Component-I (A) – Personal details:

Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy

Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.

Prof. Ravi Korisettar

VS Wakankar Archaeological Research Institute
Bhopal.

Dr.V. Selvakumar
Tamil University, Thanjavur

Prof. P. Ajithprasad
The M.S. University of Baroda, Baroda.
Component-I (B) – Description of module:

Subject Name Indian Culture

Paper Name Pre and Protohistoric Cultures of India

Module Name/Title Iron Age - Early Historic Transition in South India

Module Id I C / PPHCI /31

Pre requisites

Objectives Understanding the transition from the Iron Age to

Early Historic Period through material culture,
agencies and processes

Keywords Iron Age, Early Historic, Brahmi Inscriptions,

E-text (Quadrant –I) :

1. Introduction
The Iron Age or Megalithic Age is an important cultural phase that marked the end of the
prehistoric period in the history of South India. The Iron Age was succeeded by the Early Historic
period, which is generally considered as the beginning of the historical period. The lesson
focuses on the transition from the Iron Age to Early Historic in South India. Initially, the primary
characteristics of the Iron Age are discussed, followed by the features of Early Historic period,
and then the agencies and processes of transition are discussed.
Before discussing the core issues concerning the Iron Age-Early Historic transition in south India,
it is important to understand a few important concepts and terms related to the subject.
History and Prehistory
The long span of history is generally divided into historical and prehistoric periods, based on the
presence or absence of writing. Historical period is considered to begin with the introduction of
writing. Writing did bring some major changes in human history. However, the beginning of
historical period should be seen as part of the developments leading to the social complexities
that required the introduction of writing. Let’s look at the differences between Historical and
Prehistoric periods.
Table-1. Differences between Prehistoric and Historical period

Prehistoric period Historical period

More than 99 percent of human history falls Less than 1 percent of human history falls
under prehistoric period under the historical period

Archaeology is the main source material, in the Both archaeological and written documents
absence of written sources, for the are source materials for the reconstruction of
reconstruction of people’s ways of life people’s ways of life

Access to complex, precise ideas and thoughts The personal names, thoughts are
are not possible accessible, because of the use of written
documents. However, the historical records
are also fragmentary, in the sense that not
everything that happened in the historical
period was written down.

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Measurement of time is approximate, i.e. dating Dating of culture, reigns of kings are relatively
the prehistoric cultures is with higher error accurate
margin (100 to 1000s of years)

1.1 Iron Age

Iron technology was introduced in the Iron Age for making implements. Before the Iron Age,
mainly stone and wooden artefacts were used by the people. Iron Age in South India is
associated with the megalithic (mega= big + lithic= stone) burial monuments and Black-and-red
Ware pottery (pottery with black inner surfaces and red outer surface). The Iron Age succeeded
the Late Neolithic Phase. The Iron Age is tentatively dated between 1300 BCE and 500 BCE in
South India. The Iron Age did not have the evidence for writing.
1.2 Early Historic period
The Early Historic period in south India is generally placed between third century BCE and third
century CE. However, a few researchers are of the view that the Early Historic period began
around 500 BCE. We get a clearer picture of South India from the textual sources from this
period. The Nanda and Maurya dynasties of Northern India had influenced and developed
contacts with South India during this period. The early dynasties of the Cheras, the Cholas, the
Pandiyas and the Satavahanas were the political powers of this period. The use of writing
developed. The megalithic burial tradition of the Iron Age also continued in the Early Historic
period in some regions.
1.3 Transition
What is transition? Transition refers to the changes in the culture and ways of life of the people.
How shall we understand transition? We often understand the transition based on the changes in
the material culture and from the evidence in the written documents or textual sources. Why do
we divide time into various units, for example, Ancient India, Medieval India and Modern India?
Such divisions are done on the basis of major cultural and historical changes. However, the
divisions should not be considered to be watertight, i.e. we should not think that the changes took
place overnight. Changes happen sometimes gradually over a period of time. Combination of
several factors causes the change and transition.
2. Objectives
In this Chapter, we shall attempt to understand the cultural and historical transition from the Iron
Age to the Early Historic period in South India. We will also attempt to understand the changes in
the materials culture and the agencies and process responsible for the changes.
3. Characteristics of the Iron Age
Before understanding the transition, we need to understand the characteristics of each cultural
period. Now let’s understand the characteristics of the Iron Age.
The Iron Age perhaps began around 1300 BCE and lasted till beginning of the Early Historic
period, i.e. 300 BCE. The important characteristic features of this period can be divided into
material cultural traits and agencies and processes. Agencies and processes cause change in
culture and the material cultural traits are the reflections of such changes. In history our aim
should be not only to understand the material representation of the changes, but also the
processes.
3.1 . Material Cultural Traits
· Megalithic Burials
· Black-and-red Ware Pottery
· Introduction of Iron Technology
3.2 . Processes
· Development of Agriculture and Pastoralism
· Craft Specialization

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 · Population Increase
· Increase in warfare and Conflicts
· Development of Long Distance Trade
· Contacts and Movement of People and Ideas from Northern India and beyond
· Development of Regional Languages
3.1 Material Cultural Factors
Material culture shows higher diversity during the Iron Age, than the Neolithic period. New
material cultural traits became popular.
3.1.1 Megalithic Burials
Megalithic burials are large burial monuments erected in memory of the dead. Burials did exist in
the Neolithic period, but they were simple in nature. However the Iron Age saw the elaborate
construction of burials for the dead and the burials became centres of rituals and worship. The
burial monuments were considered to have been introduced due to the migration of ideas from
the Europe, by the earlier researchers. Now it is certain that the burials existed in India from the
earlier period, as traces of burials associated with stones are found at the Harappan sites of
Dholavira. The construction of large burials with a lot of artefacts suggests major social changes
including social hierarchy and a more organized society, when compared to the Neolithic period.
3.1.2 Black-and-Red Ware Pottery
Black-and-Red Ware pottery was widely used in South India and Sri Lanka during this period.
The presence of Black-and-Red ware pottery all across South India indicates the widespread
dispersal of ideas and ceramic and material cultural techniques, and to a limited extent
population movement. Besides the characteristic Black-and-Red Ware pottery, Red Ware and
Black Ware were also used. In addition white-painted Black-and-Red Ware was also in vogue.
Such uniform and standardized shapes reveal craft specialization.
3.1.3 Introduction of Iron Technology
Iron technology was introduced during this period. Evidence for the early introduction of Iron is
found at several sites such as Hallur, Komaranahalli and Tadakanahalli in Karnataka,
Veerapuram in Andhra Pradesh, and also at Telunganur in Tamil Nadu, Mangadu in Kerala. The
introduction of iron implements perhaps caused importance changes over a period of time.
However, the iron objects alone did not revolutionize, as the social changes determined the kinds
of artefacts produced. The society used iron according to its social requirements. Apart from the
use for cultivation, iron implements were used for making weapons of warfare. Large scale
production of weapons of offence took place.
3.2. Processes
Processes refer to factors related to historical and cultural dynamics such as migration of people
and ideas, population density and long distance trade.
3.2.1 Development of Agriculture and Pastoralism
During the Neolithic period in South India, agriculture was limited mainly to a few areas in the
regions of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and parts of northwestern Tamil Nadu. However, in the
Iron Age, knowledge of cultivation of cereals perhaps spread across south India. We do get
evidence for the spread of cultivation in southern Tamil Nadu as far as T. Kallupatti near Madurai
in the Iron Age context. Similarly pastoralism, i.e. cattle and sheep-goat rearing, also continued
to spread across. Cultivation of rice was probably introduced in the wet areas and in the river
deltas during the Iron Age. The use of tank irrigation to tap the monsoon rain water increased.
We see a large number of Iron Age sites in the dry areas, which was possible only through the
water harvesting system in the form of lakes or tanks.
3.2.2 Craft Specialization
Craft specialization refers to the processes of specialized production of material culture. In the
prehistoric period people produced their own artefacts. There were no specialized craftspeople.

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However, after the Neolithic period, when large group of people settled at one place and the
technology improved, the production process of artefacts became complex. The specialization
began when iron technology was introduced, and potters also emerged as independent crafts
people, because of the huge demand for ceramics from the agrarian and pastoral communities.
3.2.3 Population Increase
The Neolithic sites were mainly confined to the core areas of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
parts of Andhra Pradesh. During the Iron Age, the archaeological sites were found all across
South India. It is obvious that almost entire South India from the east coast to the west coast was
heavily occupied for the first time. The increase in population was also an important factor for the
development of social complexities during the Iron Age.
3.2.4 Increase in Warfare and Conflicts
The population increase and social complexities also contributed to the competition for control of
resources such as cattle and sheep-goat, pastures and raw material sources. Unlike the hunter-
gatherers, the agro-pastoral communities had accumulated wealth in the form of cattle, sheep-
goat or grains. The agro-pastoral communities required pastures and water sources for the
sustenance of the cattle, as well as sheep-goat. Perhaps this is the reason why people spread
out during the Iron Age, when there was a shortage of resources within a specific area. The
accumulated wealth and interest in controlling the resources contributed to the conflicts. These
conflicts perhaps influenced the making of weapons of offence which are often seen in the
megalithic burials.
3.2.5 Development of Long Distance Trade
The Iron Age communities were not in isolation and they were interacting across South India.
The presence of etched carnelian beads, the typology of metal objects from the megalithic
burials suggests the increased cultural contacts. Perhaps exchange of goods among the various
eco-zones also developed in this period. Products of sea such as shells are found in the
megalithic burials of the interior region, and dry fish, salt and rice.
3.2.6 Contacts and Movement of People and Ideas from Northern India and beyond
Often archaeologists underestimate the cultural contacts of the early period. South India perhaps
witnessed movements of ideas from the west and northern part of India. The making of etched
carnelian beads and the use of shell bangles date back to the Harappan times. People sometime
think that Harappans moved to South India in a large scale, after the fall of the civilization, which
appears to be a farfetched theory in the light of archaeological data. However, it is certain that
the ideas and technology regimes of Harappan culture spread to different parts of India. The
graffiti on the megalithic pottery show similarity with the symbols of the Harappan period.
3.2.7 Foundation for the Development of Regional Languages
Proto South Dravidian (Tamil and Malayalam) and Proto North Dravidian (Telugu and Kannada)
languages began to split around 1500 BCE. There is a ground to argue that Kannada,
Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu languages had developed their basal characteristics by the end of
the Iron Age. By the early historical times these languages began to develop as independent
languages. One could argue that major population dispersal has completed by the Iron Age.
4. Characteristics of the Early Historic Period
The developments of the Iron Age attained the peak during the Early Historic period. The
material culture of the Early Historic period is much more vibrant and diverse than that of the Iron
Age, which was mainly agro-pastoral mainly with the iron and ceramic industrial production
dominating. However, the Early Historic period witnessed several other industries related to the
prestige goods. The polities of this period began to develop further and the political centres
emerged and commercial activities and the intermediaries called merchants gained importance.
a. Material Cultural Traits
· Northern Black Polished Ware
· Fine Rouletted Ware

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 · Introduction of Brick Architecture and Roof tiles
· Andhra Ware or Satavahana or Russet-coated and Painted Ware
b. Agencies and Processes
· Introduction of Script
· Arrival of Jainism and Buddhism
· Development of Polities
· Mauryan Expansion
· Rise of Urban Centres and Ports and Markets
· Increased Movement of people
· Indian Ocean Trade
Script was introduced into south India during the Early Historic period. Introduction of script is
found in the form of Asokan inscriptions, and Satavahana inscriptions occur slightly later.
5. Early Political Formations in South India
Buy the end of the Iron Age, local chiefs emerged in different parts of South India. The rich
variety of burial artefacts and the variations in the burial goods suggest the presence of polity.
The Iron Age society might have been in the chiefdom level social organization. Perhaps the
chiefs of the Iron Age were defeated by the Mauryas to take control of the northern part of South
India.
The Mauryan presence in South India is an important factor heralding the beginning of historical
period. Ashokan edicts reveal that the Mauryas controlled the key towns in the Karnataka-
Andhra Region. Why the Mauryans came to southern part of India. The Mauryan conquest of
South India must have happened before the conquest of Kalinga. It appears that Ashoka was
seeking to consolidate his gains across India and Tamil literature has references to “Vamba
Moriyar” (which means Belligrant Mauryas) and it appears that they have reached as far as
Kanchipuram and perhaps Ashoka did not want to conquer the regions of Tamil Nadu and
Andhra, perhaps because of the poor mineral resources of the Tamil region. Ashokan
inscriptions mention about the presence of the Keralaputra (Cheras), Satyaputra, Pandiya and
Chozha as independent political entities. Ashokan administrative system did not extend to the
entire south India and only the important towns were controlled. Similarly the Cholas, Pandiyas
and Cheras did not reach the level of ‘Early State’ in the Early Historic period. The Satavahana
dynasty emerged after the fall of the Mauryas in Andhra-Karnataka region. The Satavahana
rulers patronized religious sects and seem to have controlled the trade activities, and they issued
coins with ship motifs. The Hathigumpha inscription mentions about a confederacy of Dramila
kings before the beginning of the Common Era. Over all the state system was in an incipient
stage during the early historic period.
6. Formation of a New Class and Occupational Groups
The chiefs and the ruling elites became an important new class and they obviously pooled the
resources from the subjects and merchants and they occupied the important urban centres. The
early historic period saw the emergence of a new class and occupational groups. Landowning
class, chiefs, ruling elites, merchants and Buddhist monks were the new elites of this period. The
poets and the monks were the intellectual elites and they were literate and had the
understanding of philosophical texts. The Gatasaptasati was an important Prakrit text of the
Satavahana period. The Tamil literature talks about the elites or the people with high virtues
obviously erudite and religiously oriented, intellectuals who were perhaps influenced by the Jain
and Buddhist philosophy. Merchants of gold, salt and other categories are mentioned in the
early Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions and they supported the activities of the monks. Apart from such
class of educated people, there existed people who robbed the travelers and the dreaded
hunters are also mentioned in the literature. This clearly brings out that the Early Historic period
had population diversity ranging from the monks and educated class on the one side and the
hunger-gatherers of the dry land who survived by waylaying the travelers. Obviously when such

6
elites emerged they required the materials culture such as precious stone beads, gold ornaments
and exotic artefacts to define their higher status.
7. Rise of “Urban” Centres and Urbanization
Large urban centres emerged during this period. Obviously the rise of new elites including the
political chiefs and merchants caused the development of cities or towns. The towns perhaps
had industrial workers, merchants and traders and the ruling elites. Kaveripattinam,
Kanchipuram, Madurai, Veerapuram, Nagajunakonda, Muziris, Tondi, Banavasi, Sannati,
Brahmagiri in Karnataka were important centres. The inter-regional exchange and the overseas
contacts caused the development of marts and ports along the coastal areas.

The urban centres were located close to the raw material source and along the junction of the
rivers and the sea. Crafts Groups were also present at the settlements and in addition migrant
population were also present in some of the urban centres.
8. Material Cultural Diversity and Industrial Production
The Early Historic period witnessed the introduction of elite or prestige goods over the Iron Age.
The variety of artefacts from the Early Historic sites is more and includes ornaments, non-
consumable goods. At many of the Early Historic sites, evidence for gold working, bronze
working, stone bead, glass bead and shell bangle and cotton industries is found. At the urban
centres the production of such non-utilitarian artefacts point to the changes in the attitudes of the
people. Evidence of Deluxe Ceramics from Northern and Eastern India are also found at many
sites. Specialized production of goods also took place for export requirements.
Northern Black Polished Ware
The ceramics of Northern Black Polished Ware is found widely in South India from the Early
Historic period. The presence of this pottery suggests the trade in ceramics and the interest from
material culture caused the production of such deluxe pottery. It is also found in Sri Lanka and
reached Southeast Asia.
Rouletted Ware
A ceramic dish called Rouletted Ware is found all over south India and this pottery is considered
to have produced in the Bengal delta. This pottery is found in Egypt in the west and Vietnam in
the east.
9. Mercantile Activities and Emergence of the Indian Ocean Trade Network
Trade and exchange network developed across India in the Iron Age, as indicated by the rich
variety of artefacts found in the megalithic burials. The Indian Ocean region was linked through
maritime trade routes during the Early Historic period. Several port sites emerged on the coasts
of India from Bharoach in Gujarat to Chandraketugarh in West Bengal. Deluxe ceramics were
produced, glass beads, stone ornaments, gold and silver coins and spices including pepper were
traded across. The Greco-Roman sources such as Periplus Marei Erythrea, and accounts of
Pliny and Ptolemy mention about the important ports and marts of South India. The Rise of
Roman Empire and its conquest of Egypt in first century BCE gave an important push to the
maritime trade activities across the sea. The monsoon winds were used by the traders to sail
across the Arabian Sea. The Indian Ocean trade activities supported rise of urban centres and
South Indian traders and goods moved as far as Egypt in the West and also reached Southeast
Asia.
10. The Early Coinage and Monetary System
Introduction of coinage was an important factor. Mauryan Punch marked coins are found at
several sites in South India and this indirectly suggests the contacts with northern part of India. In
addition the Roman Coins arrived at a later date around first century BCE. Perhaps the local
kings Satavahanas, The Pandiyas, Cheras and the Cholas issued coins. Such coins are found all
over south India. It is not clear what exactly the role of these coins in the economy was. They
might have been used for their metal value and perhaps they were issued as an imitation of the
Roman coins to assert their political authority. In addition to the coins barter of goods were
mainly used by the people in their transactions.
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11. Introduction of Script and Literacy in South India
One of the important developments of the Early Historic period is the introduction of script. Script
was introduced for writing texts. Currently, there are three possible theories on the origin of script
in South India. The early evidence of script is found at Bhattiprolu relic casket in Andhra Pradesh
and also Brahmi inscriptions are found in several sites in Tamil Nadu, such as Mankulam
Edakkal in Kerala, Sannathi in Karnataka. Since many of the early Brahmi inscriptions do not
have referenced to dates it is difficult to date them and they could be dated only based on
palaeography. That is why the dating of Brahmi inscription is open to speculation. The Bhattirpolu
inscription is considered important since it has Dravidian affinities.

11.1 North Indian Source

One school of thought suggests that script originated in northern India and then it was introduced
to South India. Scholars adhering to this view suggest that Ashoka pioneered the introduction of
the script. They opined the earliest Brahmi is considered to have been derived from Semitic
script.
11.2 South Indian Source
Based on recent archaeological research it is suggested that script occurs as early as 400 BCE
in the Tamil region. However there is not enough evidence to suggest that script originated in the
Tamil region.
11.3 Sri Lankan Source
One theory argues that script was first introduced at Sri Lanka. Based on the excavations at
Anuradhapura and the early dates obtained from the strata with script on pottery it is argued that
Brahmi had earlier origin in Sri Lanka.
11.4 Comments
Sometimes it is difficult to pinpoint where exactly certain traits originated. Like the issue of iron, It
will not be feasible to pinpoint exactly where iron was first worked at and such issues often
become associated with regional and national pride. Therefore it is sufficient to understand the
script was widely used for commercial, political, religious and ownership and identity issues.
12. Early Religion and Intellectual and Spiritual Movements
What otherwise would call Religions are actually intellectual movements that sought to spread
the message of peace among the people in different parts of south India. It appears that farmers
and merchants took to these religions as revealed by the references in the texts and inscriptions.
During this period, there existed hunter-gatherers and pastoralists.
12.1 Buddhism in South India
Movement of Buddhism in South India is a major factor in the religious history of South India.
Many stupas were built in the key areas of South India. Buddhism spread to Sri Lanka. People
were migrating. Mainly nature and ancestors were worshipped in south India. Population
pressure and the need for colonization forced people to move away from northern part of India.
Buddhist stupa remains of Early Historic period are found at several sites in South India.
Amaravati, Jaggayyapetta, Bhattiprolu are some of the important stupas. They are found as far
as Kanchipuram in the Tamil Nadu.
12.2 Jainism in South India
Jainism is said to have reached South India by Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu. Places
of early Jain rock shelters are found in Tamil Nadu. They bear the inscriptions in Tamil Brahmi.
The Janis also contributed to the development of Tamil literature. According to the tradition
Bhadrabahu a Jaina disciple and Chandragupta Maurya is said to have come to Karnataka
however evidence for early Jainism is not found. Jainism seems to have come to Tamil Nadu
from an earlier period and it is suggested that it must have come through Karnataka region. The
monks perhaps lived in the hillocks in various areas of Tamil Nadu and these hillocks are found
in large number in the region around Madurai. Perhaps they learnt the local language and
produced texts for spreading the messages among the people.
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12.3 Worship of the Dead
The worship of the dead through the construction of megalithic burial continued during this
period. Evidence for the existence of megalithic burials is found in the Tamil literature. Some of
the megalithic burials actually belong to the Early Historic period. Presence of Roman coins and
Russet Coated and Painted pottery in some of the burials prove that the megalithic burial
traditions continued in the Early Historic period.
12.4 Hero stones
Worship of heroes who lost their lives in the battle was an important factor supporting community
and a political system. Hero stone worship is mentioned frequently in the Tamil literature.
Herostone tradition is a survival of the megalithic tradition. Some of the early hero stones also
bear writing. A hero stone found in Pullimankombai reveals that the worship of heroes was
important, and the script was used to popularize the names of the heroes.
13. Early Texts of South India
The Tamil texts point to a tradition of singing in praise of the leaders. The poets sang the ways of
life of the people. Attempts to create a literary tradition also point to the support of the political
powers. The Sangam Tamil texts talk in great detail about the ways of life of the people. The
literature portrays a simple, primitive society that has not seen the state formation. Cattle lifting
and the merchant activities are also mentioned.
14. Factors for transition and Mode of Transition
How did the transition from the Iron Age to early Historic period take place? As mentioned above
several factors marked the transition from the Iron Age to the Early Historic period. A complex set
of developments took place across South India. The rise of political formations, development of
agriculture and pastoralism and the population increase and the internal and overseas contacts,
the spread of Janism and Buddhism contributed to the cultural transition from the Iron Age to the
Early Historic period. Moreover, Iron technology alone was not responsible for cultural transition,
and it was just one supporting factor.
15. Conclusions
In this chapter, we have attempted to understand the changes noticed in the material culture
from the Iron Age to the Early Historic in South India and the agencies and processes that
contributed to the change. The arrival of new script (Brahmi), emergence of a political system,
rise of urban centres, arrival of Buddhism and Jainism and Long Distance/overseas trade and
exchange contributed to the developments in the early historic period in South India.