relative isotopic mass what is an isotope?

atoms of the same element with

the mass of an isotope relative to
different numbers of neutrons
1/12th the mass of an atom of
and different masses but the
carbon-12
same number of protons
 mass of a sample
relative atomic mass
how to calculate relative atomic

the weighted mean mass of an

use of a mass spectrometer
atom relative the the mass of an
{(% x m/z)+(% x m/z)} / 100
atom of carbon-12
containing two elements only Ag+
what is a binary compound? what ion does silver (Ag) form?
 Zn2+ Al3+
what ion does aluminium (Al)
what ion does zinc (Zn) form?
form?
 NH4(+) OH-
ammonium ion hydroxide ion
 CO3(2-) SO4(2-)
carbonate ion sulfate ion
 NO3(-) PO4(3-)
nitrate ion phosphate ion
 HCO3(-) Cr2O7(2-)
hydrogen carbonate ion dichromate ion
 MnO4(-) SO3(2-)
manganate ion (VII) sulfite ion
 avogadro's constant nitrite ion

number of particles in each mol

of carbon 12 NO2(-)
6.02 x10(23)
 of crystallisation from a salt
molar mass
how to remove all of the water

mass in grams of one mol of

heat to a constant mass substance
equal to the RAM in grams
 percentage yield ideal gas equation

pV = nRT
p= pascals, Pa
V= volume, m3
(actual yield/theoretical yield) x n= mols, n
100 R= ideal gas constant,
8.314Jmol-1K-1
T= temperature, Kelvin (degrees
C +273)
 what is an acid? atom economy

(sum of M of desired
releases H+ ions when dissolved
products/sum of M of all
in water
products) x 100
 what is a weak acid? what is a strong acid?

acid that partially dissociated in acid that completely dissociates

aqueous solution in aqueous solution
 examples of bases what is a base?

metal oxides, metal hydroxides, a base neutralises an acid to

metal carbonates, ammonia form a salt
oxidation number of O what is an alkali

an alkali is a base that releases

OH- ions when dissolved in
-2
water
metal hydroxides
 +1 -1
oxidation number of H oxidation number of F
 +1 +2
oxidation number of group 1 oxidation number of group 2
elements elements
 -1 -1
oxidation number of group 7 oxidation number of H in metal
elements hydrides
 -1 +2
oxidation number of 0 in oxidation number of 0 bonded
peroxides to F
 reduction oxidation

gain of electrons loss of eletrons

decrease in oxidation number increase in oxidation number
 orbital hold?
redox reactions
how many electrons can an

involve both reduction and

2 electrons with opposite spins
oxidation
 sphere dumb-bell
shape of an s-orbital shape of a p-orbital
 what is an ionic bond? how do orbitals fill?

electrostatic attraction between in order of increasing energy

oppositely charged ions occupied singularly before
non-metal and metal pairing because of repulsion
 ionic compounds compound?
melting and boiling points of what is the structure of an ionic

high m.p and b.p because strong

electrostatic attraction between
ions requires a great amount of
energy to be broken ions attract in all directions
ionic compounds with greater forms a giant ionic lattice
charges have higher melting structure
points as there is stronger
electrostatic attraction between
ions, also depends
 compounds in solid state
electrical conductivity of ionic
does not conduct electricity
because ions are fixed in a lattice
solubility of ionic compounds
most dissolve in polar solvents
that can break down the lattice
the greater the charge the lower
the solubility as the electrostatic
attraction may be too great to
overcome
 compounds in aqueous state
what is a covalent bond?
electrical conductivity of ionic

the strong electrostatic

attraction between a shared pair
of electrons and the nuclei of the can conduct electricity because
bonded atoms ions are free to move as mobile
2 non-metals charge carriers
overlap of atomic orbitals
containing 1 electron
 covalent bond?
what is a dative covalent bond?
what is the structure of a

a covalent bond where the pair

of electrons has been supplied electrostatic attraction is
by only one of the bonding localised
atoms forms a covalent molecule
originally a lone pair
 theory? measured?
what is electron pair repulsion how is covalent bond strength

theory that electron pairs have a

mutual repulsion that forces
average bond enthalpy
them to be arranged as far apart
as possible to minimise repulsion
 trigonal planar linear

3 bonded pairs 2 bonded pairs

0 lone pairs 0 lone pairs
bond angle of 120 bond angle of 180
 trigonal bi-pyramidal tetrahedral

5 bonded pairs 4 bonded pairs

0 lone pairs 0 lone pairs
bond angle of 3x 120 and 2x 90 bond angle of 109.5
 pyramidal octahedral

3 bonded pairs 6 bonded pairs

1 lone pairs 0 lone pairs
bond angle of 107 bond angle of 90
 what is electronegativity? non-linear

the attraction of a bonded atom

for the pair of electrons in a 2 bonded pairs
covalent bond 2 lone pairs
increases along a period and up a bond angle of 104.5
group
 difference in electronegativity
what is a non-polar bond?
how to tell bond type by

bonded electron pair is shared

equally between the bonded
atoms 0 = covalent
atoms are either the same or 0-1.8 = polar covalent
have the same/very similar 1.8+= ionic
electronegativity
pure covalent
 what is a dipole? what is a polar bond?

bonded electron pair is shared

the separation of opposite
unequally between the bonded
charges
atoms
delta+/-
atoms are different or have
permanent dipole is in a polar
different electronegativities
covalent bond
polar-covalent bond
 solubility of polar molecules what is a polar molecule?

a molecule that has permanent

polar solvents can dissolve ionic
dipoles that do not cancel out
compounds
due to their direction
 London forces?
what are intermolecular forces?
what are induced dipole-dipole/

weak IM forces that act between

all molecules induced dipoles
movement of electrons creates
an instantaneous dipole that can
weak interactions between
induce a dipole on a
dipoles of different molecules
neighbouring molecule that can
further induce an instantaneous
dipole on another neighbouring
molecule
 dipole forces?
what are permanent dipole-
electrostatic attraction between
the opposite charges on
neighbouring polar molecules
stronger than IDD forces but
weaker than hydrogen bonds
and covalent bonds
IDD/London forces?
what affects the strength of
the more electrons in a molecule
will increase the induced dipole-
dipole forces that will increase
the strength of the attractive
forces between molecules
more electrons = larger induced
dipoles
weakest IM force
 simple molecules
simple molecules
melting and boiling point of

low m.p and b.p as weak IM form a simple molecular lattice

forces require small amounts of molecules held in place by weak
energy to be broken IM forces
only IM forces break not atoms bonded together by
covalent bonds strong covalent bonds
 molecules
solubility of polar simple
can dissolve in polar solvents as
the molecules can attract each
other
depends on the strength of the
dipole
molecules
solubility of non-polar simple
soluble in non-polar solvents as
IM forces form between the
molecules and the solvent that
weaken the IM forces in the
molecular lattice and break them
insoluble in polar solvents as
there are little interactions
between the molecules and the
solvent mole
 molecules
what is a hydrogen bond?
electrical conductivity of simple

type of permanent dipole-dipole

interaction found between
molecules that have an
can't conduct electricity as no
electronegative atom with a lone
mobile charge carriers
pair of electrons (F,O,N) that
attaches to a hydrogen atom
strongest type of IM force
 a hydrogen atom
linear
a dashed line from a lone pair to
what is the shape around the
how is a hydrogen bond shown?
hydrogen atom involved?
 hydrogen bonding?
water?
properties of water due to
why is solid ice less dense than
what are the anomalous

hydrogen bonds hold water

solid ice is less dense than liquid
molecules apart in an open
water
tetrahedral lattice structure so in
water has a relatively high
ice water molecules are further
melting and boiling point
apart
high melting and boiling point?
why does water have a relatively

hydrogen bonds are additional to

London forces
they require a large amount of
energy to be broken