Obj 1) Outline the formation of polar covalent molecules and draw water molecules

Polar covalent molecules are formed when non-metals of different electronegativities bond together.
Water is an example of a polar covalent molecule. A water molecule consists of two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom. Oxygen requires two electrons in order to achieve stability, and
hydrogen requires one electron only. So oxygen shares two of its valence electrons with two
hydrogen atoms, and in return, both hydrogen atoms share their only valence electron with the
oxygen. This will result in both hydrogen atoms to have 2 valence electrons (stable) and the oxygen
to have 8 valence electrons (stable).

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons. It can be affected by
the number of shells or the number of protons an atom has. In the case of water, oxygen is more
electronegative than hydrogen. This means that oxygen will attract more electrons than hydrogen
resulting in oxygen having a negative partial charge and hydrogen having a positive partial charge.
The presence of these partial charges caused by the difference in electronegativities of Hydrogen
and Oxygen are what makes water a polar molecule.

Notes to remember when drawing:

1) The hydrogen atoms are
supposed to be around 105°
apart because of repulsion
(don't draw them too far
apart or too close)

2) Hydrogen has positive partial

charge, and oxygen has
negative

3) The bonds between the

hydrogen and the oxygen of
the same water molecule are
INTRAmolecular covalent
bonds

4) The bonds between the molecules are INTERmolecular hydrogen bonds.

5) Oxygen atoms should be bigger than both hydrogen atoms.
6) Hydrogen bonds should be dotted (shows they’re weak) and covalent bonds should be solid

Obj 2) Cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension

Cohesion and adhesion are very important properties of water. They are also both present in water
due to its ability to form hydrogen bonds easily. Cohesion is attraction between water and other
water molecules via hydrogen bonds and adhesion is attraction between water and other
substances via hydrogen bonds.

Cohesion and adhesion work together in the xylem for a process called capillary action. Capillary
action is basically the movement of water through a narrow tube due to adhesion, cohesion, and
surface tension. Cohesion allows the water to move up the xylem in a continuous column (cuz all the
water is stuck together), and adhesion makes sure the column of water doesn’t fall back down (cuz
the water sticks to the polar walls of the xylem).

Surface tension is tension at the surface of a liquid caused by cohesion. Surface tension occurs
because the water molecules at the surface of the liquid have stronger hydrogen bonds than the
molecules below. The reason they have stronger hydrogen bonds is because they aren’t surrounded
on all sides (no molecules on top of them), meaning they don’t have to distribute as much attractive
force as the water molecules below.

Surface tension is helpful in the daily lives of organisms such as the water strider and mosquito. The
water strider is an insect with feet coated in wax (hydrophobic) that can easily walk on water. The
surface tension allows the water strider to fight gravitational forces and walk on water helping them
escape predators. Mosquitos benefit from surface tension because they lay their eggs on still water,
allowing the eggs to hatch safely and be born in the right habitat

Obj 3) Relate the polarity of water to its function as a solvent

Water is known as the universal solvent because of its ability to dissolve so many substances.
Water’s polarity plays an important role in this title. Being a polar liquid, water has the ability to
interact with other polar substances; these polar/ionic (e.g., glucose, amino acids, enzymes, etc.)
substances that can interact with water are known as “hydrophilic” substances. Substances that
can’t interact with water, like phospholipids and steroid hormones, are known as hydrophobic
substances.

When a solute (a substance that gets dissolved) is introduced to water, the partially negative oxygen
atoms of the water molecules surround the positive atoms of the substance, and the partially
positive hydrogen atoms surround the negative atoms of the substance. This results in a shell of
either oxygen or hydrogen being formed around each atom of the solute; this shell is known as the
hydration shell. The formation of the hydration shell results in each atom of the solvent being
separated from the other atoms of its molecule.

Obj 4) Relate polarity of water to its importance in metabolism and transport

Water being the main component of the cytoplasm has the ability to dissolve a wide range of
substances, including ions, polar molecules, and some nonpolar molecules, allowing the formation
of homogeneous solutions. This solubility is essential for the proper functioning of enzymes, which
are often involved in metabolic reactions and require specific substrates to be dissolved in water for
catalysis (basically some enzymes can’t start a reaction unless the substrates are dissolved, the
solvent property of water allows these specific enzymes to initiate the reactions)..

Water is the main component of blood as well because the solvent property makes it an excellent
medium for transport of nutrients, minerals, and nutrients throughout the body. If the substances are
dissolved in water, they can easily be carried around the body.

Enzymes also need to be dissolved in water in order to keep their correct shape.

To sum up, things need to be dissolved in water so they can be transported, interact, and react.

Obj 5) Challenges and opportunities of water

Obj 6) Types of nucleic acids

There are two types of nucleic acids:

RNA (ribonucleic acids) creates proteins via translation.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acids) contains instructions for an organism to survive, function, and
develop.

Obj 7) Draw single DNA and RNA nucleotide

Obj 8) Purines and pyrimidines

Purine nitrogenous bases are adenine and guanine (pure as gold). They have a double ring structure.
Pyrimidine nitrogenous bases are thymine, cytosine, and uracil (CUT). They have a single ring
structure.

Obj 9) How nucleotides make nucleic acid strand

Nucleotides bond together through condensation reactions and form phosphodiester bonds. In order
for any of this to occur, the phosphate group at 5’ bonds to the OH at 3' and releases a water
molecule. When multiple nucleotides bond together, they form a strand of nucleic acids. Note that
this occurs in the 5’-3’ direction.

Obj 10) Draw a strand

C&G: 3 hydrogen bonds

A&T&U: 2 hydrogen bonds

Obj 10) Chromatin and chromosomes

DNA carries genetic information in all living organisms. DNA can be found in both the form of
chromatin and chromosomes depending on which stage of cell development it's in. The cell spends
most of its time in chromatin form which is many repeated stacks of nucleosomes loosely wrapped
around histone proteins. This is crucial for transcription as the genes need to be easily accessible
for the copying to take place. Chromosome is chromatin that is tightly coiled around histone
proteins (rather than loosely wrapped); it is only present during nuclear division (PMA). It is
important to have the DNA in chromosome form to avoid tangling of chromatin and to make things
more organized.

Obj 11) Hershey-Chase experiment

Alfred hershey and Martha Chase wanted to know what held the genetic information in the cell
They weren’t sure whether it was proteins or DNA. To understand what held the information, they
decided to use viruses called bacteriophages.
Bacteriophages infect bacteria by injecting their genetic material into the bacteria. Knowing this,
Hershey and Chase decided to use bacteriophages that were cultured in two different environments.

The first batch, batch A was grown in radioactive sulfur. Sulfur only binds to proteins and not DNA.
This means that the radioactive material in batch A was the proteins.

The second batch, batch B was grown in radioactive phosphorus . Phosphorus only binds to DNA
and not Proteins. This means that the radioactive material in batch B was the DNA.

When bacteria got infected with batch A (radioactive protein), there was no radioactive material
found in them, meaning the proteins did not get transferred into the bacteria, but when bacteria got
infected with batch B (radioactive DNA), there was radioactive material found in the bacteria. From
this we can conclude that DNA holds genetic material.

Obj 12) I can outline parts of cell theory

1. All organisms are made up of one or more cells
2. Cells are the smallest unit of life
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells

Obj 13) Microscope calculations

Magnification (x)=image size/ actual size
Image and actual size have to be the same
cm→mm = *10 mm→um = *1000 um→nm= *1000
Obj 14) Eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer
To be able to work out the size of the specimen we are viewing, we can use a stage micrometer
to calibrate an eyepiece graticule. Stage micrometers are small, calibrated rulers that are mounted
onto the stage of the microscope.

Example question:

Calculate the actual size of the observed cells in the given image if the stage micrometer shows the
actual size of the image using divisions that are each 100 µm (0.1 mm) apart and Each 100 µm
division of the stage micrometer is equivalent to 20 eyepiece graticule divisions.

100μm= 20 graticule divisions

20/4=5
100/5=20
20μm
or
100/20=5
4x5=20
20μm

Obj 15) Define magnification and

resolution

Magnification is how much bigger an

object is under a microscope compared to
its actual size.
(Larger magnification means more zoomed in)

Resolution is the shortest distance between two points that allows them to still be easily
distinguishable as separate points.
(Lower resolution means clearer image)

Obj 16) Analyzing cell structure to identify cell type, differentiating prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Structures common to all cell types:
● DNA
● Cytoplasm
● cell membrane
● Ribosomes but prokaryotic (70S) are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes (80S).
Prokaryotes
- Earliest and most primitive type of cell
- Do not contain membrane bound
organelles and DNA is not enclosed in a
nucleus
- Bacteria and archaea are both types of
prokaryotes
- Single celled
- 10-100 microns
Typical components
- Cell wall: made of peptidoglycan. The
cell wall is found outside the cell
membrane. It has an important role in
protecting the prokaryotic cell against
toxins that may be in the external
environment, resisting high osmotic
pressures and maintaining the shape of
the cell. Many antibiotics
work by targeting the cell wall.
- Plasma membrane: the plasma
membrane separates the cell’s interior
from its external environment and
controls what can enter and exit the
Eukaryotes
- Contain a nucleus and membrane
bound cytoplasmic organelles
- More complex and larger than
prokaryotic cells
- Some are multicellular
Most eukaryotic cells have the following
components
- Plasma membrane
- Cytoplasm
- Nucleus
- 80S ribosomes
- Mitochondria: Double membrane-bound
organelle with an outer membrane and a
highly folded inner membrane (cristae)
that generates ATP through cellular
respiration as well as metabolizing
lipids and amino acids.Mitochondria
have their own DNA.
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:
Network of tubular membranes without
ribosomes on its surface, giving it a
 cell.
- Cytoplasm: the cytoplasm is a water-
based jelly-like fluid that fills the cell,
suspends ions, organic molecules, DNA
and ribosomes, and is the site of
metabolic reactions.
- 70S ribosomes: made of RNA and
protein. Where translation (protein
synthesis) occurs. Prokaryotic
ribosomes are smaller and lower mass
than eukaryotic ribosomes.
- Naked DNA in a loop: DNA stores the
information necessary for synthesizing
proteins. In prokaryotes, the DNA is
naked, which means that it is not
associated with histone proteins (as it is
in eukaryotic cells), and is mostly found
in a region called the nucleoid.
- Plasmid: small, circular pieces of DNA
that can be transferred from one
prokaryotic cell to another. Helps
bacteria become more resistant but this
is not related to reproduction
In addition to these typical features, many
prokaryotic cells also contain:
- a capsule, an outer layer of
polysaccharides that protect the
organism and allow it to adhere to
surfaces.
- Some prokaryotic cells have a flagellum
(plural: flagella). The flagellum is
responsible for the locomotion of the
organism, spinning to propel the cell
through its medium.
- Some prokaryotic cells contain pili on
their surface (singular: pilus). Pili are
protein filaments on the cell wall that
help in cell adhesion and in transferring
of DNA (plasmid) between two cells.
smooth appearance. Produces lipids
and steroid hormones, and plays a
major role in detoxifying
- Rough endoplasmic reticulum:
Network of tubular membranes with
ribosomes on its surface, giving it a
rough appearance.Produces, folds, and
modifies proteins (adding carbs to
proteins).
- Golgi apparatus: Stacks of flattened,
membrane-bound sacs called cisternae.
whose primary function is to modify and
sort proteins and lipids received from
the ERs, as well as to package these for
secretion. It typically has a cis
(receiving) face and a trans (shipping)
face.
- Vesicle: small, spherical, membrane-
bound sacs that transport materials for
secretion or within the cell. They also
sometimes store enzymes and other
molecules.
- Vacuole: Large, membrane-bound sac
found in plant cells (central vacuole)
and smaller ones in animal cells.Stores
nutrients and waste, as well as provides
support in plants.
- Cytoskeleton: network of protein fibers,
including microfilaments (actin
filaments), intermediate filaments, and
microtubules, that provide structural
support and facilitate movement as well
as aiding in chromosome separation
and guiding transport in the cell.
Obj 17) I can draw a typical prokaryotic cell and annotate its structures and functions

Functions in
table

Obj 18) I can draw and annotate the structure and function of a typical animal cell and plant cell

Animal cells Plant cells

In addition to the common organelles, animal
cells also contain these components:
Centrioles are two cylindrical organelles that
help to establish and organize the
microtubules, playing an important role in cell
division.
In addition to the features shared by typical
eukaryotic cells, plant cells also
contain:
Cell wall made of a polysaccharide called
cellulose. It protects the cell and resists
osmotic pressure, maintaining the shape of the
cell.
Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made
up of nine bundles of microtubules and are
found only in animal cells.
They help in organizing cell division,
but aren't always needed in the
process:
The role of the cytoskeleton is to:
- Provide mechanical strength to cells
- Aid transport within cells
- Enable cell movement
Lysosomes are also found in animal cells.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound bags
of hydrolytic enzymes that break down and
destroy biological molecules and old
cellular organelles. Lysosomes are found in
high concentrations in phagocytic
white blood cells where they will fuse with and
destroy ingested pathogens
Animal cells contain vacuoles. These tend to be
much smaller than vacuoles
found in plant cells. Animal vacuoles store
water, nutrients and waste products.
Some animal cells contain cilia, hair-like
structures made of microtubules, important for
the movement of substances past the
cell.
- For example, there are many cilia on the
epithelial cells of the bronchi, which
beat in unison to move microbes and
debris up and out of the respiratory tract
Obj 19 and 20) Fungal cell and components function
Some plant cells also contain chloroplasts-
double-membrane-bound organelles
that convert light energy into chemical energy in
the process of photosynthesis.
The chloroplast is one of many types of plastid
Amyloplasts are responsible for storing sugar
The vacuole in plant cells is much larger than
the vacuoles found in animal cells,
and they have an important role in regulating
the osmotic potential of the cell.
Information about the chloroplast:
- They are larger than mitochondria
- Surrounded by a double membrane
- Membrane-bound compartments called
thylakoids containing chlorophyll that
stack to form grana
- Grana are joined together by lamellae
- Chloroplasts are the site of
photosynthesis
- Contain small circular pieces of dna and
ribosomes used to synthesize proteins
needed in chloroplast replication and
photosynthesis
Most components of the fungal cell are found in animal cells and hold the same function.
The components unique to fungal cells are:

Peroxisomes (not only found in fungal):

● Contain enzymes that break down fatty acids and amino acids.
● Involved in detoxification of harmful substances.

Septum (in septate fungi):

● Cross-walls that divide the hyphae into individual cells.

● Have pores that allow cytoplasmic streaming and communication between cells.

Bud scar- Provides reinforcement and support in the cell wall as it is primarily made of chitin.
Also helps researchers understand the number of the divisions the cell took.

Obj 21) I can explain why a given eukaryotic cell is an atypical cell.

Some eukaryotic cells are referred to as atypical cells because they have unique structures that
allow them to carry out specific functions.

Examples:
- Phloem sieve tube - sieve tube elements in the phloem of plants are anucleate. They also
contain very little cytoplasm and few organelles. This means that there is a very low
resistance for substances moving through a sieve tube element.
- Companion cells-
- Striated muscle cells-
- Nerve cells-
- Aseptate hyphae - Normally, the hyphae of fungi contain septates which separate cellular
structures and organelles whilst still allowing the movement of substances between cells.
Aseptate hyphae in fungi do not have the cellular partitions that are normally present, and so
there are many nuclei in a single cellular unit and we can think of the aseptate hyphae as
multinucleated.
- Giant algae - certain species of unicellular algae may grow to very large sizes (e.g.
Acetabularia may exceed 7 cm in length). Challenges the idea that larger organisms are
always made of many microscopic cells
- Skeletal muscle is multinucleated – one single cell contains many nuclei. This is because
the muscle cell has formed from many smaller myocytes that have fused together.
- Mature red blood cells are anucleate – they do not contain a nucleus. This means that the
cell has a greater hemoglobin capacity and can transport more oxygen.

Obj 22) Cell differentiation and specialization

Cell Differentiation is the process by which unspecialized cells become specialized through changes
in gene expression influenced by internal and external factors (some genes will be turned and others
turned depending on internal/external factors). It is mainly used in the development of a zygote to a
complex system of cells and results in cells that are committed to specific pathways of
development.
Cell Specialization is the end result of differentiation, where cells develop unique structures and
functions to perform specific tasks. Specialized cells collaborate to ensure the organism's survival
and proper functioning. For example, normal cells turning into muscle cells, nerve cells or red blood
cells which all have a structure specific to their function .

So differentiation is the process of making a cell specialized, and specialization is the endpoint of
differentiation.
Obj 23) Surface area to volume ratio

It is the amount of surface area per unit volume of a cell.

To be able to survive, a cell needs to import and export molecules through the plasma membrane.
The rate at which molecules will go through the cell membrane is dependent on its surface area to
volume ratio.

A decreased surface area to volume ratio means decreased rate of exchange that could cause a cell
to die.

As the size or volume of a cell increases, the surface area to volume ratio decreases.

SA=6a^2=6(lw) V=lwh, ratio is SA:V

a is equal to the length of a side

Obj 24) I can explain why viruses are considered as non-living things.

Viruses are considered as non-living because they depend on a host to survive and cannot carry out
any of the life processes on their own. They are also not made of cells.

Obj 25) I can differentiate different types of viruses: bacteriophage lambda, CoronaVirus, HIV and
state their common features

Bacteriophage lambda SARS-CoV 2 HIV

Host Cell E. Coli bacteria Mammal Epithelium Primate T cells with

Cells with ACE2 receptors CD4 receptors

Genetic Material Double stranded linear Single stranded linear, 2 copies of single
DNA positive sense RNA stranded RNA

Life Cycle Lytic and Lysogenic Lytic Lytic

 Envelope present? No Yes Yes

Structure Complex capsid Complex capsid Icosahedral capsid

structure with an composed of a helical with an envelope
icosahedral nucleocapsid (proteins making it spherical in
head bound to a around the RNA) shape. HIV has
helical tail. surrounded by an reverse transcriptase
icosahedral structure enzyme capable of
that has distinctive making a
club-shaped spike- complementary DNA
proteins copy of the viral
RNA, which then is
Associated human integrated into a host
disease- COronaVIrus cell’s
Disease of 2019 DNA.
(COVID-19) Associated human
disease: Acquired
Immunodeficiency
Syndrome (AIDS)

Obj 26) I can describe, draw, and label the lytic and lysogenic cycle, distinguishing the differences
between lytic and lysogenic cycles based on the mechanism of action and the effect on the cell.

Lytic cycle process:

Lysogenic cycle process:

 Lytic Lysogenic

- Results in the immediate release of - Does not result in the immediate release
newly formed viruses of newly formed viruses

- Viral DNA combines with bacterial DNA

to create a prophage

- Bacterial continues to function as

normal and pass on viral DNA to their
offspring (Viral DNA is inactive)

Important:

Only when the phage (viral genetic information)

separates from the bacterial DNA, will new
viruses be formed. This process is
spontaneous, and what conditions trigger it is
currently unknown. Once the phage is
released the lytic cycle starts.

Obj 27) I can identify variation as a defining characteristic of life.

All living organisms show variation - Differences in any aspect of an organism

No two individuals are identical in all of their traits. This variation is one of the defining features of
life.

Obj 28) Biological and morphological species concept

The morphological species concept states that species is a group of organisms recognizably
distinct from others by their shared traits.
The biological species concept states that a species is a group of similar organisms capable of
breeding and producing fertile offspring. The limitations to this concept are that sometimes 2
different species produce fertile offspring (fertile hybrids), asexual reproduction, and that extinct
organisms cannot be bred with existing species to determine the fertility of their offspring.

Obj 28) binomial nomenclature

Underline/italicize the whole name.

Genus species or Genus species (genus always starts with uppercase and species with lowercase)

Obj 29) Speciation and difficulties in distinguishing between species

Speciation is the separation of a group of the same species. The separation causes isolation
between the 2 populations (same organism) making them 2 separate species over time.
It is difficult to actually determine when speciation takes place due to many factors like:

● Gradual change- speciation takes place over time

● Intermediates- species in the middle that share traits of both the original and new species
● Geographic isolation- breeding compatibility cannot be assessed if they are not together
● Lack of clear criteria- no one can choose when 2 organisms are considered as separate
species
● Hybridization- when 2 species breed and form a fertile hybrid, they can’t choose which
species it belongs to

Obj 30) I can explain karyotyping and be able to classify chromosomes in a karyogram, and outline
that there is diversity of chromosome number between species

Karyotyping is done in metaphase. They squash the cell to separate the chromosomes, then align
the homologous chromosomes based on length, location of centromere, and banding.

Obj 31) Describe what a genome is and that members of a species share most of their genome and
describe the variation of genomes between species on the basis of size and base sequence

A genome is a full set of DNA in an organism (all the DNA present in 1 cell of an organism). Genome
difference is present amongst members of the same species (within a species), but it way less than
differences between members of different species (between a species).

Some species have larger genome sizes than others regardless of the number of genes. This is
because not all DNA codes for protein. As well as that some species have larger genomes than other
species with more chromosomes. This is because more chromosomes does not necessarily mean
more base sequences.

Obj 32) Difficulties in traditional hierarchy of taxa

The traditional method of classification organizes organisms based on shared characteristics,
however, organisms with shared characteristics aren’t necessarily genetically related.This tells us
that the traditional way of grouping organisms does not always correspond to the patterns of
divergence generated by evolution.

Obj 33) Advantages of classifying organisms based on evolutionary relationships

Classifying organisms based on evolutionary relationships reflects processes of evolution, allows

prediction of characteristics of organisms like their biochemistry, is more accurate, and helps us
understand the diversity of life on earth by giving us context on where a certain organism came
from.

Obj 34) how gradual accumulation of sequence changes can be used to determine the time since
diversion

Molecular clock is how long ago groups diverged from a common ancestor based on differences in
Dna base sequence and protein amino acids that accumulated over time. If you’re given the number
of mutations every 2 million years, you can calculate how many mutations would occur after 8
million years, or any number of years.

E.g: 4 mutations every 2 million years, how many mutations after 9 million years?

9/2=4.5 4.5*4=18 mutations or 4/2= 2 mutations every 1 million years 2*9=18 mutations

Obj 35, 36,37) Describe how base or amino acid sequences can be used in the construction of
cladograms. Deduce evolutionary relationships from cladograms. Describe how cladistics can be
used to assess whether classifications correspond to evolutionary relationships.

These are all just qs asking you to be able to get answers from a cladogram or makr your own
cladogram. Just solve the worksheets.

Obj 38) Describe how the analysis of rRNA base sequences led to the introduction of the domain
taxa

In 1977, Carl Woese suggested a ground-breaking proposal to reclassify all living things by adding a
new taxonomic level above kingdoms. This was based on the finding that ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
sequences may be utilized to infer evolutionary relationships. Woese and his associates discovered
that the rRNA sequences formed three distinct groups, which became the domains eubacteria,
archaea and eukarya. Archaea and eukarya are closely related.