Physics notes:

Obj 1) Conditions of SHM

1) Everytime the body is displaced from equilibrium, there is a restoring force pulling it back
towards equilibrium.
2) The magnitude of that restoring force has to be proportional to the displacement of the
object.
Basically js: a ∝−x (acceleration is proportional to -displacement)

Obj 2) Period, frequency, amplitude, displacement and phase difference

Period: Time taken to complete 1 full oscillation

T= λ/v or T = 1/f
Frequency: Number of oscillations completed in one second
f = v/λ or f = 1/T

Amplitude: Maximum displacement from equilibrium point

Displacement: Distance from equilibrium point but with direction

Phase difference: The difference between two SHMs with the same frequency in terms of their
relative position in a cycle measured in
radian/degrees. Basically the amount by which
one wave is ahead or behind another wave.
φ=shift difference/T × 360° (in degrees)
φ=shift difference/T × 2π (in radians)

Shift difference is Δt between the two

waveforms. This is the amount of time by which one waveform is shifted relative to the other.
T is the period of the wave (they both have the same period so either work)

Obj 3) Describe simple harmonic oscillations graphically

When a=0, x=0. When a is at crest, x is at trough and vice versa. This is because a and x are
proportional but just in opposite directions.
When x=0, v is at crest/trough. When v=0, x is at crest/trough. This is because after the
object reaches the maximum displacement, it begins to move in the opposite direction meaning
the v just crossed over 0.
Basically: amax=xmin, amax=v0, x0=a0, xmax=v0, vmax=a0
 A graph of acceleration versus displacement
gives a straight line through the origin with a
negative slope.
Therefore, in general, to check whether SHM
will take place, we must check that:
1) there is a fixed equilibrium position
2) When the particle is moved away from
equilibrium, the acceleration of the particle is
both proportional to the amount of displacement
and in the opposite direction to it.

Obj 4) Transformation of energy is SHM:

At the extremes of the motion, x = ±Amplitude (crest or through in x-x graph) and v = 0, so the
kinetic energy is zero. Thus at x = ±A the system has elastic potential energy only, and at x = 0
it has kinetic energy only.

This means: E = EP + EK = (EK)max = (EP)max

Obj 5) Describe waves and wave motion.

A wave is a disturbance that travels in a medium (which can be a vacuum in the case of
electromagnetic waves) transferring energy from one place to another. The direction of
propagation of the wave is the direction of energy transfer. The length of a complete oscillation
is known as the wavelength of the wave. The symbol for wavelength is λ. It is also the distance
from crest to crest or trough to trough in a displacement-distance graph.
In a displacement-time graph, the period is from crest to crest.

Obj 6-7) Solve problems with wavelength, frequency, period, and wave speed.

Wavelength: Distance between two crests, two troughs, or two identical points in a
displacement-distance graph.
Frequency: Number of full oscillations per second. f=1/T
Period: Time taken to complete one oscillation. T
Wave speed: v=distance of one oscillation/time of one oscillation=wavelength/period
Since f=1/T, v can also be =f x wavelength

Obj 8) Describe the motion of particles in a medium.

It’s objective 9-11

Obj 9) Classify transverse and longitudinal waves.

Transverse waves:
Displacement of particles is at right angles (perpendicular) to the direction of energy transfer.
Crest and trough
Cn travel in vacuum
Electromagnetic and water waves (on the surface) are transverse.

Displacement-distance graph gives amplitude and wavelength.

Displacement-time graph gives amplitude and period.

Longitudinal waves:
Displacement of particles is parallel to the direction of energy transfer.
All longitudinal waves require a medium in which the wave travels.
Compression (crowded particles) and expansion/rarefaction (isolated particles)
Sound waves are longitudinal.
Compression: highest density
Rarefaction: lowest density

Obj 10) Describe the nature of electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that travel at the speed of light in a vacuum
(c=3.00 x 108 m/s). They are made up of an electric field and a magnetic field, which are at right
angles to each other.

Obj 11) Describe the nature of sound waves

Sound waves are longitudinal waves that require a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to travel. They
cannot propagate through a vacuum.They create regions of compression and rarefaction as
they move through a medium.
Frequency (Hz): Determines the pitch.
Wavelength: Distance between successive compressions.
Amplitude: Determines the loudness.
Speed: Depends on the medium’s properties.
Obj 12) Describe waves in terms of wavefronts and rays.

Wavefronts: straight lines or curves joining points which vibrate in phase. The distance
between successive wavefronts is the wavelength of the wave.
Rays: Lines indicating the direction of wave propagation, perpendicular to wavefronts.

Obj 13) Solve problems using the concepts of intensity and amplitude and the inverse
square law.

Intensity: Power per unit area (W/m²). It is inversely proportional to amplitude squared.
I=P/4(pi)r^2
Inverse Square Law: Intensity decreases with the square of the distance from the source. I ∝1/r^2 and
I=A^2
Obj 14) Apply the principle of superposition to pulse and waves.

Superposition: When two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement is the sum of
individual displacements.
Pulse and Waves: Superposition applies to pulses and continuous waves, leading to
constructive or destructive interference. Constructive Destructive

Obj 15) Interpret diagrams of incident, reflected and transmitted beams in terms of
polarization.

Light is a transverse wave (polarization only occurs to transverse waves). Polarization of light
describes the direction in which the light's electric field waves oscillate. Light waves can oscillate
in different directions, and polarization tells us the specific direction of this oscillation.

Before and after polarization

When light is transmitted across a boundary between two mediums with different refractive
indexes, part of the light is reflected and the remaining part is refracted. The light reflected is
partially polarized, meaning that it is a mixture of polarized light and unpolarized light. The
extent to which the reflected light is polarized depends on the angle of incidence and the
refractive index of the two mediums.

1. Incident Beam:
○ The incoming light before it strikes a surface.
○ If the incident light is unpolarized, its electric field oscillates in multiple planes
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
2. Reflected Beam:
○ The light that bounces off a surface.
 ○Reflection can cause polarization. For instance, at a specific angle known as
Brewster’s angle, the reflected light is perfectly polarized parallel to the reflecting
surface.
3. Transmitted Beam:
○ The light that passes through a medium or
interface.
○ Transmitted light can also be polarized if the
medium selectively absorbs certain
orientations of the electric field.

Obj 16) Solve problems with Malus’ law.

Malus’ law describes the intensity of polarized light passing through a polarizer.
I=I0cos⁡^2θ where I is the transmitted intensity, I0 is the initial intensity, and θ is the angle
between the light’s initial polarization direction and the axis of the polarizer.

For unpolarized passing through a polarizer, I=I0/2 (not part of malu’s law).

Obj 17) Solve problems using Snell’s law, the critical angle and total internal reflection.

Snell’s Law: Relates the angles of incidence and refraction when a wave passes from one
medium to another. n1sin⁡θ1=n2sin⁡θ2 , where n1 and n2 are the indexes of the mediums.
Critical Angle: The angle of incidence above which total internal reflection occurs. ⁡θc=sin-
1(n2/n1) when n1>n2 (smaller index over bigger index can only happen from low to high index).
Total Internal Reflection: When the incident angle is greater than the critical angle, the wave
reflects entirely within the medium (no refraction).

From a medium of low index to high index, angle of refraction is less than angle of incidence.
(if n2>n1, ⁡θ2<⁡θ1). Towards normal

From a medium of high index to low index, angle of

refraction is more than angle of incidence. (if n1>n2,
⁡θ1<⁡θ2). Away from normal
 refracted ray
Refracted ray grazing surface

reflected ray

Obj 18) Qualitatively describe diffraction through a single slit and around objects.
Diffraction is a phenomenon that occurs when a wave encounters an obstacle or passes
through an aperture, causing the wave to bend around the edges of the obstacle or
aperture. This bending of waves is a characteristic behavior observed in various types
of waves, including light, sound, and water waves.

Single slit diffraction

Diffraction around an object

Obj 19 and 20) Describe interference from two sources. Describe double-slit interference
patterns.

Interference refers to the phenomenon where two or more waves combine to form a resultant
wave, resulting in changes to the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the original waves. This
interaction can occur when waves of the same or different frequencies overlap in space and
time.
Types of interference:

Constructive Interference: It occurs when waves combine to reinforce each other. The
resulting wave has an amplitude that is greater than that of the individual waves. It occurs when
the peaks of two or more waves coincide, leading to an additive effect.

Destructive Interference: It occurs when waves combine to cancel each other out. The
resulting wave has an amplitude that is less than that of the individual waves. Destructive
interference occurs when the peak of one wave coincides with the trough of another, leading to
a subtractive effect.

Double slit interference:

S=λD/d
S: Fringe spacing, which is the distance between two
adjacent bright (or dark) sections on the screen.
λ: Wavelength of the light used
D: Distance from the slits to the screen.
d: distance between the two slits

Two source interference:

 Δr=∣S1P−S2P∣

Path Difference (Δr): The difference in the distances that

two waves travel from their source to intersect with one
another.

S1P and S2P are the distances from s1 to p, and s2 to P. In

the image to the right, S1p=2λ, and S2p=3λ.
Therefore, Δr=∣2λ-3λ∣=λ indicating constructive interference.

m represents any whole number

If a whole number comes before λ in Δr, then the
interference is constructive (Δr=mλ)

If a whole number +0.5 comes before Δr, the the

interference is destructive (Δr=(m+0.5)λ)

Obj 21, 22, 23, 24, 25) Standing waves

Standing waves (stationary) waves result from the superposition of two opposite waves which
are otherwise identical. Energy is not transferred by standing waves.

Closed ends always

start with nodes, and
open ends always
start with antinodes.

The formula for two

closed and two open
ends are the same, but for one end
open, one end closed, the formula is
different.

To find L (the length of the pipe/string) at

a certain harmonic, you use the formula:

L=nλ/2 (open-open end/ close-close

end)

Or L=nλ/4 (closed-open pipe)

n is an integer representing which harmonic you want to find L for.
An important note is that n=2n-1 in a closed-open pipe and can only be odd. So technically,
the “third” harmonic in a closed pipe is actually the fifth harmonic (2*3-1=5). Meaning if you’re
asked to find L at the 3rd harmonic in a closed pipe, you actually do L=(2*3-1)λ/4=5λ/4. If you’re
asked to find the tenth harmonic then you do (2*10-1)λ/4=19λ/4.

More formulas:
λn=4L/n (closed-open pipe) λn=2L/n (open-open end/ close-close end)

λn is the wavelength at the nth harmonic

fn=v/λ=nv/4L (closed-open pipe) fn=v/λ=nv/2L (open-open end/ close-close end)

fn is the frequency at the nth harmonic

Differences between standing and traveling waves

Positions along the wave which are fixed are called nodes (minimum displacement) and those
with the largest displacement are called
antinodes (maximum displacement). For standing
waves, the distance between adjacent nodes =
the distance between adjacent antinodes = λ/2.

Obj 26) Understand the basic properties of electric charge.

 1. Charge can either be positive (protons) or negative (electrons).
2. Charge is quantized to be 1.6x10^-19 (negative in electrons)
3. Charge is conserved
4. Conductors have many free electrons

Obj 27) Differentiate between conductors and insulators.

Conductors have free electrons so allow the flow of electricity, insulators don't.

Obj 28) Distinguish between charging by contact and charging by induction.

Contact: Conduction and friction. Conduction is the flow of electrons between a charged and
neutral particle till both particles are the same charge (could be negative or positive). Friction is
the flow of electrons between two neutral objects resulting in one positive object and 1 negative
negative object (e.g. wool (positive) rubbed against plastic (negative).

Induction: It is when a negative object (not in contact) repels all the electrons of a sphere to
one side, then a second object touches the negative side of the sphere causing the electrons to
be transferred to the object in contact.

Obj 29) Calculate electric force using Coulomb’s law.

F is the electric force (N)

K is a constant= 9*10^9 Nm^2/c^2
Q is the magnitudes of the forces (c)
R is the distance between to two objects (m)
Obj 30) Apply the superposition principle to find the resultant force on a charge and to
find the position at which the net force on a charge is zero.

(thx leen<3)

Make sure not to include the

negative signs of the charges
when you’re calculating. They
justs represent whether the
particle is - or +

Obj 31) Calculate electric field strength.

The electric field strength is defined as the electric force per unit charge experienced by a small,
positive point charge q:
E = F/q
The force experienced by a test charge q placed a distance r from a
point charge Q is (by Coulomb’s law):
F = kQq/r^2
and so from the definition E =F/q the magnitude of the electric field is:
E = k(Qq/r^2)/q
E = kQ/r^2

Electric fields at equilibrium

Obj 32) Draw and interpret electric field lines.

The arrows for positively charged particles

always go out.

The arrows for negatively charged particles

always go in. When you draw a positive-
negative attraction, you have to draw arrows
coming from the positive, going towards the
negative.

Pay attention to the direction of the arrows in the

picture.
Obj 33 and 34) Calculate the equivalent resistance for a circuit of resistors in series and
parallel, and find the current in and potential difference across each resistor in the
circuit. (potential difference is voltage)

Don’t forget to go over power as well as units and conversions in circuits and
electric forces

Obj 35 and 36) Calculate the equivalent

resistance, the current in, and potential
difference across each resistor in the circuit
for a complex circuit involving both series
and parallel portions.

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/
circuits/Lesson-4/Combination-Circuits
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