CHAPTER 8:

Designs and Sizing of Civil Infrastructures for Dam

8. DESIGNS AND SIZING OF CIVIL INFRASTRUCTURE FOR DAM ............................................................................. 8-1

8.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 8-1

8.2 REVISED HYDROLOGY ............................................................................................................................................. 8-4
8.3 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION .............................................................................................................................. 8-15
8.4 DESIGN OF EMBANKMENT DAM ............................................................................................................................. 8-25
8.5 SPILLWAYS DESIGN .............................................................................................................................................. 8-97
8.6 INTAKE, CONDUIT, VALVE CAMBERS AND VALVE HOUSES ........................................................................................... 8-125
8.7 RIVER DIVERSION .............................................................................................................................................. 8-171
8.8 CONSTRUCTION PLAN ........................................................................................................................................ 8-182
8.9 DAM INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING .......................................................................................................... 8-188
8.10 PROJECT COST ESTIMATION ................................................................................................................................ 8-194
8.11 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................................................. 8-195
8. Designs and Sizing of Civil Infrastructure for Dam

8.1 Introduction

8.1.1 Background

During the prefeasibility stage the project comprises two options of water abstraction. The first
option is to use a combination of Dam on Ngoma River and intake at Mukama sector. The
second option is to use the site 2 intake alone. The detailed design focused mainly on option 1.

This option will contain the dam of 27 meters high with 1.3161 Mm3 storage capacity and intake
works, water treatment process to achieve the minimum required standards of drinking water,
distribution pipeline and different appurtenances, water storage facilities and services point for
water collection.

The dam will be constructed on Ngoma River upstream of existing Cyondo intake at Mbuga,
Karurama in Rushaki sector in order to increase water reservoir at the Dam area for water
supply purposes. From the dam reservoir, the raw water will be supplied through the raw water
pipe by gravity system to the new water treatment plant at Gatunda sector.

From the new WTP at Gatunda sector (known as muhambo Hill) , the treated water will be
conveyed by gravity to the new main distribution tank and section valve to be constructed at
Muhambo near the main road to serve four transmission lines that are articulated within the
entire study.

This chapter deals with the dam and appurtenant structures design of the project. Brief
description of the revised hydrology and the geotechnical investigation carried out along the
dam axis will be also presented.

8.1.2 Project Location and Accessibility

The Ngoma Water supply Dam project is located at Ngoma River, which is about 90km north of
Kigali, the capital. It is found at the border of the Gicumbi and Nyagatare districts in the north
eastern part of Rwanda. Gicumbi is one of the thirty districts of Rwanda, and located the North
West inside the Eastern Province. It shares borders with neighboring Uganda in the North and
West. The project is about 3 to 4km from the Ugandan border. The project site is connected by
the main road with Kigali, the capital and largest city of Rwanda, which is about 90 km from the
project. The project site can be also accessed from the nearby villages and towns. It is also
located near Uganda border.

8-1
Figure 8-1: Project Location

8.1.3 Project Silent features

The major characteristics of the proposed Ngoma multipurpose dam are as follows:
Item Unit Description
Hydrology
 River System - Ngoma River
2
 Catchment area Km 45.31
3
 Mean monthly flow m /sec 0.32
 Gross Storage Mm3 1.3161
3
 Dead Storage Mm 0.2942
3
 Live Storage Mm 1.0219
 Reservoir inundated area ha 14.06
corresponding to 1777masl
 Full Reservoir Level (FRL), High EL.m 1777
Water Level (HWL) or Normal Pool
Level (NPL)
 Dead Storage Level EL.m 1766.65
 Peak Inflow (10,000) m3/s 172

8-2
  Peak Inflow (Design flood:1,000-year m3/s 97.6
flood)
 Peak routed outflow (10,000) m3/s 168.2
 Peak routed outflow (1:1,000) m3/s 95.4
 Reservoir Maximum Water Level EL.m 1780
(10,000, Level)
 Reservoir Maximum Water Level EL.m 1779
(Design flood level: 1,000 years flood
level)
Dam
 Type: Earthen fill dam -
 River bed level EL.m 1754
 Dam Crest Level EL.m 1781
 Crest Length m 120.
 Crest width m 8
 Dam height m 27
 Upstream and Downstream slopes - Upstream (3.H:1V) and
Downstream (2.25H:1V) above
berm and (2.5H:1V) below berm
 Major Dam foundation rests on rock
foundation.
 Cutoff trench and grouting were used
to curtail seepage below the dam
foundation
Diversion and Outlet work system
Diversion and water supply Conduit
 intake tower height m 18.80
 intake tower type - Standalone downstream control
 Diversion flood 1:25 (routed outflow) m3/s 8.6
 Diversion conduit type - Circular pipe of 1m diameter
 Conduit length m 177.30 along diversion line
 Upstream coffer dam level EL.m 1771.5 m asl
Lining Material - 6mm Steel lined
 valve chamber 2 in One on diversion conduit and one
number on water supply pipe
 valve house Provided o the bifurcated 0.5m
water supply pipes
 no of valves Total of • 2 valves on 1m diversion
9 valves conduit
• 5 on water supply pipes
• two 150mm pipes for
downstream release
 pipe diameters and type • 1m still pipe until valve house
• two parallel 0.5m HDPE from

8-3
 VH to river crossing
• two parallel 0.5m DCI pipes at
river crossing
Spillway
 Design Flood m3/s 95.4
 Type - Chute Spillway
 Control Section Shape - Ogee type
 Net Crest length m 15m
 Spillway chute width m Varies from 15 to 10m
 Energy dissipater type - USBR Type III stilling basin
 Exit channel - Rectangular channel
Project Benefits
 Water Supply m3/day 15,000 m3/day
 Reliability for irrigation Water supply % 98.86.

8.2 Revised Hydrology

8.2.1 General

The hydrological analysis that was carried out for Ngoma feasibility study, detail design and
supervision of construction for Ngoma River water supply system Phase I project. The
proposed dam sites for the given task are found in Ngoma catchment which is the major
tributary of Walufu River (Figure 8-2). Some of the most important physical features of the
catchment are presented in the sections below.

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Figure 8-2: Location of proposed dam sites and gauging stations

8.2.2 Flow gauging stations

There are four flow-gauging stations in and near the proposed dam site watershed are
examined and the location of the gauging stations is shown in (Table 8-1).

Table 8-1: Location of Gauging Stations

Gauging L2 L1 Location Useful
River Duration
Station catchment catchment Lat. Long period
1971~1985
Ngoma Ngoma Walufu Muvumba -1.4411 30.2284 11 Years
(14 Years)
1971~1987
Ngarama Karungeri Walufu Muvumba -1.41093 30.27993 13 Years
(17 Years)
1983~2000
Nyagahanga Warufu Walufu Muvumba -1.49684 30.20632 12 Years
(18 Years)
43 years
Nyakizumba Muvumba - Muvumba -1.31387 30.09805 43 years
(1957~2013)

8-5
Out of the four gauging stations, Ngoma station is found to be the nearest to the study area and
it is the only one located on the same tributary (Ngoma river). Topographic, land use, land
cover and soil characteristics are exactly the same. The next paragraph as well as the whole
section of hydrological analysis will deal with Ngoma station only. Other stations have been
analyzed and results of the analysis can be found in the excel tables submitted along the
present report.

8.2.3 ESTIMATION OF HYDROLOGICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS

Estimation of dependable available water and other flow-based parameters depends on

whether the dam site in question has a long term and consistent flow data series. In such
cases, determination of the required flow indices is simply a statistical procedure. Otherwise,
various hydrological and statistical procedures would be required. In the case of Ngoma River
at the dam site, there is no gauging station. But there is a daily flow gauging station (Ngoma
gauging station) some 20km downstream of the project site and is located in the main stream of
Ngoma River before its confluence with Walufu River. There are also other stations in the
Walufu River catchment mentioned in the previous section in which this analysis is based.

Accordingly statistical approaches and hydrological model were used to estimate hydrological
design parameters at the dam axis. The result of the analysis is presented in the following
tables and figures. Detailed approaches followed can be referred in the respective revised
hydrological study report.

Figure 8-3: Estimated daily flow series at the proposed dam sites

8-6
Table 8-2: Mean monthly flow statistics of the proposed dam sites
Month Flows (m3/s)
Average Maximum Minimum
Jan. 0.289 0.463 0.242
Feb. 0.323 0.715 0.239
Mar. 0.337 0.613 0.238
Apr. 0.373 0.764 0.242
May 0.447 1.626 0.238
June 0.326 0.965 0.236
Jul 0.254 0.335 0.225
Aug 0.247 0.320 0.214
Sep. 0.286 0.358 0.219
Oct. 0.294 0.455 0.219
Nov. 0.324 0.447 0.237
Dec. 0.335 0.725 0.237
Mean 0.320

Figure 8-4: Flow duration curve of Ngoma dam site

8-7
8.2.4 Flood runoff analysis

For the design of a dam, design factors, including dam crest, spillway, and river diversion
during the construction, are determined from frequency probability flood. There are two types of
methods to estimate flood: (i) direct method to compile statistics on observed annual maximum
daily flow series, and (ii) indirect method using a rainfall-runoff model.

Though, having quite good flow gauge data at Ngoma that we have used to compute flow into
the dam, it is very difficult to capture peak flow. Most of the time, peak flows occur in strange
hours when the observer cannot access the site to capture the flood. Direct hydrological data
are therefore lacking for the study area and it has been necessary to use indirect methods to
estimate the maximum flood flows for a given return periods for the entire catchment of Ngoma
at proposed dam site.

Given the limited availability of hydro-climatic data in the project area, a rain-runoff model using
the physically based Green and Ampt loss model was employed.

Accordingly the estimated peak flood for different return periods is depicted in Table 8-3 and
Figure 8-5.

Table 8-3: Estimated flood frequency

RETURN PERIOD FLOOD PEAK

[YEARS] [M3/S]
25-YEAR 28.780
50-YEAR 44.650
100-YEAR 55.810
500-YEAR 82.470
1000-YEAR 97.600
2000-YEAR 116.600
5000-YEAR 148.900
10000-YEAR 172.000

8-8
Figure 8-5: Estimated Floods for various return periods

8.2.5 Flood Routing Over the Spillway

To estimate the size of the spillway required to safely pass the design flood and fix the reservoir
maximum surge water level, the estimated design flood was routed over the reservoir with
different sizes of the spillway. Given that the reservoir is small, level pool routing method was
employed. The results of the routing exercise are shown in Table 8-4.

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Table 8-4: Design flood routing with varying sizes of spillway width

DESIGN FLOOD INFLOW SPILLWAY WIDTH PEAK OUTFLOW MAX ELEVATION MAX STORAGE
[M3/S] [M] [M3/S] [MASL] [1000*M3]
10M 92.50 1779.60 1665.70
15M 95.40 1779.00 1547.30
1000-YEAR 97.60 20M 96.40 1778.70 1495.40
25M 96.70 1778.50 1462.50
30M 96.90 1778.30 1438.90

10M 110.90 1780.00 1736.60

15M 113.80 1779.30 1595.70
2000-YEAR 20M 115.50 1778.90 1525.70
116.60 25M 115.80 1778.70 1488.50
30M 116.00 1778.50 1462.10

10M 120.50 1780.20 1772.20

15M 123.40 1779.40 1620.50
3000-YEAR 126.40 20M 125.00 1779.00 1541.10
25M 125.60 1778.80 1501.40
30M 125.80 1778.60 1473.40

10M 142.50 1780.60 1851.30

15M 145.50 1779.70 1676.20
5000-YEAR 148.90 20M 146.90 1779.20 1584.00
25M 148.00 1778.90 1529.50
30M 148.20 1778.70 1498.40

10M 165.00 1781.00 1929.20

15M 168.20 1780.00 1732.30
10,000-YEAR 172.00 20M 169.60 1779.40 1627.50
25M 170.40 1779.10 1562.40
30M 171.20 1778.90 1522.60

10M 342.20 1783.70 2479.40

15M 347.30 1781.90 2120.30
PMF 352.30 20M 349.10 1781.00 1936.90
25M 350.00 1780.40 1821.50
30M 350.50 1780.00 1740.80

8.2.6 Diversion Flood Routing

The conduit size and the size of the Cofferdam needed during construction diversion could be
optimized through design flood routing. Different sizes of diversion conduits were used to route
the design 25-year flood to estimate the minimum height of the Cofferdam required for a given
conduit size during construction. Thus, the routing exercise indicated that the minimum
Cofferdam required for a 1m conduit is about 16.5 m whereas the Cofferdam height would
reduce to only 3.3m for a diversion conduit of 3m diameter (Table 8-5 and Figure 8-6).

8-10
Table 8-5: Conduit size versus maximum water level of the reservoir

25-YEAR DESIGN INFLOW PEAK CONDUIT DIAMETER MAX OUTFLOW MAX WATER LEVEL
[M3/S] [M] [M3/S] [MASL]
1.00 8.60 1771.5
1.50 16.80 1766.8
28.8 2.00 22.90 1762.2
2.50 27.70 1759.8
3.00 28.60 1758.3

Figure 8-6: Reservoir property during construction diversion for a 25-year flood and different
conduit sizes

8.2.7 Reservoir sedimentation

8.2.7.1 Sediment yield

Since there has been no record of sediment yields at the proposed dam site, specific sediment
deposits determined with the neighboring catchments have been applied. The sediment yield
estimation methods, such as an empirical formula and the RUSLE (Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation) are the most widely formulas to estimate sediment however, this can be a complete
study in itself.

Two existing literature data and the results of the sediment yield studies conducted in Muvumba
catchment were considered for the present report. The detailed studies for potential large dams

8-11
in the Kagera Basin (NELSAP, 2012) suggested 448 m3/km2/year. On the other hand, the
sediment yield estimation by Detailed Design for Muvumba Dam (RWFA, 2018) suggested
482m3/km2/year and this can be considered for the proposed dam study for Ngoma.

8.2.7.2 Reservoir Sediment Distribution

Empirical approaches have been applied to fix reservoir new-zero level. The procedure involves
selection of the reservoir type and design curve according to the operation, slope of the depth-
capacity curve (m) or reservoir type). Accordingly, the reservoir of Ngoma Option I dam site
reservoir suggests that it is a Type III reservoir types (Gorge and Hill) with considerable
drawdown. Superimposing the total sediment with the selected design curve gives the new-zero
level for the selected service period of the reservoir.
Therefore, the new zero elevation for a 25-year economic life of the dam is fixed at
1766.65masl.

8.2.8 Reservoir Simulation Study

Reservoir simulation involves quantifying all the inputs and outputs, identifying flow
restrictions/rules and physical limitations of a system and come up with a possible
recommendation to make proper planning or use the stored water very effectively. In the
planning stage of a project, it is often used to estimate the reservoir design parameters such as
Normal Water Level, minimum drawdown level and the size of the reservoir required to supply a
specified demand or vice-versa. In this project, the reservoir operation was simulated by a
sophisticated reservoir operations simulation model (HecResSIM 3.3).

8.2.8.1 Demand

Different amount of water supply demands from 10,000m3/day up to 27500m3/day was

considered to find the optimal reservoir size to fulfill the required demand and supplementary
requirements under current and future scenarios dependably.

The supplementary demands include irrigation demands, industrial demands, livestock

demands and Environmental demands. The simulation was conducted for both the current
condition and future (2035) catchment condition.

The simulation needs to consider the following

1) There is a tea plantation upstream of option I dam site. It has no conventional irrigation
but some traditional diversions were observed. These diversions will eventually return to
the river but some flow loss may occur as a result. The losses/demand was accounted
and estimated as 685,843m3/year (0.02m3/s).
2) There is an irrigation development of 850ha at the confluence of Ngoma River and
Waruf River and its irrigation demand was estimated to be 10MMC. The demand for this
development should be shared from Ngoma and Waruf Rivers proportionally (Ngoma
sub-catchment is 1/3 of Waruf Catchment.

8-12
 3) All the domestic, industrial, public and livestock demands is to be abstracted from the
dam
4) There is no future irrigation development in the catchment, and if it is to be planned,
Domestic water demand always takes the priority according to Muvumba catchment
management Plan.
5) Infiltration losses are neglected because infiltration loss in reservoirs occur during
infilling and ceases in short period of time once filled.

Figure 8-7: Existing Irrigation developments upstream and downstream of the dam sites

8.2.8.2 Results and Analysis

The simulation was conducted in daily time step and the reservoir elevation was assumed to be
full (NHWL) at the beginning of the simulation. In most domestic water supply storages,
dependability is defined as the number of times the reservoir is capable of supplying fully the
required demand. In practice, the reservoir needs to satisfy demands in more than 95% of the
time to be considered dependable for public water supply systems.

8-13
The simulation was carried out for three dam height options, i.e., Full reservoir level at
1775masl, 1776masl and 1777masl to see if increasing dam height could bring higher
dependability and more water supply.

According to the results, the proposed dam could dependably supply a daily amount in the
order of 15,000m3/day for a dam which, the full reservoir level, is at 1777 masl. The
dependability of this dam for supplying 15000m3/day would be about 98.86% under 2035
preferred condition while satisfying the other demands/releases. Therefore, based on the
dependability requirement of a minimum 95% for domestic/public water supply systems, it could
be concluded that the dam with a full reservoir level of 1777masl could dependably supply in
the order of 15000m3/day. The monthly water balance of the reservoir for this dam is shown in
Table 8-7.

Table 8-6: Summary of Water Supply dependability at Option I damsite and for different
Full Reservoir Level under Future Scenarios

Dependablity for Spillway Crest Level (Full Reservoir Level)

Demand (m3/day) 1775masl 1776masl 1777masl
15000 89.72 94.08 98.86
20000 84.55 86.46 89.16
23000 71.80 73.37 76.64
25000 63.50 64.65 67.42
27500 54.82 55.55 56.51

Table 8-7: Summary of the water balance of the reservoir under a 15000m3/day release
for 2035 condition

Upstream Net Reservoir

Flow demand/losses INFLOW Evaporation Spill Outflow WATER SUPPLY DOWNSTREAM Reservoir
Release Demand Release Demand Elevation Storage
[cms] [cms] [cms] [cms] [cms] [cms] [cms] [cms] [cms] [m] [m3]
Jan 0.289 0.020 0.269 0.004 0.016 0.172 0.174 0.060 0.06 1,775.88 1,095,928
Feb 0.323 0.020 0.303 0.004 0.018 0.170 0.174 0.060 0.06 1,775.08 1,004,873
Mar 0.337 0.020 0.317 0.004 0.033 0.170 0.174 0.061 0.06 1,774.68 961,463
Apr 0.373 0.020 0.353 0.003 0.161 0.173 0.174 0.060 0.06 1,775.78 1,092,710
May 0.447 0.020 0.427 0.004 0.188 0.173 0.174 0.060 0.06 1,776.48 1,175,474
Jun 0.326 0.020 0.306 0.005 0.034 0.170 0.174 0.060 0.06 1,776.28 1,149,401
Jul 0.254 0.020 0.234 0.005 0.000 0.169 0.174 0.060 0.06 1,775.48 1,036,067
Aug 0.247 0.020 0.227 0.005 0.000 0.168 0.174 0.059 0.06 1,773.98 863,857
Sep 0.286 0.020 0.266 0.004 0.000 0.168 0.174 0.059 0.06 1,772.68 732,024
Oct 0.294 0.020 0.274 0.003 0.017 0.167 0.174 0.060 0.06 1,772.68 751,893
Nov 0.324 0.020 0.304 0.003 0.062 0.173 0.174 0.060 0.06 1,774.58 955,488
Dec 0.335 0.020 0.315 0.004 0.052 0.179 0.174 0.060 0.06 1,775.98 1,106,450

8-14
8.3 Geotechnical Investigation

8.3.1 Introduction

The purpose of the present assignment is to carry out the comprehensive study to find out
sustainable solution that aims at achieving 100% of access to clean water in these areas
through development of sustainable water supply facilities.
Projects like Ngoma Water supply Dam Project requires a complete understanding of pertinent
geological features and geotechnical information of the actual surface and subsurface earth
materials to plan and design safe engineering structures such as dams, spillways, etc. Thus,
based on project needs and standard technical requirements, geotechnical site investigation
works were designed to evaluate the Dam foundation whether it is subjected to seepage and
settlement, and also to make sure the Dam foundation able to bear the load of the Dam and the
water that will impound behind it. Accordingly, the geological and geotechnical site investigation
works were conducted along the Dam Axis and by considering the Appurtenant Structure sites.

8.3.2 Objectives

This geotechnical investigation works were planned to execute for Ngoma Dam Design
comprising the following specific objectives:
• To determine the subsurface geological condition of the Dam and appurtenant structure
sites;
• To determine the subsurface material types and their lateral and vertical extents;
• To determine the index properties of the subsurface materials;
• To determine the engineering properties of the foundation materials in terms of water
tightness, settlement and bearing capacities;
• To identify the workability and suitability of the site for constructions with respect to the
identified and anticipated geotechnical characteristics;
• Identification of suitable construction materials with sufficient quantity at reasonably
proximity to the engineering sites;
• Foreseeing construction challenges and suggesting remedial measures during and post-
construction phases.

8.3.3 Geotechnical Investigation Works

8.3.3.1 General

The site investigation has covered geotechnical core drilling, insitu testing, Piezometer
installation, and sampling and Laboratory testing activities. The activities were carried out in
accordance to project scope and following standard procedures.

8-15
8.3.3.2 Geotechnical Investigation Program

Drilling is used to access deeper geological layers and to core and recover samples of both
soils and rocks from various depths. During this investigation, boreholes were drilled for
identifying and describing foundation materials, collecting soil and rock samples and conducting
both strength and permeability tests. Based on surface conditions, five boreholes with a total
depth of 100m have been drilled along the proposed dam axis at right, left abutment, and at
riverbed by considering appurtenant structures of the project. The geotechnical investigation
program is shown in Figure 8-8.

Figure 8-8: Proposed boreholes location

Drilling volume of works for Ngoma dam investigation works are planned in such a way that the
maximum possible subsurface information will be collected for dam and appurtenant structures
foundation area. The volume of work proposed drilled at Ngoma dam and appurtenant
structures site is shown in Table 8-8.

Table 8-8: Boreholes depths and UTM coordinates for Ngoma Dam Geotechnical works
Ngoma Dam Geotechnical Investigation Boreholes UTM Coordinates
BH ID Easting Northing Depth Inclination Location
ND-BH1 508933.324 4843608.78 20 Vertical Left Abutment
ND-BH2 508945.703 4843596.411 18 Vertical Left Abutment/Outlet
ND-BH3 508959.851 4843582.274 20 Vertical Near River bed
ND-BH4 508981.073 4843561.07 15 Vertical Right Abutment
ND-BH5 509000.524 4843541.631 15 Vertical Right Abutment/Spillway

8-16
8.3.3.3 Exploratory core drilling

For Ngoma dam geotechnical investigation works, the Core Drilling and extraction of soil and
rock core samples were conducted in accordance with ASTM D2113-99: Standard Practice for
Rock Core Drilling and Sampling of Rock for Site Investigation, by using rotary core drilling
method. Soil, gravel and rock cores were extracted for the investigation purpose. In-situ
permeability tests were carried out in the boreholes and, rock core samples were collected for
further tests in the laboratory. Recovered core samples from the drilling works are preserved
properly in wooden core boxes designed to standards and in accordance with technical and
contract agreements. Figure 8-9 shows drilling operation setup at Ngoma dam foundation
investigation project.

Figure 8-9: Photo showing core-drilling set up at Ngoma Dam site

8.3.3.4 In-situ tests

Standard Penetration tests

Standard penetration tests have been conducted at different boreholes wherever soil formation
are encountered. Table 8-9 shows the recorded data for SPT testing.

8-17
Table 8-9: Standard penetration Data
DESCRIPTION SECTION(m) SPT(N)
1.5-1.9 16
NB-BH1 2.5-3.0 36
4.5-5.0 50
NB-BH4 1.5-2.0 50
3.0-3.5 50
NB-BH5 1.5-2.0 40

In-situ permeability tests

Falling head as well as packer tests have been done on boreholes as per the schedule shown
in Table 8-10.

Table 8-10: Bore hole permeability test results

TOTAL PERMEABILITY TEST SECTIONS
BH-ID LOCATION
DEPTH (m) FALLING HEAD PACKER TESTS
1-4 14-17
ND-BH1 Left Abutment 20
17-20
8-11
ND-BH2 Left Abutment 18
15-18
ND-BH3 Riverbed 20 3-7
1-4
ND-BH4 Right Abutment 15
4-12
ND-BH5 Right Abutment 15 1-6

Table 8-11: Falling Head Permeability Test Results

Permeability, k
BH-ID Test section (m) No. of Tests Remark
(cm/s)
NB-BH1 1-4 3 1.29E-05
1-4 3 1.92E-05 Saturated values are taken
NB-BH4
4-12 3 4.91E-05
NB-BH5 1-6 3 2.41E-05

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Table 8-12: Packer Test Results and Water Flow Characteristics

BH-ID Test Section Test Type and Equivalent Houlsby (1999)

Value Permeability
(m) Lugeon Value coefficient Flow type
(cm/sec) Characteristics
BH1 17-20 1.14 1.49E-05 Filling up
14-17 11.14 1.45E-04 Wash Out
BH2 8-11 3.94 5.12E-05 Turbulent
15-18 3.61 4.69E-05 Turbulent
BH3 3-7 23.28 3.03E-04 Dilation

8.3.3.5 Laboratory Test Result Analysis

Laboratory Test Results of Foundation Materials

Representative soil and rock samples were collected from the Dam Foundation, and then
submitted to the appropriate laboratory for further test analysis. The laboratory test result
analysis on soil samples that were collected from the Dam Foundation includes examining the
index and engineering properties of soils. Intact rock samples were also collected from the Dam
site to estimate the engineering properties of the rock mass in terms of geotechnical
parameters. Accordingly, test results are well presented in Table 8-13 and Table 8-14.

Table 8-13: Laboratory Test Results of Borehole Rock Samples

BH_ID Depth Particle Depth (m) Bulk Depth NMC
(m) density density (m) (%)
(mg/m3) (mg/m3
BH1 12.6- 2.55 18.30 ‐ 18.60 2.37 1.70 ‐ 2. 19.7
12.9 0
BH2 13.7- 2.65 16.35 ‐ 16.65 2.29
14.0
BH3 3.7-4.0 2.63 16.70 ‐ 17.00 2.28
BH4 16.7- 2.61 12.70-13.00 2.36 1.70 ‐ 2. 17.4
17.0 0
BH5 9.0-9.3 2.59 13.70-14.00 2.42

Table 8-14: UCS Test Results of Borehole Rock Samples

BH_ID Depth (m) UCS (Mpa) Particle Density Mg/m3
NB-BH1 12.6-12.9 13.37 2.55
NB-BH2 13.7-14 21.55 2.65
NB-BH3 3.7-4 21.29 2.63
NB-BH3 16.7-17 28.55 2.61
NB-BH4 9-9.3 9.36 2.59

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Table 8-15: Rock Mass Rating (Hoek-Brown, 1980)
BH_ID Depth Cohesio Frictio Tensile UCS Global Deformation Degree of
(m) n (Mpa) n (0) strength (Mpa) Strength Modulus Weathering
(Mpa) (Mpa) (Mpa)
NB-BH1 12.6-12.9 0.598 27.53 0.044 0.805 1.972 3931.98 MW
NB-BH2 13.7-14 1.114 29.8 0.13 2.058 3.843 6075.78 SL
NB-BH3-1 3.7-4 0.952 27.53 0.07 1.282 3.141 3839.82 MW
NB-BH3-2 16.7-17 1.396 28.95 0.137 2.297 4.735 5144.34 SL
NB-BH4 9-9.3 0.426 27.82 0.033 0.598 1.413 4174.72 MW

8.3.4 Dam Foundation Characterization

8.3.4.1 Geotechnical Section

The dam and appurtenant structures has been characterized by five boreholes drilled along the
dam axis. Two on the left abutment, two on the right abutment and one at valley center with
different depths according to their location, outlet structure and spillway structure. Accordingly
the following geotechnical model has been developed along the dam axis.

Figure 8-10: Geotechnical Section along Dam Axis

The rock mass parameters estimated based on the lab test, rock properties and using rock
science software are shown in Table 8-16.

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Table 8-16: Estimated Geotechnical parameters for different geotechnical units
Description Cohesion Friction (0) Tensile UCS (Mpa) Global Deformation
(Mpa) strength Strength Modulus (Mpa)
(Mpa) (Mpa)
Highly
0.178 22.92 0.01 0.344 0.804 808.18
Weathered
Moderately 0.426- 27.53- 27.82 0.033- 0.07 0.598- 1.282 1.413- 3.141 3839.82- 4174.72
weathered 0.952
Slightly 1.114- 28.95- 29.8 0.13- 0.139 2.058- 2.297 3.843- 4.735 5144.34- 6075.78
weathered 1.396
Fresh 1.701 31.76 0.291 4.053 6.107 8086.01

8.3.5 Construction Material

8.3.5.1 General

One of the main factors in dam type selection during construction is availability of construction
material. The type of dam and construction material affects the cost and time of construction a
project. Thus, available construction material in the project site has been assessed as a part of
geotechnical investigation works. The assessment of suitable construction materials availability
was carried out in terms of quantity, quality and proximity to the Dam site. The assessment has
been carried out considering the proximity to the dam site so that the hauling distance shall be
in in the reasonable distance.

Figure 8-11: Close up view of Construction Material sites

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8.3.5.2 Sampling and Laboratory testing

Laterite soil

The sampling of materials has been done at all sites of respective type. One of the proposed
embankment material is laterite soil and 5 test pits has been excavated from the borrow area
and logging, sampling and submitted the laboratory for different tests. Figure 8-12 shows the
locations of the test pits and embedded photos for laterite borrow area. The laboratory tests
carried out for lab tests are discussed in the following section. Table 8-17 and Table 8-18 show
the laboratory tests that are carried out for samples collected from laterite soil borrow area.

Figure 8-12: Test Pit photos and location of Laterite embankment material

Table 8-17: Moisture Content and Atterberg Limits for laterite embankment material
TP_ID Depth (m) NMC, % Atterberg Limits
LL PL PI
TP2 0.5-1.5 18.21 38.38 25.01 13.38
TP3 0.7-2 24.17 37.74 27.14 10.60
TP4 0.1-2 12.61 34.68 23.14 11.55
TP5 0.5-2 12.61 34.23 23.14 11.10

Table 8-18: Permeability and index properties for laterite embankment Material
TP_ID Depth (m) Bulk density Permeability Dry Free Specific
(gm/cm3) (m/s) density swelling gravity
(g/cm3)
TP2 0.5-1.5 1.69 3.53E-07 2.16
TP3 0.7-2 1.78 3.51E-07 2.13 2.64
TP4 0.1-2 5.28E-07 2.15 2.68
TP5 0.5-2 2.11 3

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8.3.5.3 Clay for Embankment

Another main import construction material for case of embankment dam is the impervious zone
of the dam. Three borrow area have been selected and about 10 TPs are excavated for
evaluation of suitability for intended purpose (Figure 8-13). Table 8-16 shows the laboratory
tests that are carried out for samples collected from proposed clay borrow area.

Figure 8-13: Trial pits locations and proposed boundaries of clay borrow area

Table 8-19: Summary of laboratory test for Clay Borrow Materials

Atterberg Limits Direct Shear
Depth Bulk density Permeabil Dry density Free Specific Consolidatio
TP_ID NMC, % Friction Cohesion
(m) LL PL PI (gm/cm3) ity (m/s) DD (g/cm3) swelling gravity n coefficient
(0) (kpa)
TP6 1-2.5 48.31 28.34 19.97 2.43
TP7 1.2-2.5 23.27 38.49 23.20 15.29 1.72 1.73 2.58 21.17 25.34
TP8 1.3-2.7 28.69 38.63 25.23 13.40 1.81 7.53E-09 1.72 2.23 22.36 28.56
TP9 0.7-2.5 27.13 47.54 30.00 17.54 1.64 6.28E-09 1.72 2.48 23.73 27.95
TP10 1-2 117.61 47.54 30.00 17.54 1.54 1.15 2.03 25.17 30.17
TP11 1.2-2 106.07 82.95 61.27 21.68 1.64 1.11 2.78 22.92 29.76
TP13 1.3-2.7 27.67 37.74 22.97 14.77 1.97 1.774 3.57 19.75 29.56
TP14 1-2 27.67 47.99 30.70 17.29 1.97 1.13 9.09 3.69 22.67 25.94
TP15 1-2 79.64 65.72 40.65 25.08 1.97 6.13E-09 1.20 2.10 8.29 22.67 25.94
TP15 2-3 41.40 64.99 38.43 26.57 1.26 7.14

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8.3.5.4 Shell Material

Another type of construction material is to find a material that can be used as a shoulder
material for the case of zoned embankment dam. For case of Ngoma dam, construction
material assessment has been carried out considering different grain size spectrum.
Accordingly, weathered material has been assessed and sampled for further laboratory
analysis. Figure 8-14 shows locations of excavated test pits and proposed boundary of the shell
material area. Logging and sampling has been carried out for all the test pits samples collected
from each test pits have been submitted to the laboratory for further analysis. Table 8-20 shows
the laboratory tests that are carried out for samples collected from laterite soil borrow area.

Figure 8-14: Trial pit location for shell material site

Table 8-20: Summary of Laboratory test results for laterite and shell material
Atterberg Limits Bulk Dry Direct shear
Depth Permeabil Free Specific Consolidatio
TP_ID NMC, % density density
(m) LL PL PI ity (m/s) swelling gravity n coefficient Friction (0) Cohesion (kpa)
(gm/cm3) DD
TP2 0.5-1.5 18.21 38.38 25.01 13.38 1.69 3.53E-07 2.16 25.85 11.06
TP3 0.7-2 24.17 37.74 27.14 10.60 1.78 3.51E-07 2.13 2.64 27.42 17.50
TP4 0.1-2 12.61 34.68 23.14 11.55 5.28E-07 2.15 2.68
TP5 0.5-2 12.61 34.23 23.14 11.10 2.11 3
TP16 0.1-0.5 27.13 33.75 24.28 9.47 1.97 1.87 4.76 5.71 28.55 13.07
TP17 0.5-1.5 20.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.97 1.90 2.48 27.37 15.08
TP18 0.5-1.5 10.97 34.09 23.08 11.01 1.57 26.80 19.11
TP19 1.2-2.0 9.65 32.36 20.28 12.08 1.78 3.51E-07 1.68 9.09 32.22 21.52

8-24
8.4 Design of Embankment Dam

8.4.1 General

The basic requirements in the design of Dam are to achieve safety with economy under various
conditions of operations of the reservoir. To achieve these objectives, the design of an
embankment dam should be governed by the following considerations:

 The embankment foundation, abutment and reservoir rims must be stable and must not
develop unacceptable deformation under all loading conditions.
 The reservoir rims must be stable under the most severe operating conditions to
eliminate the possibility of an unstable rim or the possibility that large existing landslides
would be triggered and cause a large volume of slide material to fill the reservoir and
create a large wave that would over top the dam.
 It shall be safe against excessive overtopping by wave action especially during high
design flood flows.
 The embankment slopes shall be stable during all conditions of the reservoir operations,
including rapid drawdown, if applicable.
 Seepage flow through the body of embankment dam, foundation and abutments shall be
controlled so that no internal erosion (piping) takes place and there is no sloughing in
areas where seepage emerges.
 Slopes of the embankment dam shall be acceptably protected against erosion by wave
action and from gulling as well as scour against surface runoff due to rain.

8.4.2 Foundation Characterization and Design

8.4.2.1 General

The Ngoma Water supply Dam project is located at Ngoma River, which is about 90km north of
Kigali, the capital. It is found at the border of the Gicumbi and Nyagatare districts in the north
eastern part of Rwanda. Gicumbi is one of the thirty districts of Rwanda, and located the North
West inside the Eastern Province. It shares borders with neighboring Uganda in the North and
West. The project is about 3 to 4km from the Ugandan border.
The project site is connected by the main road with Kigali, the capital and largest city of
Rwanda, which is about 90 km from the project. The project site can be also accessed from the
nearby villages and towns. It is also located near Uganda border
The Ngoma River Dam Project has been planned to be constructed as a water supply system
to satisfy the safe water supply demand of the people. The Dam has a 27m height above the
river bed level and a 120m crest length that will be impounding about 1.3.161Mm3 water on a
14.06ha reservoir area.

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Large Dam projects like Ngoma river Dam requires a complete understanding of pertinent
geological features and geotechnical information of the actual surface and subsurface earth
materials to plan and design safe engineering structures such as dams, spillways, outlet
conduits, etc. Thus, on the basis of project needs and standard technical requirements,
geological and geotechnical site investigation works were designed to evaluate the Dam
foundation whether it is subjected to seepage and settlement, and also to make sure the Dam
foundation able to bear the load of the Dam and the water that will impound behind it.
Accordingly, the geological and geotechnical site investigation works were conducted along the
Dam axis.

8.4.2.2 General Design Considerations

Ngoma River Dam Project is modified zoned earth fill dam of central impervious clay core with
an earth fill shoulder with chimney filter in between. Foundation requirements for an
embankment dam are less stringent than those for a concrete gravity dam, though it requires
considerable attention.
The degree of foundation preparation which is necessary for a dam embankment depends on
the type of dam, height of dam and the consequences of failure, topography of the dam site,
erodibility, strength, permeability, compressibility of the soil or rock in the dam foundation,
groundwater inflows to excavations, climate and river flows during construction. Reservoir
pressures and seepage impose severe performance requirements on the foundations of dams,
especially high dams. Usually the quantity of seepage losses must be kept reasonably small.
In dam foundations, there are many geological features or weaknesses that are of special
concern and shall be addressed critically. This features are, thin shear zones, weak joints,
faults, fault zones, solution effects, weathered zones and volcanic features.

8.4.2.3 Foundation Design Criteria and Requirements

8.4.2.3.1 Design Criteria

An embankment dam foundation must be safe and stable during all phases of the construction
and the operation of the reservoir. To accomplish this, the following criteria must be met
(USBR):

(a) The slopes, foundation, abutments, and reservoir rim must be stable and must not
develop unacceptable deformations under all loading conditions brought about by
construction of the embankment, reservoir operation, and earthquake.
(b) Seepage flow through the foundation, abutments, and reservoir rim must be controlled to
prevent excessive uplift pressures; piping; instability; sloughing; removal of material by
solutioning; or erosion of material into cracks, joints, or cavities. The amount of water
lost through seepage must be controlled so that it does not interfere with planned project
functions.

8-26
 (c) The reservoir rim must be stable under all operating conditions to prevent the triggering
of a landslide into the reservoir that could cause a large wave to overtop the dam.

8.4.2.3.2 Treatment requirements

The importance of adequate foundation treatment is evident due to the fact that approximately
40 % of all embankment dam failures are attributed to the deficits in foundation (Chen, 2015).

Although the requirements for the foundation of embankment dam are not so rigorous as
concrete dams, certain provisions through treatment should be made in the design to assure
that the essential requirements concerning its bearing capacity, strength, deformation and
seepage should be met (Acker and Jones1972; ICOLD 2005). Foundation treatments for
embankment dams must meet the following demands:
• Minimum leakage;
• Prevention of piping;
• Limited settlement; and
• Sufficient strength to maintain stability against sliding.

8.4.2.4 Geotechnical Site Characterization

8.4.2.4.1 Geological Aspects

Different geological units cover the dam site and reservoir area. The tectonic aspect of the area
is also discussed below. The site is further described geologically as follows.
Plate Tectonics

Rwanda is located on the African Plate, and bordered by the Great East African Rift on the East
and by the failed arm on the West (Figure 8-15)(encyclopedia, 2021).

Figure 8-15: Project Site Location with Respect to Tectonics

8-27
Regional Geology

According to the geological map of Rwanda (Figure 8-16), the regional geology includes
sandstone and shale in alternate layers. It also contains other types of rocks, such as old
granite and gneisses, Neogene volcanic rocks, recent sediments, Kibaran Belt rock unit,
Cenozoic volcanic rock units and Precambrian rock units as well.
The Sandstone and shale units are belong to the Mesoproterozoic Burundian Sub group, which
are alternately layered one over the other, and sometimes intercalated by granitic intrusions.
The older granites and gneiss units are predominant in the east of the country. The Neogene
volcanic are found in the north-western and south-western parts of the country. The recent
sediments are alluvial and lake deposits that are found along the river courses and lakes.
The oldest rock units of Rwanda are migmatites, gneisses and mica schists of the
Paleoproterozoic Ruzizian basement, which are overlain by the Mesoproterozoic Kibaran Belt.
The Kibaran rock units are composed of folded and metamorphosed sediments, mainly schists
and quartzite intruded by granites that predominantly covers most part of the country.
Cenozoic volcanic rock units occur in the northwest and west part of the country. Some of them
are highly alkaline and are extensions from the Birunga volcanic area of southwestern Uganda.
Tertiary and Quaternary sediments fill parts of the Western Rift in the western part of the
country. The Precambrian rock units are found in the form of weathered outcrops and
sedimentary deposits.

However, the Virunga Mountains in the north are found to be covered by a chain of young
volcanoes, where the soils are poorly developed and mostly uncultivable due to the young age
of the volcanic rocks. However, in some locations of the valleys, organic soils are encounter
while much of the Central Plateau is dominated by lateritic soils.

8-28
Figure 8-16: Geological Map of Rwanda (the red broken line circle is the project area)

Dam site Geology

As clearly indicated in the geological map of the project area (Figure 8-17), the local geology is
a metamorphic terrain, which is mainly including Quartzite, Mica Schist, Shale, Phyllite, Schist,
and undifferentiated colluvium and alluvium deposits. Each rock type is found in association
with one another in different proportions as described below.

• Quartzite
Quartzite is a medium grade and non-foliated metamorphic rock, mainly composed of quartz
from sedimentary origin, sandstone. It has interlocked quartz crystals visible with the naked
eye. Moreover, the non-weathered ones are found to be hard in hardness scale.

• Schist
Schist is a medium-grained metamorphic rock showing pronounced foliation. It can be defined
by its texture and structure without reference to its composition. Its pronounced structure is its
schistosity that is a thin layer of the rock produced by metamorphism that permits the rock to
easily be split into flakes. Schist is formed by the metamorphosis of mudstone (shale) or some
type of igneous rock when it has been subjected to higher temperatures and pressures.

• Mica Schist

8-29
Mica schist is often a sedimentary origin that has been recrystallized and has obtained a
schistose structure during metamorphism process. It is essentially composed of mica and
quartz in alternating layers. The layers form a foliated structure and make the rock ready to split
along the micaceous layers.

• Shale
Shale is a fine-grained, sedimentary rock formed as a result of the compaction of clay, silt, mud
and organic matter over time and is usually considered equivalent to mudstone. Most shales
split into thin sheets while some are massive and break into irregular blocks. Shale is very
brittle and breaks apart easily.

• Phyllite
Phyllite is a type of foliated metamorphic rock formed from slate, which is derived from fine-
grained, parent sedimentary rocks, such as mudstones or shale. It is formed when shale is
subjected to incredible heat and pressure for hundreds of millions of years underground. In
general, Phyllite is an intermediate-grade, foliated metamorphic rock that resembles its
sedimentary parent rock, shale, and its lower-grade metamorphic counterpart, slate. Like slate,
phyllite can be distinguished from shale by its foliation and its brittleness.

• Undifferentiated Colluvium and Alluvium Deposit

There are also localized alluvium and colluvium deposits along the streamlines and the base of
the hillsides. The alluvium deposits are the product of weathering and erosion of the upstream
areas, while colluvium deposits are the product of the surrounding hills.

Figure 8-17: Geological Map of the Project Area

8-30
8.4.2.4.2 Geotechnical Aspects

i. General

In the preceding sections, we have discussed regarding geological characteristics of Ngoma

River Dam and appurtenant structures site. The geotechnical and engineering geological
aspects of dam is further characterized based on direct method of investigation which models
better the subsurface with required geotechnical engineering parameters of the foundation.

Table 8-21: Core drilling program (dam and appurtenant structure sites)
Ngoma Dam Geotechnical Investigation Boreholes UTM Coordinates
BH ID Easting Northing Depth Inclination Location
ND-BH1 508933.324 4843608.78 20 Vertical Left Abutment
ND-BH2 508945.703 4843596.411 18 Vertical Left Abutment/Outlet
ND-BH3 508959.851 4843582.274 20 Vertical Near River bed
ND-BH4 508981.073 4843561.07 15 Vertical Right Abutment
BD-BH5 509000.524 4843541.631 15 Vertical Right Abutment/Spillway

Five Boreholes are drilled along the dam axis to characterize the foundation properties. The
bore holes are distributed to characterize dam, outlet and spillway foundation. Two boreholes
are drilled on the left side of the river, which characterizes the area on the left abutment and the
river section as well. The other two boreholes are drilled on the right side of the river, which
characterizes foundation at the right side of the river and spillway foundation as well. One BH
drilled near the valley to characterize the dam foundation as well as the outlet structure. Based
on the findings, the dam foundation is classified in to different geotechnical units with different
engineering characteristics (Figure 8-18).

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Figure 8-18: Geotechnical Section along the Dam Axis

Riverbed

The slope gradients of the two abutments are sharply abrupt and distinct from the
riverbed. Because of the presence of significant slope differences at the dam site, the
riverbed is found to be covered by with no significant alluvial deposits. As the river
water is continually removing the incoming alluvial deposits, the bedrock is encountered
at shallow depths. Even the weathered bedrock is removed with alluvial deposits so
that the weathered rock is limited to shallow depths. As the weathered section of the
bedrock is removed followed by its detachment from the parent material, hard rocks are
found at shallow depths. In general, the bedrocks of the river section are found in the
order of highly weathered, slightly weathered and fresh rocks. The rock is exposed at
the riverbed as seen on the picture below.

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 BH04

BH03

Figure 8-19: Close up view of Riverbed and BH03

However, the thickness of the alluvial deposit decreases gradually towards the abutments,
totally restricted by residual soils, and weathered rocks along the abutment slopes. On
both sides of the river bank, there are different sequences of alluvial deposits that indicate
the time differences of deposition. However, the alluvial deposit, which is located on the left
side is thicker than the right. At this locality, the alluvial deposit forms terrace land about
10m higher than the right side.

Figure 8-20: Core Photo BH 03 (0-10m near the riverbed showing all in all rock)

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Figure 8-21: Core Photo for BH03 (10m to 20m, showing slightly weathered rock)

Figure 8-22: Rock outcrop at riverbed area

Right Abutment

BH05 has been drilled to a depth of 15m on the right abutment, around chainage 0+120.
The bore hole is located systematically to characterize the sub surface model for both dam
foundation and spillway foundation. The right abutment is relatively gentler than the left
abutment and covered by thicker residual soil thin residual soil layer. As indicated on the
geological cross-section of the Dam foundation (Figure 8-23) and core photo for BH04 and
BH05 (Figure 8-24, to Figure 8-27) this top soil layer is underlain by highly weathered
phylite-schist rock which in turn underlain by moderately to fresh rock. The top soil layer is
stiff having an average SPT value of greater than 40 or refusal (Figure 8-23) which can
bear safely an earth fill dam. The standard test value for each is shown in Table 8-22.

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Figure 8-23: SPT log for BH04 and BH05 (showing from overburden to fresh rock)
In general, the degree of weathering decreases with depth and vice versa, except some
local irregularities. Thus, as it is clearly depicted on the geological section of the Dam
foundation at BH-04 (Figure 8-23), the phylite-schist rock is found to be affected by
different degree of weathering in the order of completely weathered, highly weathered,
moderately weathered, and slightly weathered and fresh rock.

Figure 8-24: Core photo for BH04 (0-10m, top soil and completely to highly weathered soil)

8-35
Figure 8-25: Core photo BH04 (10-15m, showing moderately to slightly weathered rock)

Figure 8-26: Core photo BH5 (0-10m showing decomposed soil to highly weathered rock)

Figure 8-27: Core photo BH5 (0-10m showing decomposed soil to highly weathered rock)

Left Abutment

The lithological units of the left abutment are the same as the lithological units of the
right abutment and the riverbed as well. Their differences are laying in degrees of
weathering and slope gradients. As indicated in Figure 8-18, the left abutment is
relatively steeper than the right abutment. Moreover, the degree of weathering and

8-36
orders are different from the other side. Core Photo from BH01 and BH02 is shown
from Figure 8-28 to Figure 8-31. Its bedrock’s degree of weathering can be listed in the
following order from top to bottom: highly weathered, moderately weathered, slightly
weathered and fresh at the bottom.

The residual soil layer is underlain by highly weathered bedrock, which is more than
half of the rock is decomposed into soils. Beneath the highly weathered rock unit, there
is a moderately weathered rock unit, where less than half of its content is found to be
decomposed into soil. Finally, slightly weathered and fresh rocks are encountered at
the bottom of the borehole with distinct identification marks of discoloration, and no
visible sign of weathering, respectively (Geological Society of London, 2015).

Figure 8-28: Core photo BH1 (0-10m showing decomposed to moderately weathered rock

Figure 8-29: Core photo BH1 (10-20m showing moderately to slightly weathered rock)

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Figure 8-30: Core photo BH2 (0-10m showing decomposed soil to moderately weathered
rock)

Figure 8-31: Core photo BH2 (0-10m showing moderately weathered to fresh rock)

ii. Standard Penetration Test Results

In order to determine an approximate measure of the dynamic resistance of the

foundation materials, Standard Penetration Tests (SPT) were conducted following
borehole drilling works. Thus, the tests were conducted at an appropriate interval in the
borehole. During the test, the number of blows to penetrate 150mm was recorded for 3
times and the number of blows required to obtain the bottom of the next 300 mm was
recorded as the standard penetration number (N-value).

However, some penetrations were considered refusal where no penetration is observed for
10 successive blows or where more than 50 blows are required for the 300 mm
penetration length, or the sum of blow counts of 450 mm penetration requires more than
100 blows. Finally, the results of standard penetration test data were recorded and
presented in Table 8-22.

Table 8-22: Standard penetration test value for boreholes

SPT
DESCRIPTION SECTION (m)
(N)
1.5-1.9 16
NB-BH1
2.5-3.0 35.5

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 4.5-5.0 50
1.5-2.0 50
NB-BH4
3.0-3.5 50
NB-BH5 1.5-2.0 40

Standard penetration tests were used to determine the dynamic resistance of the
foundation materials in the borehole. It can also be used to calculate the relative density,
bearing capacity, and settlement of granular soil (Hunt, 2007). In the case of the Ngoma
dam foundation, the SPT data were corrected with 60% hammer efficiency. As a result, the
foundation materials were found to range from medium-dense to very dense (Figure 8-32).

10 Medium dense

20

30 Dense

40

50
Very Dense
60

70
1.5-1.9 2.5-3.0 4.5-5.0 1.5-2.0 3.0-3.5 1.5-2.0
NB-BH1 NB-BH4 NB-BH5

Figure 8-32: SPT result analysis of the foundation

iii. In-Situ Permeability

The soil and rock mass permeability of the dam foundation is a key parameter for seepage
calculation through the foundation, erodibility along weak sims and controlling the uplift
and other seepage forces. In order to determine the permeability values of the Foundation
materials of the Dam and other associated structure sites, both falling head and packer
tests were carried out at five boreholes both on soil and rock masses, respectively.
Summary of permeability value for five boreholes are shown in Figure 8-33. According to
UBSR (1998), the subsurface materials were found to be semi-pervious in general (Figure
8-33). However, when we examine closely, it is found to be variable laterally as well as
vertically. The semi pervious foundation requires engineering intervention to improve its
water tightness. The treatment and excavation design is discussed in the subsequent
section.

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1.00E-02

1.00E-03 Perviouszone
Permeability, k (cm/s)
1.00E-04

1.00E-05
Semi-Pervious zone
1.00E-06

1.00E-07
1-4 1-4 4-12 1-6 14-17 17-20 8-11 15-18 3-7
NB-BH1 NB-BH4 NB-BH5 NB-BH1 NB-BH2 NB-BH3
Soil Layers Rock Layers

Figure 8-33: In-situ permeability result for dam foundation

8.4.2.5 Spillway foundation

In order to characterize the spillway foundation we have used borehole drilled along the
dam axis and near the spillway location as well as the outcrop near the downstream area.
Accordingly, the geotechnical profile along the spillway center line has been prepared and
shown in (Figure 8-34). In general, it includes overburden top soil underlain by bedrocks
that are affected by different degree of weathering. BH05 drilled at the control section of
the spillway provides some date for developing the proposed geological profile along the
spillway center line.

The foundation of spillway has been characterized by three boreholes (one from the
previous and two from the current study) and the resulting geotechnical section is shown in
Figure 8-34 . According to the section, from chainage 0+375 to the end, the foundation
and cut section is characterized as alluvial deposit at exist channel underlain by
moderately weathered Granite-Banded Gneiss. From 0+000 to 0+375, the foundation and
the cut section for the walls is characterized as residual soil at the top, which is underlain
by highly weathered phylite-schist, moderately weathered phylite –schist. The spillway
control section and the entire chute slab can be founded on highly weathered rock mass.
Due to the low spillway height and distributed load of the chute, the highly weathered rock
can be considered for the foundation of spillway structure.

8-40
Figure 8-34: Geotechnical section along the spillway center line

8.4.2.6 Outlet foundation

The outlet structure is passing through moderately weathered rock which qualifies for the
bearing capacity requirements for the whole length. One borehole (BH03) and Electrical
resistivity tomography has been carried along the outlet conduit and used for
characterization of the same foundation. Accordingly, the outlet foundation location is
shown in Figure 8-35. The foundation is covered moderately weathered rock which is
underlain by slightly weathered rock mass.

Outlet foundation Area

Figure 8-35: outlet passes through moderately to slightly weathered rock

8-41
8.4.3 Foundation Design

8.4.3.1 Concise Foundation Design Criteria

Although the requirements for the foundation of embankment dam are not so rigorous as
concrete dams, certain provisions through treatment should be made in the design to
assure that the essential requirements concerning its bearing capacity, strength,
deformation and seepage should be met (Acker and Jones1972; ICOLD 2005).
Foundation treatments for embankment dams must meet the following demands:
• Minimum leakage;
• Prevention of piping;
• Limited settlement; and
• Sufficient strength to maintain stability against sliding.

8.4.3.2 Foundation Excavation

8.4.3.2.1 General

Foundation preparation for the ‘general foundation’, i.e. the foundation beneath
the bulk of the embankment, is quite different from that for the ‘cutoff foundation’,
i.e. the foundation under the earthfill core of an earth and rockfill dam prepared to
cutoff standard, or the plinth of a concrete face rockfill dam. Excavation and clearance
consist of digging a construction pit down to the given elevation of the dam base, of
treating and cleaning the rock surface, and of ensuring contact between the dam base and
the bedrock.

The determination of the dam base elevation and the corresponding cutting depth in
bedrock has high technical and economic significance.

As discussed in design criteria section of this chapter, foundation requirement for

embankment dam foundation is less rigorous than concrete dam. However, the
requirements are quite important, as compressibility, seepage, stability are major and
governing failure modes for embankment dam.

8-42
Figure 8-36: General Foundation Excavation Profile along Ngoma Dam axis

8.4.3.2.2 General Foundation Excavation

The main requirement for general foundation level is resistance against compressibility
and shear stability. The objective of general foundation excavation is to remove low
strength and compressible material to provide a foundation of adequate strength and
compressibility to support the embankment. In most cases, but not always, the general
foundation will be of higher strength than the embankment and will not dictate the
embankment stability. In most cases permeability will not be a critical factor. Liquefiable
materials may need to be removed or treated.

As per the characterization discussed in the preceding section, the general foundation
level has been set based on the findings of in-situ deformation tests and geotechnical
conditions. Generally, the SPT value for the top decomposed soil on the left abutment
registers above 36 at 3m depth and refusal at 4.5m depth. This level decreases towards
the left flank. It is has been set as 40 or above of SPT to be a baseline for the foundation
requirement for such dam size and dam type (Figure 8-36). Table 8-23 shows summary of
geotechnical formation at general foundation level.

Table 8-23: Geotechnical formation at general foundation level

Section Geotechnical formation at General foundation level
0+010 to 0+040 Top dense soil
0+040 to 0+070 Moderately weathered Phylite-schist rock
0+070 to 0+090 Completely weathered schist-phylite
0+090 to 0+120 Top dense soil

8-43
The foundation excavation level has been fixed based on core photo, in situ test results
and material composition. The core drilling investigations are point information, and hence
could not simulate the whole foundation condition. Hence, any anomalous zones
encountered during the course of excavation shall be addressed critically by advising
consulting geotechnical Engineer.

8.4.3.2.3 Cut-off Foundation

Cut off foundation excavation is aimed in removing highly permeable and erodible material
below the general foundation level to provide a low permeability non erodible foundation
(consistent with the design of filters and drains on the foundation). In many cases, e.g. in
soil foundations or rock foundations which are permeable to great depth, a low
permeability non-erodible cut off foundation cannot be economically achieved by
excavation alone and other design measures are required.

Figure 8-37: Cutoff Foundation Excavation for Ngoma Dam

Table 8-24: Geotechnical formation at cutoff foundation level

Section Geotechnical formation at Cut-off foundation level
0+010 to 0+040 Highly weathered Phylite-Schist rock mass
0+040 to 0+070 Slightly weathered Phylite-schist rock mass
0+070 to 0+120 Highly weathered Phylite-Schist mass

8-44
8.4.3.3 Foundation Treatment Design

8.4.3.3.1 General

The critical importance of foundation treatment for embankment dam is the prevention of
under seepage and the watertight seal between membrane and foundation (Fell 2014). To
prevent seepage beneath rock fill dams, foundations are conventionally grouted. Besides,
it helps improvement of life duration to prevent foundation from erosion and deterioration
during the long period of service.

8.4.3.3.2 Seepage Estimation

Before going to the treatment measures seepage analysis through the dam foundation and
dam body has been estimated. The estimation is done based on the state of the SEEP/W
2018 by considering representative dam sections as shown in Figure 8-38.

Q = q×d ×L Eq. 8-1

Where Q = Seepage rate (m3/s)

q= Seepage flux through dam foundation (m3/s/m2)

d = depth of foundation considered for the seepage estimation (m)

L = length between section (m)

Similarly, seepage through the dam body is estimated by considering seepage flux through
the dam body (i.e. dam core) and d = will be height of the core in that representative
section.

SEEP/W, 2018 has an option to estimate either seepage rate or seepage flux at a given
section for the given hydraulic conductivity and boundary conditions of the dam as well as
the foundation as shown in Figure 8-39 to 8-42.

8-45
Figure 8-38: Locations of dam cross section selected for analysis

Figure 8-39: Typical seepage rate for the dam foundation at maximum dam section

Figure 8-40: Typical seepage rate for the dam body at maximum dam section

8-46
Figure 8-41: Typical seepage flux for the dam foundation at maximum dam section

Figure 8-42: Typical seepage flux for the dam body at maximum dam section

The annual average seepage estimated for Ngoma Dam through its foundation and the
dam body is 2675.5m3/year and 587.15m3/ year respectively. Adding the two seepage
volume the total annual loss of water through seepage is estimated to be about
3262.64m3. Details of the estimation with respective to representative sections is depicted
in Table 8-25.

Table 8-25: Estimated seepage through dam foundation and dam body

Seepage through dam body Seepage through dam foundation

Yearly Yearly Total
Length Average Seepage Average Seepage Seepage
b/n Dam Depth flux Volume flux Volume Volume
3 2 3 3 2 3 3
Section Sections (m) (m /s/m ) (m ) Depth (m) (m /s/m ) (m ) (m )
20 10 6.91 3.3E-09 7.23 10.19 3.1E-08 100.98 108.21
30 10 10.55 4.2E-09 14.10 15.71 3.1E-08 155.64 169.74
40 10 17.83 9.2E-10 5.16 42.15 5.7E-08 763.56 768.72
50 10 24.65 8.8E-10 6.81 18.00 2.5E-08 142.62 149.44
60 10 26.06 8.6E-10 7.04 22.00 5.3E-08 369.94 376.99
70 10 24.53 4.1E-08 320.53 12.62 1.3E-09 5.32 325.84
80 10 11.25 3.4E-10 1.21 28.72 5.1E-08 464.50 465.71
90 10 17.40 2.4E-08 129.25 18.10 5.7E-08 327.96 457.21
100 10 12.97 1.5E-09 5.95 18.51 1.3E-08 76.30 82.26
110 10 12.13 1.5E-08 55.69 12.05 3.7E-08 138.89 194.57
120 10 8.57 1.3E-08 34.17 10.00 4.1E-08 129.78 163.95

587.15 2675.50 3262.64

8-47
8.4.3.3.3 Seepage Treatment Measures

The foundation condition for Ngoma Dam is found to be top soil underlain by bed rock with
different degree of weathering. The cutoff foundation has been fixed based on seepage
requirements and deformation requirements for core seat. Accordingly, the excavation
level is fixed to be at rock level and single line curtain grouting has been proposed to
improve the seepage requirements of the foundation.

Figure 8-43 shows seepage treatment measures for dam foundation and spillway for
Ngoma Dam project.

Figure 8-43: Excavation, Curtain grouting and core seat concrete treatment

Cutoff trench and curtain grouting is recommended for the rock foundation along the whole
dam axis including the spillway (See Figure 8-43). When the dam foundation founded on
rock which is not impervious enough for uncontrolled seepage, it has to be engineered to
satisfy the requirements. Thus, for foundation seepage improvement purpose, a cut off
together with grout curtain will be implemented.

The impervious core material is to be placed on rock foundation with different degree of
weathering and fracturing. The core can be placed on the rock itself for the valley section
by putting only cement slurry. Whereas core seat on both abutments are recommended to
be covered by 150mm blinding concrete to protect erosion and suffusion of clay core
material. Figure 8-44 through Figure 8-46 shows the details of the proposed treatment.

8-48
Figure 8-44: Curtain grouting, cutoff trench and blinding concrete treatment (Typical
@0+30)

Figure 8-45: Curtain Grouting and cutoff trench (Typical @0+060)

Figure 8-46: Curtain grouting, cutoff trench excavation and blinding concrete treatment
(@0+100)

8-49
Applying curtain grouting has the following advantages.

• Reduce leakage through the dam foundation, i.e. through the defects.
• Reduce seepage erosion potential
• Reduce uplift pressures (under concrete gravity dams when used in conjunction
with drain holes).

The main design task of curtain grouting is to decide the depth of curtain (or hole depth),
the thickness of curtain (the rows of hole, spacing of rows, and spacing of holes), the
position of curtain, the depth into abutments, and the grouting pressure.

Lugeon Value Requirement

Setting the grouting requirement will be decided by considering various factors like, water
scarcity, prevention of foundation piping, types of dams. In Ngoma Dam Project, excessive
water loss is not allowed and hence seepage shall be reduced to acceptable level. In such
cases the Lugeon value less than 3 is required (Houlsby, 1999).

Depth of Grouting

Depth to which grout holes are drilled is governed by the permeable conditions of the
foundation rock and by the hydrostatic head to which the foundation rock will be subjected.
Grout curtain should be sufficient deep to minimize seepage discharge and to assist in the
reduction of uplift pressure. Where conditions permit, grout holes should be drilled into
sound, impervious stratum. Otherwise, the grout holes should be drilled 3–5 m deeper into
relatively impervious stratum. Different codes recommend different rules for determination
of grout hole depths.

The depth of grouting is related to hydraulic head of the reservoir and foundation
characteristics. According to IS: 11293 (Part2)-1993 “Guidelines for the design of grout
curtains”, the following empirical criteria may be used as a guide:

D= (2/3) H + 8 Eq. 8-2

Where D is the depth of the grout curtain in meters and H is the height of the reservoir
water in meters.

Thus, the hydraulic head for Ngoma Dam project is about 26m near the section considered
for grouting treatment, and hence, according to the above criteria, up to 25m deep grout
curtain shall be executed at the section of the dam, located on the right side of the value.
USBR also recommends that unless special geologic conditions dictate otherwise, general
practice for modern dams is to extend the primary grout holes to a depth below the surface
of the rock equal to about 0.5 to 1.0 times the reservoir head, which lies above the surface
of the rock, which is estimated to be 26m deep. Selecting 0.7H to 0.75H for Ngoma Dam,
which is commonly adopted in many dams, the depth will be 18.8m to 19.5m.

Hence, considering deep cutoff depth, the average of the above values has been taken for
primary and secondary grout holes depth, which is about 20m deep at the deepest

8-50
foundation area. Other sequences depth can be adjusted depending on the actual grouting
operation and test result. Figure 8-43 shows grouting profile along the dam axis. The
grouting depth will decrease as we go away from river section and shown in the album
drawing.

Inclination of Grout Holes

The grout holes may be either vertical or inclined. The orientation, plan and inclination of
grout holes depend upon the type of joints and the other discontinuities in the foundation
rock. For case of Ngoma Dam project, the joint orientation as well as dipping is not clearly
known, however to be on safe side so as to intercept both inclined and vertical joints ,
cross over from one inclination to the other will be used at river section. Typical section
which shows inclination of grout holes is shown in Figure 8-47.

Grout holes should be drilled in such a direction and angle as to intersect as many of the
imperfections in the rock as possible for the prevailing conditions. For Ngoma dam, the
grouting zone is on the right side of river, and hence grout holes inclined to the right shall
be adopted.

Figure 8-47: A typical Section showing Crossover from one inclination to the other

Grouting pattern and curtain thickness

The pattern is fixed based on permeability of the foundation and level of grouting
requirement. Accordingly, single line grouting with a 12m closure criteria has been
selected and assumed to be enough as the lugeon value of the rock is low, but shall be
determined based on exploratory holes grouting and test grouting panel. If weak
zones/anomalous is encountered during excavation, denser grouting as well as concrete
backfill is recommended locally.

8-51
Figure 8-48: Curtain Grouting Closure Pattern (single row)

The grouting starts with 12m of spacing of Exploratory/primary holes and will go up to
satisfying the Lugeon requirements. This period estimate is up to split spacing of 3.0m
grout holes. Typical grout curtain schedule is shown in Figure 8-48. Exploratory
holes/primary holes are planned at spacing of 12m and subsequent sequences will be
carried out depending on the site condition grout operation. Check holes are to be used as
quinary gout holes with split spacing of 1.5m in case of continuation to grouting sequence.
USBR uses the split spacing method to obtain closure during foundation grouting. Figure
8-49 shows the layout of primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary grout holes within a
12m closure pattern.

Figure 8-49: Curtain grouting 12m grout pattern

8-52
Location of curtain grouting

For a zoned embankment dam with a central impervious core, the grout curtain is typically
located slightly upstream of the midpoint of the base of the impervious core material.
Locating grout curtain near upstream toe and near downstream toe of the core may induce
high gradient from the core to the foundation and from the foundation in to the core.
Hence, to alleviate such problem, the grout curtain location should be at or upstream of the
dam centerline and this is employed at Ngoma dam. See Figure 4-50 for location of grout
curtain.

Figure 8-50: Location of curtain grouting

8-53
Figure 8-51: Foundation curtain grouting profile

8.4.3.3.4 Weak Zone Treatment

Very often, the exploratory drilling or final excavation uncovers faults, seams, or shattered
or inferior rock extending to such depths that it is impracticable to attempt to clear out such
areas entirely. These conditions require special treatment in the form of removing the
weak material and backfilling the resulting excavations with concrete. In case of Ngoma
Dam, the drilling doesn’t show the existence of weak zone/sheared zone in the dam
foundation area. However, if there exists during excavation, the following treatment rule
shall be practiced. The depth of excavation shall be determined based on the following
parameters.

8-54
Figure 8-52: Weak/Shear zone treatment beneath dam foundation

d = 0.00656bH +1.53 (for H > 46m) Eq. 8-3

d = 0.3b +1.524 (for H < 46m) Eq. 8-4

Where,

H = height of dam above general foundation level in meters;

b = width of weak zone in meters;

d = depth of excavation of weak zone below surface adjoining sound rock in meters.

These rules provide a means of approach to the question of how much should be
excavated, but final judgment must be exercised in the field during actual excavation
operations.

If the width of shear zone is more at some places reinforced concrete slab may be
required at foundation level and the above guide lines could not be followed due to large
width of shear zone

Thus, when weak/sheared zones are encountered during excavation, the above technique
(Figure 8-52) shall be implemented.

8.4.3.4 Outlet foundation evaluation

The outlet structure is located at around chainage 0+071.50 on the right side of the river
and the foundation condition along the conduit is discussed in characterization section
above. The outlet is a safety relevant structure and is recommended to be founded on
uniform foundation that can bear the self-weight as well the upcoming embankment and
reservoir load.

8-55
Loads on conduits

The load on the conduit is assumed to be the weight of the column of fill directly above it.
The load over the portion of conduit under the upstream part of the dam includes both the
weight of the saturated fill and the weight of the reservoir water above it. The outlet
structure is founded on the slightly weathered Phylite-schist rock mass which is a uniform
and good bearing layer for the outlet. Figure 8-53 shows the excavation section of the
outlet conduit.

Figure 8-53: Outlet foundation excavation Section

8.4.3.5 Spillway foundation evaluation

8.4.3.5.1 General
The spillway is located on the right abutment just next to dam embankment. The
topography and the nearby dam foundation at the right abutment shows that the spillway is
going to be excavated in highly weathered for the control section and the chute part of
spillway. The terminal structure is going to be founded on moderately weathered rock
mass. As a safety relevant structure, the foundation for the control section of ogee spillway
shall be competent rock. However, for the case of Ngoma Dam, the height of the ogee is
small as compared to the capacity of the foundation available beneath the structure.
However, the chute part of spillway is arranged in steep slope condition and hence will
require anti-shearing system that can resist the shear force component of the
hydrodynamic load.

8-56
8.4.3.5.2 Anchor rod installation
Based on the slope of the chute and safety structure of the dam, the chute and terminal
structure shall be strengthen by 5m length 4m by 4m grid anchor rod with 4m in to the
rock . See Figure 8-54 and album drawing for further reference.

Figure 8-54: Spillway Chute and terminal structure anchorage

8.4.3.5.3 Cut Slope Design

The spillway right side slope excavation is cut in soil at the top, highly weathered in the
middle and moderately weathered phylite-schist rock masses at the bottom. The cut slope
is adopted as 1:1 for soil 1H: 3V highly weathered rock, for moderately weathered rock
and 1H: 4V for moderately weathered rock masses. The section drawing is shown in
Figure 8-55. The highly weathered rock could be spalling with some disturbances and
hence, 100mm shotcrete with mesh is proposed as temporary support during excavation,
grouting operation and retaining wall construction as well as backfilling works.

8-57
Figure 8-55: Spillway Control section excavation

8.4.3.5.4 Curtain grouting

Curtain grouting underneath the control section is carried out as a continuation of dam
curtain grouting to make sure the unti-seepage measure is continuous and effective. The
design depth of this section grouting is 10m deep, located along the control section. The
curtain grouting section is shown above with the dam drawing.

8.4.4 Construction materials

Construction material investigation works had also been conducted with the consideration
of proximity, quality and quantity. Hence, construction materials that qualify the
requirements of the embankment dam were identified in the proximity of the project.
However, there are limitations on sand sources for fine aggregates and filter materials.

8.4.4.1 Clay Borrow Materials

8.4.4.1.1 Gradation Curves

The gradation curves of the borrow materials were prepared to evaluate the particle sizes
distribution. However, most of the samples that were collected from the borrow materials
were found to be lack of effective grain sizes. Thus, the grain size analysis was carried out
qualitatively as follows. As it is clearly seen in Figure 8-56, the materials were grouped as
well graded and poorly graded as indicated on the gradation curves. The poorly graded
soils are uniform size particles. Such soils affect the engineering properties like shear
strength, compressibility and permeability because of lack of interlocking between the
particles. However, there are also well graded materials that contain a good representation
of all particle sizes. Such soils have high compressive strength, shear strength and low
permeability value due to the presence of interlocking particles and reduced voids.

8-58
 100
TP6 (1-2.5)

TP7 (1.2-2.5)

TP8 (1.3-2.7) 95
TP9 (0.7-2.5)

TP10 (1-2)

TP11 (1.2-2) 90
TP13 (1.3-2.7)

TP15 (2-3)

TP14 (1-2)
85

TP15 (1-2)

TP15 (2-3)
80
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00

Figure 8-56: Gradation Curve of Borrow Soils

8.4.4.1.2 Textual analysis of the Fine Soil Portion

As it is indicated in Figure 8-57, the clay borrow materials were found to be dominant in
clay and silt content in agreement with their corresponding gradation curves. Hence,
emphasis was given to the Atterberg limits to determine the required properties
accordingly.
100

80

60

40

20

0
1.0-2.5 1.2-2.5 1.3-2.7 0.7-2.5 1.0-2.0 1.2-2.0 1.3-2.7 1.0-2.0 1.0-2.0 2.0-3.0
TP6(m) TP7(m) TP8(m) TP9(m) TP10(m) TP11(m) TP13(m) TP14(m) TP15(m) TP15(m)
Clay Borrow 1 Clay Borrow 2 Clay Borrow 3
Gravel (%) Sand(%) Silt & Clay

Figure 8-57: Percentage of soil types for clay borrow materials

8.4.4.1.3 Atterberg limits

The Atterberg limits, such as liquid limit and plastic limit of the borrow Materials were
determined in the laboratory. On the basis of these laboratory test results, other index
properties such as plasticity index, liquidity index and consistency indexes of the material
were determined.
a. Plasticity index

8-59
The plasticity index of the borrow materials were determined from the corresponding liquid
and plastic limits of the borrow materials, and the results were evaluated by Casagrande
(1931) plasticity chart. Hence, they were found in the range of medium to high plastic
(Figure 8-58). The moisture content of this material should be managed to maximize the
suitability and workability of the materials.

35

30
High
25

20

15
Medium
10

5
Low
0
1.2-2.5 1.3-2.7 0.7-2.5 1-2 1.2-2 1.3-2.7 1-2 1-2 2-3
TP7 TP8 TP9 TP10 TP11 TP13 TP14 TP15 TP15
Clay Borrow 1 Clay Borrow 2 Clay Borrow 3

Figure 8-58: Plasticity Index of the Clay Borrow Materials

b. Consistency Index Clay borrow materials

Consistency index values of the borrow materials were determined from the Atterberg
limits, and the results were evaluated by the degree of consistency index (Murthy). Thus,
the area around TP 10, TP 11 and TP 15 is indicated to be a marshland where their
consistency index values are below zero line (Figure 8-59).

8-60
 2.5
Hard
1.5

0.5 Soft

-0.5
Consistency Index
-1.5

-2.5

-3.5
Marsh Area
-4.5
1.2-2.5 1.3-2.7 0.7-2.5 1-2 1.2-2 1.3-2.7 1-2 1-2 2-3
TP7 TP8 TP9 TP10 TP11 TP13 TP14 TP15 TP15
Clay Borrow 1 Clay Borrow 2 Clay Borrow 3

Figure 8-59: Consistency Index of Clay Borrow Materials

c. Liquidity index of Clay Borrow materials

The liquidity indexes of the Borrow Materials were determined from the natural moisture
contents of the soil with their corresponding plastic limits and plastic indexes. And thus,
materials whose liquidity index values lay below zero line are said to be hard and those
are laid at zero line and above are very stiff and liquid, respectively (Murthy). Hence, the
area around TP 10 and TP 11 were found to be a marshland in harmony with its
corresponding consistency indexes (Figure 8-60).

4.5
Marsh Area
3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5 Soft

-0.5
Hard
-1.5 Liquidity Index
-2.5
1.2-2.5 1.3-2.7 0.7-2.5 1-2 1.2-2 1.3-2.7 1-2 1-2 2-3
TP7 TP8 TP9 TP10 TP11 TP13 TP14 TP15 TP15
Clay Borrow 1 Clay Borrow 2 Clay Borrow 2

Figure 8-60: Liquidity Index of Clay Borrow Materials

8-61
8.4.4.1.4 Free swelling properties of Borrow Materials
Free swell tests were also carried out for Borrow Materials samples collected from the
borrow area, and the results were evaluated as well. As can be noted on Figure 8-61, the
borrow materials were found to be very low in free swell.

25
Low
20

15
Very Low
10

0
0.5-2 1.2-2.0 2-Jan 1.2-2 1.3-2.7 2-Jan 3-Feb
TP5 TP19 TP10 TP11 TP13 TP14 TP15
Shell Clay

Figure 8-61: Free well of Clay Borrow Materials

8.4.4.1.5 Borrow Materials Permeability Test Result Analysis

In order to determine the permeability values of the borrow materials, permeability tests
were conducted in remolded samples. Consequently, the shell materials were found to be
pervious while the clay borrows were found to be impervious as per UBSR (1998) (Figure
8-62).

1.E-04

Semi-Pervious zone
1.E-05
Permeability (cm/s)

1.E-06

Impervious zone
1.E-07
1.3-2.7 0.7-2.5 1-2 0.5-1.5 0.7-2 0.1-2 1.2-2.0
TP8 TP9 TP15 TP2 TP3 TP4 TP19
Clay Borrow Shell

Figure 8-62: Permeability analysis of borrow materials

8-62
8.4.4.2 Laterite Soil/Shell Material

8.4.4.2.1 Gradation Curves

The gradation curves of the shell materials were prepared to evaluate the particle sizes
distribution. However, most of the samples that were collected from the borrow materials
were found to be lack of effective grain sizes. Thus, the grain size analysis was carried out
qualitatively as follows. As it is clearly seen in Figure 8-63, the materials were indicated to
be well graded that contain all particle sizes in the given range. Such soils have high
compressive strength, shear strength and low permeability value due to the presence of
interlocking particles and reduced voids and are good construction material for dam
embankment.

110
TP16 (0-1-0.5)
100
90
TP17 (0-0.5)

TP18 (0.5-1.5) 80

TP19 (1.2-2m)
70
60
TP2 (0.5-1.5)
50
TP3 (0.7-2m)
40
TP4 (0.1-1m) 30

TP5 (0.5-2)
20
10
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00

Figure 8-63: Gradation curves for laterite soil/shell material

8.4.4.2.2 Textural Analysis of Laterite Soil/shell materials

The shell materials are predominantly gravel followed by sands in agreement with their
corresponding gradation curves (Figure 8-63).

8-63
 70
Gravel (%) Sand(%) Silt & Clay
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.5-1.5 0.7-2.0 0.1-1.0 0.5-2.0 0.1-0.5 0-0.5 0.5-1.5 1.2-2.0
TP2(m) TP3(m) TP4(m) TP5(m) TP16(m) TP17(m) TP18(m) TP19(m)
Laterite Weathered rock

Figure 8-64: Proportion of soil for laterite soil/shell material

8.4.4.2.3 Atterberg Limits of Laterite soil/shell materials

The Atterberg limits, such as liquid limit and plastic limit of the borrow Materials were
determined in the laboratory. On the basis of these laboratory test results, other index
properties such as plasticity index, liquidity index and consistency indexes of the material
were determined.
• Plasticity Index of laterite soil
The plasticity index of the shell materials were determined from the corresponding liquid
and plastic limits of the borrow materials, and the results were evaluated by Casagrande
(1931) plasticity chart. Hence, they were found to be medium plastic (Figure 8-65).

35

30
High
25

20

15 Medium
10

5
Low
0
0.5-1.5 0.7-2 0.1-2 0.5-2 0.1-0.5 0.5-1.5 1.2-2.0
TP2 TP3 TP4 TP5 TP16 TP18 TP19
Laterite Weathered rock

Figure 8-65: Plasticity Index of laterite soil/shell material

• Consistency Index of Shell Materials

8-64
Consistency index values of the shell materials were determined from the Atterberg limits,
and the results were evaluated by the degree of consistency index. Thus, most of the shell
materials were found to be hard (Figure 8-66).
2.5

2.0 Consistency Index

1.5 Hard

1.0

0.5 Soft

0.0

-0.5

-1.0
0.5-1.5 0.7-2 0.1-2 0.5-2 0.1-0.5 0.5-1.5 1.2-2.0
TP2 TP3 TP4 TP5 TP16 TP18 TP19
Laterite Weathered rock

Figure 8-66: Consistency Index of Laterite soil/shell materials

• Liquidity Index of Laterite soil/Shell Materials

The liquidity indexes of the shell materials were determined from the natural moisture
contents of the materials with their corresponding Atterberg limits. And thus, the materials
were found to be hard in harmony with its corresponding consistency indexes (Figure
8-67).

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5 Soft
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
Hard
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
0.5-1.5 0.7-2 0.1-2 0.5-2 0.1-0.5 0.5-1.5 1.2-2.0
TP2 TP3 TP4 TP5 TP16 TP18 TP19
Laterite Weathered rock

Figure 8-67: Liquidity Index of Laterite soil/Shell Materials

• Plasticity Chart of Laterite soil/shell materials

The index and engineering properties of materials, such as their dry strength,
compressibility, and consistency near the plastic limit, can be related to the Atterberg limits
by means of plasticity charts. Thus, soils that fall above the A-line within the range of 30 to

8-65
50 liquid limits are identified as inorganic clays of medium plasticity. However, soils that fall
below A-line within the same liquid limit range are termed as organic and inorganic silts of
medium compressibility. Most samples of The laterite soil are found above A-line and lies
in the medium plasticitiy of inorganic soils(Figure 8-68). This is suitable for emabnkment
material, provided that close supervision of material prodcution and qualtiy control tests
are carried out during construction phase.

30

25 U-Line 0.9 (LL-8)

20

15
A-Line .73 (LL-20)

10

5
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Figure 8-68: Plasticity chart of Laterite soil/shell material

8.4.4.3 Aggregates and Filter Source

In order to meet the demands of the project, efforts were made to assess the availability of
suitable aggregates for concrete works. Thus, a certain samples were collected and tested
accordingly (Table 8-26).

Table 8-26: Aggregate test results

Sample ID Flakiness Elongation Los Angeles Average Aggregate Bulk Specific
index (%) index (%) (LAA Value) (ACV ) Impact density gravity
3
value (g/cm )
GC230392/FLA&EL 54.49 0.82 27.44 22.96 24.88 2.57 2.52
GC230392/ACV/AG 45.68 10.20 28.64 22.01 28.66 2.65 2.66
GC230392/FLA&EL/AG 30.19 7.95 28.64 18.37 24.89 2.69 2.66
Recommended Value <30% <30% <30%
Remarks Satisfied Satisfied Satisfied

In and around the project area there is potential natural quarry source for filter and fine
agreement. So the filter and fine aggregate requirements of the project will be met by
crushing.

8.4.5 Internal erosion protection along the conduit- core contact

For conduits passing through embankment, there could be some internal erosion along the
conduit contact. Though there is a downstream chimney filter to protect all migration of

8-66
core materials, additional filter thickness surrounding the conduit is recommended. This is
technique called filter Diaphragm.

Filter diaphragm has been provided for outlet structure to prevent erosion and piping along
the outlet structure (Figure 8-69).

Figure 8-69: Filter Diaphragm provided at the outlet structure

8.4.6 Seismicity of the project area

According to the study of 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years (2475 years return

period) (Figure 8-70), the Ngoma dam project is located in MMI range of VI which has a
peak ground acceleration range of 0.092 to 0.18g (Table 8-29). This range of PGA is
categorized as light potential damage (Table 8-30). The Ngoma Dam and its safety
relevant structures shall be stable against this earthquake magnitude without uncontrolled
release of reservoir water.

Fundamental period of Embankment Dam

For embankment dam, response is a function the first three modes of vibration. The period
can be estimated by an empirical equation for plane strain problem approach. In this semi-
empirical approach, one may make use of the traditional shear wedge solutions
(Ambraseys, 1967). Which considers a homogeneous triangular elastic wedge under plane
strain conditions, gives the fundamental period as

T1 = 2. 61 H/V s Eq. 8-5

T2=1.13H/Vs Eq. 8-6

T3=0.72H/Vs Eq. 8-7

Where H is dam height and Vs is shear wave velocity of embankment material.

8-67
H is about 29m (from deepest foundation level) and average shear wave velocity for the
embankment material can be estimated from the area-weighted average of the different
dam zone material.

Table 8-27: Shear wave velocity for different zones of embankment dam (extracted from
literature)
Zone Description Vs(m/s)
Min Max Average Weighted Vs
Core low plasticity sandy clayey silt(CL) 205 405 305 376
Shell/Laterite Soil Sand-Gravel mixture(e=0.3) 205 840 522.5
Shell/weathered rock Sand-Gravel mixture(e=0.4) 270 380 325

Accordingly, the first three fundamental periods of Ngoma dam are estimated and shown
in Table 8-28.

Table 8-28: The first three fundamental period of embankment dam

Mode of Vibration Period
T1 0.20
T2 0.09
T3 0.06

The Ngoma Dam site shall be analyzed for the above three mode of vibrations. However,
Deformation of a dam embankment is generally not very sensitive to high-frequency
shaking with periods less than 0.2 second (USBR, Design Standard 13). Hence, analysis
will be carried out for 0.2 and above periods.

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Figure 8-70: Earthquake hazard zonation map at 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years

Table 8-29: MMI Scale used by USGS (source: Risk Atlas of Rwanda)
Perceived Not Weak Light Moderate Strong Very Severe Violent Extreme
shaking Felt Strong

Potential None None None Very light Light Moderate Moderate/Heavy Heavy Very
damaged Heavy
Peak acc. <.17 .17- 1.4- 3.9-9.2 9.2-18 18-34 34-65 65-124 >124
(%g) 1.4 3.9
Peak vel. <0.1 0.1- 1.1- 3.4-8.1 8.1-16 16-31 31-60 60-116 >116
(cm/s) 1.1 3.4
Instrumental I II-III IV V VI VII VIII Ix x+
intensity

Table 8-30: Earthquake hazard zone scale (Risk Atlas of Rwanda)

Zone MMI PGA (g) Shaking Description
Range correspondent
Very high VII 0.18 -0.34 Very Damage negligible in buildings of good
strong design and construction; slight to
moderate in well-built ordinary structures;
considerable damage in poorly built or
badly designed structures; some

8-69
 chimneys broken.

High VI 0.092 – 0.18 Strong Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy
furniture moved; a few instances of fallen
plaster. Damage slight.
Moderate V 0.039-0.092 Moderate Felt by nearly everyone; many
awakened. Some dishes, windows
broken. Unstable objects overturned.
Pendulum clocks may stop.

Liquefaction Potential Evaluation

Classical Liquefaction phenomena is attributed to:

• loose, saturated fine sand

However, some fine-grained soils could also be susceptible liquefaction depending on
their insitu state of condition (water content and Atterberg limit). In Ngoma Dam site, there
is no such favorable foundation condition, as most of it rock foundation.

8.4.7 Construction Records of Foundation works

Complete and thorough records of the foundation should be made. These should include:
1. Topographical and geological mapping of the rock surface under each block.
2. Plan of grouting and drain holes.
3. Logs of grout and drain holes that are core-drilled, if any.
4. Grouting records showing mixes, takes, and pressures for each zone grouted.
5. Narrative description of rock conditions, unusual events or conditions, problems,
treatment of springs, holes, and so on.
6. Photographs of final rock surfaces. These should be taken from several locations
for each block. The location and orientation of the camera for each picture should
be shown on the geological maps.

The geological mapping should be done at a reasonably large scale. Primary features
such as rock type, faults, thin shears, weak zones, folds, open joints, master joints, and
solution effects should be clearly shown. Geological sections should be included if needed
to clarify the geology and to depict conditions along cut faces. Minor joints and foliation
should be shown by polar plots in order not to confuse the drawings. These records should
be prepared as the work is done and must be kept up to date

8-70
8.4.8 Embankment Dam design requirements

8.4.8.1 General

The basic requirements in the design of Dam are to achieve safety with economy under
various conditions of operations of the reservoir. The criteria adopted for the design of
embankment dam are given as under:

• The embankment foundation, abutment and reservoir rims must be stable and must
not develop unacceptable deformation under all loading conditions.
• The reservoir rims must be stable under the most severe operating conditions to
eliminate the possibility of an unstable rim or the possibility that large existing
landslides would be triggered and cause a large volume of slide material to fill the
reservoir and create a large wave that would over top the dam.
• It shall be safe against overtopping by wave action especially during high design flood
flows.
• The embankment slopes shall be stable during all conditions of the reservoir
operations, including rapid drawdown, if applicable.
• Seepage flow through the body of embankment dam, foundation and abutments shall
be controlled so that no internal erosion (piping) takes place and there is no sloughing
in areas where seepage emerges.
• Slopes of the embankment dam shall be acceptably protected against erosion by wave
action and from gulling as well as scour against surface runoff due to rain.

8.4.8.2 Design of embankment cross-sectional details

8.4.8.3 Free board

Freeboard is the vertical distance between the crest of the embankment (without camber)
and the reservoir water surface. The more specific term “Normal Freeboard” is the
difference in elevation between the crest of the dam and the top of active conservation,
joint use, or exclusive flood control water level as fixed by design requirements. The term
“Minimum Freeboard” is the difference in elevation between the crest of the dam and the
maximum reservoir water surface that would result from a routing of the design flood with
spillway operating as planned.

Based on the Hydrological study and the topography of the flooded area, the required
freeboard is computed considering the following:

• Spillway Crest Level is 1777masl;

• Net Spillway crest length 15m;
• Maximum Water Level corresponding to 1,000 flood is 1779masl and
• The dam not to be overtopped with 10,000 year flood

8-71
The freeboard computation for Ngoma dam is done based on Saville's method. Using this
method, both the normal freeboard and the minimum freeboard for Ngoma Dam have
been computed and summary of the computation is presented in Table 8-28, whereas step
by step freeboard computation based on Saville’s method is reported in Appendix 8.4.1.
Figure 8-71 shows the input lengths for effective fetch length estimation for the 1,000-year
flood boundary i.e., 1779masl.

Figure 8-71: Effective length estimation inputs and boundary of the 1:1,000-year flood.

Major portion of earth fill dam consolidation takes place during the construction period.
Therefore, camber shall be provided along the crest of an earth fill dam to ensure that the
free board provided is not reduced due to foundation settlement or consolidation of the
earth fill dam. Most of the earth and rock fill dams will experience less than 0.5%
settlement in the first 10 years and a further 0.25% from 10 years to 100 years, i.e., a total
of 0.75%.

8-72
Therefore, camber shall be provided along the axis of the dam. The USBR recommends a
camber of 1% of the embankment height. However, for Ngoma dam; 1.5% of the dam
height above the foundation core foundation level has been adapted. Deformation analysis
for Ngoma dam is presented in Section 8.4.8.15 of this report.

Table 8-31: Freeboard Computations and fixing dam crest level

Freeboard for Freeboard for
Calculated Item Unit NWL MWL
Water level m 1777.00 1779.00
River bed level m 1754.00 1754.00
Effective fetch length (Fe) km 0.222 0.24

Wind velocity over water surface (V) km/h 160 80.00

Significant wave height (Hs) m 0.46 0.29
Wave period (Ts) sec 2.05 1.65
Wave length (Ls) m 6.56 4.25
Design wave height (Ho) m 0.58 0.37
Wave steepness (Ho/Lo =Hs/Ls) 0.089 0.087

Relative run-up (smooth surface) (R/Ho) 1.00 1.00

Wave run-up (R) m 0.58 0.37

Average depth of reservoir m 11.50 12.50

Wind set-up (S) m 0.008 0.002

Free board required m 0.59 0.37

Top of dam m 1777.59 1779.37
Free board for MWL is higher and will be a
governing criteria for setting the final freeboard
Check for 10,000 flood for overtopping 1780.00
Top of dam shall be 0.5-1.0m above the flood
check. However, the dam crest level i.e.
1779.37amsl is less than 1780.0masl.
Hence the top level shall be at least 1480.20masl
i.e. top of the dam (1779.37msal + 0.83m) to be
at least 0.20m above the flood check level. 1780.20
River bed level m 1754.00
Foundation level at maximum core height m 1752.00
Camber (settlement allowance) m 0.42
Road Pavement 0.38
Top of dam, including settlement allowance m 1781.00

From the Table 8-31, it is possible to observe that the higher dam crest elevation is the
freeboard for maximum water level. Accordingly, the maximum height of the dam from
river bed level will be (1871.0) - (1754.0) =27.0m.

8-73
8.4.8.4 Dam Zoning
As discussed in the geotechnical investigation report of the project, the potentially
available construction materials are silty clay and laterite soils. Thus a modified
homogenous dam is proposed in order to maximize the use of all available materials within
the project vicinity.

The main dam is designed as zoned earth fill dam with central clay core. On both
upstream and downstream filter zones are also provided. A central core has the advantage
of providing higher pressure at the contact between the core and the foundation, thus
reducing the possibility of leakage and piping.

Accordingly, the proposed dam zoning is shown in Figure 8-72.

Zone 1: Impervious Core;

Zone 2A: Fine Filter

Zone 2B: Coarse Filter

Zone 3A: Shell material from Quarry area

Zone 3B: Laterite material from Quarry area

Zone 4: Rock toe drain (maximum size 30cm);

Zone 5: Riprap

8-74
Figure 8-72: Typical dam zoning at Chainage (0+518) and representative section for slope stability analysis
Impervious Clay Core

USBR (1973) points out that the normal freeboard must be sufficient to prevent seepage
through a core which has been cracked due to drying out. This suggests that the core crest
elevation shall be maintained nearly equal to the normal freeboard. For Ngoma dam, the core
top level is fixed at 1780masl to avoid any capillary rise since the downstream shell materials is
not a free draining material.

The minimum top width of the core as specified by Indian standards is 3m and usually from
construction point of view the minimum width recommended is 3m. Therefore, the top width of
the core is maintained to be 3m.

Fell et al (2005) stated that according to common practice, a core width at the base, or cutoff,
should be at least 25 to 50% of the difference between the maximum water level in the
reservoir and the minimum tail water elevation. According to Indian standard the thickness of a
core at any section is specified to be above 30% (preferably not lesser than 50 percent) of the
maximum water head acting at that section. According to Kutzner (1997) typical sloping of the
vertical core on both sides is 1V:0.25H to 1V:0.4H. Besides to avoid potential hydraulic
fracturing and thus piping hydraulic gradient across the core should be around two but
preferably less than (i<2). Impervious core material is available within the reservoir and hence a
core slope 1V:0.4H is adopted for both upstream and downstream faces of the central core.
Exit gradient at the core has been checked at the interface with the core foundation which is
expected to be the most critical section. The estimated maximum exit gradient as shown in
Figure 8-73 is about 1.4 which is less than 2.0 and hence safe.

Figure 8-73: Exit gradient at core boundary

8-76
Filter Materials (2A) and (2B)

Filter materials are required for filtering and discharging purposes. Different potential sources
for filter were investigated within and around the project area. However, there is no suitable
source that can be used for filter and hence the filter and fine aggregate requirements of the
project shall be fulfilled by crushing.

One of the basic requirements for design of earth fill dams is to ensure safety against internal
erosion, piping and development of excessive pore pressures in the dam. The filters and
drainage zones should full fill this criterion. To safely discharge the seepage water towards
downstream of the dam, a horizontal drain is also provided.

In order to design the chimney, drain seepage analyses through the dam and the foundation
have been conducted using the state-of-the-art Finite Element Method based computer
program – SEEP/W from Geo slope international, 2018. Typical SEEP/W analysis result is also
shown on Figure 8-74. The computed phreatic surface, as shown by the blue line on the figure,
is used to set up the pore water pressure line in the stability analysis of the dam and the vertical
dots are used to estimate the discharge rate joining the inclined chimney filter.

Figure 8-74: Typical SEEP/W analysis result

While filters used in embankment dams have a theoretical minimum thickness, this dimension
is not used in design because construction considerations will control minimum thickness. The
special case of seismic offset may supersede filter thickness/width based on construction if the
dams are constructed on highly seismic area. FEMA (2011) suggested that the filter size should
be at least twice as large as the expected deformation (horizontal or vertical) in order to provide
an adequate factor of safety. The Ngoma multipurpose is not located in a very seismic hazard
and dynamic deformation done considering maximum peak ground acceleration proves that the
horizontal and vertical deformation (see section 8.4.8.13) is relatively small. Therefore,
deformation is not a governing criteria.

8-77
The inclined filter thickness can be determined from the following equation for known unit
discharge.

k 2 h2 w
q=
L2 Eq. 8-8

Where: k2: permeability of drain material (m/s), h2: depth of vertical drain (m), L2: Length (m), w:
width of drain, q: discharge capacity of drain per meter width of drain (m3/s/m)

The calculated thickness is very small since the discharge rate passing the core is quite small
as shown in Figure 8-74.

Fell et al (2005) and ICOLD publications noted that for larger dams, full width filters (2.5 m to 3
m) might be adopted instead of narrower (1.5m) filters. This would give greater security in the
event of large crest deformations. Therefore, for the project at interest 2.5m thick inclined filter
is adapted for the downstream face of the dam. Since the impact of seepage towards upstream
is not significant 1.50m thickness is proposed for the upstream inclined filter.

For zoned earth fill and rock filled dams where there is gradation difference between the core
and shoulder materials it a normal practice to provide two layers of filter and additional
transition zone depending on the material gradation. For Ngoma dam there is no much
gradation difference between the proposed core and shell materials. It is a kind of modified
homogenous dam rather than zoned earth fill dam. As a result of this it is not necessary to
provide additional coarse filter zone between this two layers. Besides we can see from Figure
8-74, the proposed filter is dissipating well the bore pressure without any problem which
confirms that it is also serving as discharging filter. Besides from economic point of view it will
be expensive to add additional filter layer if it doesn’t bring additional advantage on dissipating
pore water pressure. However, for the horizontal filter an inverted filter is provided as shown in
Figure 8-75. Below the rock toe drain a transition coarse filter is provided in between the rock
and the fine filter. The same arrangement is also provided at the slope interface of the
embankment shell material and the toe drain. Therefore, any water passing either through the
foundation or draining vertically through the chimney drain will be intercepted by the horizontal
blanket.

Figure 8-75: Inverted horizontal filter with three layers and total thickness of 1.5m

8-78
There are several approaches for the design of filter envelope. One of the available methods is
the USDA, National Engineering Hand book (2017) and it has been used to estimate the
required envelope for fine filter (2A) considering core as base soil. Step by step procedure of
fixing the gradation curves is presented in Appendix 8.4.2. Accordingly, the proposed envelope
gradation is shown in Table 8-32.

Table 8-32: Proposed envelope for fine filter (2A)

Sieve size,
% finer
mm
10.00 80-100
4.75 70-90
2.38 60-80
1.19 40-70
0.6 20-60
0.297 Oct-50
0.149 0-25
0.075 <5

For the coarse filter that will be used in the middle of the two fine filter layers (horizontal filter)
the gradation is estimated with the same procedure but the base soil will be fine filter.
Accordingly, the estimated envelope of coarse filter is depicted in Table 8-33.

Table 8-33: Proposed envelope for coarse filter (2B)

Particle Size 2B Filter
(mm) % finer % finer
(Fine Limit) (Coarse Limit)
75.00 100 100
60.00 100 97
35.00 100 93
20.00 95 60
15.00 90 40
10.00 80 20
9.00 78 14
6.00 65 5
4.00 50 0
2.00 36 0
0.60 0 0

Shell materials
The shell materials proposed for dam shoulder fill are the weathered rock materials and laterite
soil found in the vicinity of the dam. Detailed index and engineering properties of the shell
materials and its evaluation is discussed in section 8.4.4.2.

8-79
Rock Toe drain

Toe drain is provided at the downstream side of the earthen dam to collect seepage from the
horizontal filter. The water seeping through the body of the earthen dam or through the
foundation of the earthen dam may prove harmful to the stability of the dam by causing
softening and sloughing of the slopes due to development of pore pressures. Accordingly Rock
toe drain is provided with a height of 5m at the downstream end to minimize potential sloughing
at the downstream end. The maximum rock size proposed is 30cm and it is overlaid by filter
materials as shown in Figure 8-76.

Figure 8-76: Typical rock toe drain at the downstream end

8.4.8.5 Exit gradient assessment at the end of the dam

One of the key components in modern embankment dam design is the toe drain system, which
reduces pore pressures in the downstream face and toe of the embankment and conveys
seepage away from the dam. The exit gradient estimated at the end of the dam during reservoir
full condition is shown in Figure 8-77.

8-80
Figure 8-77: Exit gradient at the end of dam

The estimated exit gradient is very small, which is less than 0.1 that confirms that there will not
be a treat of piping as a result of high exit gradient at downstream end of the dam.

8.4.8.6 Crest width

The top width of an earth or rock-fill dam within conventional limits has little effect on stability.
The crest width is often governed by construction procedure and the access required.
Depending upon the height of the dam, the minimum top width, according to USACE, is
between 7.5 and 12.0 m. The width of dam at crest as per BIS 8826 - 1978 "Guide lines for
design of large earth and rock fill dam" should be fixed according to the working space required
at top and the crest width should not be less than 6.0 m.

The Japanese code 1957 specifies crest width (W) in terms of dam height (H) as follows:

W = 3.6 × 3 H − 3 (Meters) Eq. 8-9

The crest width either proposed by different codes or equations are shown below.

Table 8-34: Criteria for crest width

Code Unit Criteria
BIS 8826-1978 m B>6
USACE m 7.5 to 12.0
Japanese (1957) m 7.8

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Based on the above equation and recommendations the crest width for the dam is proposed to
be 8.0m.

8.4.8.7 Berms

Berm shall be provided for serving the following purpose:

 For providing level surface for construction and maintenance of the dam section.
 For reducing the surface erosion in case of downstream slope and breaking the
continuity of the slope.

A berm of 3.0m width has been provided for the downstream faces of the dam at 1769m
elevation as indicated below. The upstream berm is the top level of coffer dam having a width
of 4.0m. The berms will be inclined at 2% slope towards the dam.

Upstream slope (Berm elevation in m):1771.5masl

Downstream slope (Berm elevation in m): Berm 1 at 1769masl

8.4.8.8 Design of Slope Protection Works

8.4.8.8.1 Upstream Slope Protection

Adequate slope protection must be provided for all earth and rock-fill dams to protect against
wind and wave erosion. Dumped riprap is the proposed type of upstream slope protection for
Ngoma dam. Stones in the upstream slope protection must consist of sound rocks with
sufficient weight to withstand the action of waves. In the calculation of stone weights for Ngoma
dam, the wave height Hs has been taken into account. The required riprap stone sizes,
gradation and thickness have been computed following USBR, Design standard 13, Chapter 7
(1987) for which the details of the computations are shown in Appendix 8.4.3.

The average stone weight of the riprap is estimated with the formula:

γ r H s3
W50 =
4.37(G s − 1) 3 (cot α ) Eq. 8-10

Where;

W50 = Average stone weight (lb)

γr = Density of rock (lb per cubic feet)

Hs = Wave height (feet)

Gs = Specific gravity of rock

α = Upstream slope angle to horizontal

The computed average stone weight is 0.57Kg.

8-82
The volume, V of riprap is given by

V= 0.75 × 𝐷𝑛3 Eq. 8-11

Where Dn, = Size n % is finer

Accordingly, the D50 is estimated to be 0.084m (for zero damage) and hence the required rip
rap layer thickness is 2D50 which is 0.168m. However, considering safety and durability for
Ngoma dam an upstream riprap of 0.50m thickness is provided. For details please refer
Appendix 8.4.3.

8.4.8.8.2 Downstream slope protection

Where vigorous growth of grass can be expected, vegetative cover is generally the most
desirable type of downstream slope protection.

The downstream slope shall be protected with a layer of topsoil, which shall be planted with
local grass (sodding or seeding grass). Topsoil stripped from area to be occupied by the works,
and temporarily stored in triangular heaps, shall be used. Additionally, topsoil from the borrow
areas within in the reservoir area may be used.

The grass (whether sodding or seeding) shall be maintained by keeping wet. The surface shall
be protected against damages and erosions. Eroded spots shall be repaired immediately. The
grass shall be cut half-yearly, or whenever necessary. By the end of the construction period
(and as well as the end of defect notification period), the downstream slope protection shall be
complete, i.e., dense grass, without skips or spots of erosion.

8.4.8.9 Embankment Dam Slope Stability Analysis

8.4.8.9.1 General
The basic approach in design of dam embankment has been to select a dam section based on
the precedence of outer slopes in dams adopted for constructed dams. The factors of safety
computed for critical combination of external forces are compared with the minimum factor of
safety specified in Table 8-35. The outer slopes of the embankment are optimized such that
the computed factors of safety are higher than, but close to, the minimum desired values under
various loading conditions. Thus, the pre-requisites for stability analysis are selection of test
dam section and the engineering characteristics of materials to be used in various zones.
Accordingly, the parameters adapted for the analysis are shown in Table 8-36.

The stability analysis has been conducted in order to determine the factors of safety for various
slip surfaces of:

 Upstream under steady state seepage condition with and without earth quake;
 Upstream and downstream slopes during and end of construction; and
 Upstream slope under sudden drawdown.

8-83
8.4.8.10 Loading conditions and Factor of Safety
Table below summarizes the loading conditions and corresponding minimum factor of safety
(FOSmin) requirements proposed by USACE and used worldwide. The proposed embankment
dams for the project have been designed to meet these requirements.

Table 8-35: Loading condition and recommended minimum factor of safety

Case Loading Condition Slope FOSmin
I During Construction Upstream 1.3
Downstream 1.3
II End of Construction Upstream 1.3
Downstream 1.3
III Sudden drawdown Upstream 1.25
IV Steady state seepage Downstream 1.5
V Steady state seepage with earthquake Downstream 1.0

8.4.8.11 Embankment Material Engineering Properties

The foundation and dam material engineering properties used for stability analysis are shown in
the Table 8-36. The stated material properties are obtained from laboratory tests and data sets
from reference materials.

Table 8-36: Summary of embankment fill and foundation material characteristics used in
seepage and stability
Unit Weight Angle Permeability
Material C’(KPa) 3
(KN/m ) (degree) (m/s)
Core 25 17 20 7.53E-09
Fine filter 0 20 32 2.00E-05
Coarse filter 0 20 33 1.00E-04
Laterite 11 18 23 3.51E-07
Shell material 15 18 23 3.53E-05
Rock Toe 0 22 38 1.00E-02
Brownish black top soil 25 17 20 7.53E-09
Completely weathered schist-phyllite 25 18 23 1.76E-07
Highly weathered schist-phyllite 170 22 23 1.45E-06
Moderately weathered schist-phyllite 600 22 27 1.49E-07
Slightly weathered schist-phyllite 1200 22 29 5.12E-07
Fresh phyllite 1700 22 32 4.69E-07

8.4.8.12 Slope stability analysis

The slope stability investigation of the proposed dam has been carried out using the Slope/W
computer program based on the limit equilibrium method. The limit equilibrium methods, which

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satisfy both force and moment equilibrium conditions has been used in the analysis. Both
Spencer and Morgenstern-Price methods satisfy both force and moment equilibrium conditions
and the later has been used to obtain the factors of safety.

The slope stability analysis is done at locations along the dam axis. Stability analysis was
carried out on three locations; the first section represents dam cross section at the river section,
whereas the other two sections at the left and right abutments respectively. Here detailed
presentation will be for the maximum section i.e. at the river course whereas the analysis
results of the other sections are presented in Table 8-38 and 8-40.

A. End of construction and During Construction

For materials that drain slowly two alternatives are used:

 Total stress analysis with undrained strengths and zero pore water pressure or
 Effective stress analysis modeling partially saturated condition with pore water pressure.

For Ngoma dam, the downstream shell is not free draining nevertheless the second alternative
is used with pore water pressure during construction being higher than at the end of
construction. Table 8-37 below summarize the values of pore water pressure ratio Ru used for
the stability analyses during and at the end of construction conditions.

Table 8-37: Pore water pressure ratio Ru values for construction conditions
Pore-water pressure
Pore-water pressure ratio
Material zone ratio Ru at end of
Ru during of construction
construction
Impervious Core (Zone 1) 0.35 0.30
Fine Filter 0.15 0.10
Laterite (Zone 3A) 0.25 0.20
Shell (Zone 3B) 0.20 0.15
Brownish black top soil 0.30 0.25
Completely weathered schist-phyllite 0.15 0.10
Upstream back fill 0.20 0.15

The estimated minimum factor of safety for the downstream slope during and end of
construction is 1.553 and 1.559 respectively. Similarly, for the upstream slope 1.65 is the factor
of safety obtained for end of construction and during construction.

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Figure 8-78: Upstream Stability analysis result during construction for section 2

Figure 8-79: Downstream Stability analysis result during construction for section 2

B. Steady state slope stability analysis

The pore pressures that would develop within the body of the dam and in the foundation under
steady state seepage shall be initially estimated with the help of the SEEP/W software (based
on the Finite Element Method). These pore pressures in terms of head shall then be
incorporated in the slope stability analysis using Slope/W. Accordingly the seepage analyses
through the dam and the foundation have been conducted using the state-of-the-art Finite
Element Method based computer program – SEEP/W from Geo-Studio international, 2018. The
computed pore pressures are used to determine the effective stress-strength characteristics
during the stability analysis. Figure 8-80 shows the SEEP/W output for Ngoma dam section.

Figure 8-80: Seep/W output of Ngoma dam close look at the dam.

The steady state slope stability analysis has been checked for the downstream slope which is
expected to be the worst case compared to the upstream face. The hydraulic conductivity
values indicated in Table 8-36 are used as input for SEEP/W of Geostudio 2018 to generate the

8-86
 water table and pore water pressure required for the slope stability analysis. The shear
strength parameters shown in Table 8-36 are used for slope stability analysis using Slope/W of
Geostudio 2018 package. The analysis is made when the water level is at Full Reservoir Level
(1777masl) and Maximum Water Level (1779masl).

The minimum computed factor of safety for the downstream slope when the reservoir water is
at normal pool level (full reservoir) and maximum water level (MWL) is found to be 1.627 for no
earthquake loading condition.

Figure 8-81: Steady state seepage slope stability analysis result of Ngoma dam (Section 2)

C. Upstream drawdown

Rapid drawdown stability computations were performed for the upstream slope for conditions
occurring when the water level adjacent to the slope is lowered rapidly. For analysis purposes,
it was assumed that the drawdown is very fast and no drainage occurs in materials with low
permeability.

The minimum operation level is 1766.65masl which is equal to the dead storage level. For
analysis purpose in order to check if the upstream fail during sudden draw down deep failure
face has been considered within shortest period of analysis. Accordingly, the factor of safety
ranges 1.32 to 2.9 as showed in Figure 8-82 which is safe.

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Figure 8-82: Upstream drawdown for the upstream slope of Ngoma Dam

D. Slope stability analysis with earthquake loading

Based on international practice, the following approach will be used in the seismic design of the
embankment dams:

 Use of the pseudo static method of stability analysis (using the Slope/W software) for
reasonably well-built dams on stable soil or rock foundations, if estimated peak ground
accelerations are less than 0.2g.
 Use of dynamic deformation analysis techniques (using the finite-element-method based
Quake/W & Slope/W software) in case the peak ground accelerations may exceed about
0.2 g and the dams are constructed of or on soils that do not lose strength as a result of
earthquake effects.
 Use of dynamic analysis for liquefaction potential, or strength reduction potential, (using
Quake/W and Sigma/W) if the dams involve embankment or foundation soils that may
lose a significant fraction of their strengths under the effects of earthquake shaking.

According to Geotechnical investigation of the project; considering 2% probability of

exceedance in 50 years (2475 years return period), the Ngoma dam project is located in MMI
range of VI which has a peak ground acceleration range of 0.092 to 0.18g. This range of PGA
is categorized as light potential damage. The Ngoma dam and its safety relevant structures
shall be stable against this earthquake magnitude without uncontrolled release of reservoir
water. Considering the seismic condition of the project 2475 years return period is quite
sufficient enough. However, to avoid uncertainty in the estimation of the PGA values the
proposed downstream slope has been checked for PGA values of 0.20.

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There is no material either in the dam foundation or in the body of embankment which is
susceptible to liquefaction. Hence, Pseudostatic method of stability analysis might be sufficient.
However further dynamic analysis (using Quake/W and Sigma/w) has been also carried out that
will be reported in section 8.4.8.13.

Therefore, the following figures show the minimum factor of safety changes with variation of the
peak ground acceleration. The ranges of PGA values considered are 0.18 to 0.20. Figures 8-83
to 8-85 depicts the minimum factor of safety for different PGA values.

Figure 8-83:Pseudo-static stability analysis result of for downstream slope with PGA =0.18

Figure 8-84: Pseudo-static stability analysis result of for downstream slope with PGA =0.19

Figure 8-85: Pseudo-static stability analysis result of for downstream slope with PGA =0.20

As shown in the above figures the minimum factor of safety is greater than 1 for the considered
PGA values and hence safe though the pseudo-static analysis is very conservative method of
analysis for earthquake. The dynamic analysis presented in the following sections will highlight
the possible deformation and associated minimum factor of safety. The summary results of
slope stability analysis for dam sections 1,2 and 3 for different loading conditions in comparison
with the recommended minimum factor of safety is presented in Table 8-38,8-39 and Table 8-
40.

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Table 8-38: Summary of results of slope stability analysis for dam section 1 (left abutment) at
chainage 0+30
Recommended Computed FoS
Loading condition
FoSmin Upstream Downstream
During construction 1.3 1.65 1.553
End of construction 1.3 1.65 1.559
Steady state seepage downstream slope
1.5 1.882
at normal level
Earthquake Condition Steady State
1.0 1.275
downstream slope PGA = 0.18
Earthquake Condition Steady State
1.0 1.253
downstream slope PGA = 0.19
Earthquake Condition Steady State
1.0 1.233
downstream slope PGA = 0.20
Upstream for Sudden drawdown 1.25 1.38

Table 8-39: Summary of results of slope stability analysis for dam section 2 (river center and
maximum section
Recommended Computed FoS
Loading condition
FoSmin Upstream Downstream
During construction 1.3 1.65 1.553
End of construction 1.3 1.65 1.559
Steady state seepage downstream slope
1.5 1.627
at normal level
Earthquake Condition Steady State
1.0 1.082
downstream slope PGA = 0.18
Earthquake Condition Steady State
1.0 1.062
downstream slope PGA = 0.19
Earthquake Condition Steady State
1.0 1.043
downstream slope PGA = 0.20
Upstream for Sudden drawdown 1.25 1.32

Table 8-40: Summary of results of slope stability analysis for dam section 3 (right abutment)
at Chainage (0+90)
Recommended Computed FoS
Loading condition
FoSmin Upstream Downstream
During construction 1.3 1.65 1.553
End of construction 1.3 1.65 1.559
Steady state seepage downstream slope
1.5 1.70
at normal level
Earthquake Condition Steady State
1.0 1.127
downstream slope PGA = 0.18
Earthquake Condition Steady State
1.0 1.107
downstream slope PGA = 0.19
Earthquake Condition Steady State
1.0 1.088
downstream slope PGA = 0.20
Upstream for Sudden drawdown 1.25 1.35

8-90
As shown in Tables 8-38 through 8-40, the computed minimum factor of safety is greater than
the recommended factor of safety under all loading condition. Hence the proposed dam
sections slopes are safe. The following section will address dynamic deformation analysis
considering PGA= 0.20.

8.4.8.13 Dynamic Stress Deformation Analysis

Finite-element modeling uses a mesh to model a deformable system; the deformation at each
node of the mesh is calculated in response to an applied stress. This method soon began to be
applied to slopes, particularly embankment dams, and it provided a valuable tool for modeling
the static and dynamic deformation of soil systems. The stress deformation analysis is done
using Quake/W and Slope/W and Sigma/W. The analysis is done step-wise as discussed here
under.

The first step in the modeling process is to establish the long-term steady-state seepage
conditions and pore-pressures. This is done with SEEP/W and the result is discussed in former
sections. The next step is to establish the initial total and effective static stress distribution
throughout the dam. This can be done with a QUAKE/W Static-type analysis or a SIGMA/W in
situ analysis. The QUAKE/W Initial Static analysis type is used here.

The basic general geometry, zones and slopes of the embankment dam considered are shown
in Figure 8-72. The soil properties of each zone are given in Table 8-36. The dynamic
properties used in this work are taken from Seed et al. (1986). Except the rocks, the maximum
shear moduli of all materials are considered to vary with the mean effective stress according to
the formula:

G max = 218.7 K 2 max ((σ ' m )

0.5
Eq. 8-12

Where Gmax = maximum shear modulus, K2max: soil modulus and σ’m= mean effective stress

For the rocks the following equation stated in Quake/W, 2007, engineering book, is used to
estimate the shear modulus. The modulus of elasticity estimated and obtained from literature is
used as input.
E
Gmax = Eq. 8-13
2(1 + υ )

Where E= Modulus of elasticity, ν = Poisson’s ratio. The values used for the coefficient K2max
are listed in Table 8-41.

Table 8-41: Material Property

Material Zone K2max
Clay core 1 35
Filters 2a,2b 40
Shell/Laterite 3 35

8-91
 Rock toe 4 50
For Moderately weathered schist Phyllite, E=3.84GPa
ν=0.25 and Gmax= 1.54Gpa, For Slightly weathered schist
Phyllite, E=5.144GPa, v=0.24 and Gmax= 2.074kPa

The strain-dependent dynamic shear modulus and damping ratio values for the different soils
and rock published by Sun et al. (1988) and Idriss (1990) have been used for Ngoma Dam
dynamic analysis.

As stated earlier, the dam foundation as well as the embankment materials are not susceptible
to liquefaction but with a potential for some pore water pressure build up during earthquake
shaking. To account for the pore water pressure, build up a constant ru value of 0.25 is
considered for the shell and for clay core ru = 0.35 is adapted.

The weight of the reservoir water is also considered in the static stress analysis which is done
by applying a fluid pressure boundary on the region edges in contact with the reservoir. The
schematic representation is presented in Figure 8-86.

Figure 8-86: Schematic representation of initial static analysis

Before starting the dynamic analysis, the first step is to run the static initial condition. The next
step is to run a dynamic analysis using QUAKE/W.

For the dynamic analysis of the dam by a Finite Element Method Horizontal and vertical
acceleration time histories are key input parameters. Therefore, site specific horizontal and
vertical ATH for Ngoma dam should be produced using the peak accelerations and records of
actual earthquakes. However, since there are no ATH records near the dam site or project area
it is a common practice to adapt actual Accelerograph recorded elsewhere and scaled into the
PGA magnitudes of the considered embankment dam model. The scaled ATH adapted for
Ngoma Dam is similar approach used in Hadush et al (2010), Mesele Haile (1996), Tensay
G.Berhe (2010) and Abdurahman et al (2017). Accordingly the ATH developed for Ngoma dam
is shown in Figure 8-87.

8-92
 0.2
0.15
0.1
Acceleration (g)

0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (sec)

Figure 8-87: Acceleration time history

Estimation of the maximum possible crest deformation is the main objective of the dynamic
analysis. Quake/W and SIGMA/W were employed for the dynamic deformation analysis. The
dynamic deformation of the SIGMA/W has been used to determine the permanent deformation
during the earthquake duration. Figure 8-48 shows the exaggerated deformation of the dam. As
it is clearly shown there is slight reduction in the dam crest level as a result of an earthquake
action.

Figure 8-88: Exaggerated deformed mesh

The maximum crest settlement at the downstream end is about 0.1m as shown in Figure 8-89.

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Figure 8-89: Vertical crest settlement at dam crest

8.4.8.14 Newmark Permanent-displacement

The QUAKE/W results can be used in SLOPE/W to do a Newmark type of permanent

deformation analysis. The variation in safety factors during the earthquake shaking is illustrated
in Figures 8-90 and 8-91. The safety factors move up and down during the earthquake duration.
The computed minimum factor of safety for both upstream and downstream slopes is greater
than one. Obviously if the minimum factor of safety is greater than 1, then according to
Newmark the permanent deformation is zero since the critical factor of safety is greater than 1
throughout the earthquake duration.

Figure 8-90: Factor of safety during earthquake for upstream slope (Newmark Deformation)

8-94
Figure 8-91: Factor of safety during earthquake for downstream slope (Newmark Deformation)

In summary the slope stability analysis for earthquake loading is computed with three options
i.e. pseudo static analysis, dynamic deformation and Newmark permanent deformation
analysis. The result showed that the minimum factor of safety with Pseudo-static analysis
slightly above one for PGA values 0.18 to 0.20. The dynamic deformation analysis revealed
that the maximum crest settlement is small compared to the cumber allowance provided while
estimating the freeboard and therefore the dam is safe for the considered earthquake loading.
Besides the Newmark permanent deformation analysis confirmed that the permanent
deformation is zero since the minimum critical factor of safety is greater than 1 as shown in
Figures 8-90 and 8-91 for both upstream and downstream slopes respectively.

8.4.8.15 Static Stress Deformation Analysis

In order to achieve the expected behavior of the zoned fill dam, the shell materials constituting
the dam shoulder have to exhibit sufficient strength, minimum reduction of strength parameters
as strain progresses and limited quantified settlement.

Elastic E－B model is adopted to model the dam fill materials as well as the foundation soil.
Parameters of various materials are shown in Table 8-42. The analysis is carried out by load
deformation analysis of SIGMA/W. The results from this analysis are used to determine if the
expected magnitude of settlement is acceptable and whether the proposed camber is
adequate.

Table 8-42: Parameters of Materials for Stress Deformation Calculation

Unit Weight Poisson’s Modulus of
Material
(KN/m3) ratio υ Elasticity, kPa
Core 17 0.37 15,000
Fine filter 20 0.32 40,000
Coarse filter 20 0.31 50,000
Shell material 18 0.31 20,000
Rock Toe 22 0.25 44,000
Upstream backfill 19 0.35 20,000
Downstream granular back fill 21 0.22 45,000

8-95
 Completely weathered schist Phyllite 21 0.31 59,543
Highly weathered schist Phyllite 21 0.6 808,180
Moderately weathered schist Phyllite 22 0.25 3,839,830
Slightly weathered schist Phyllite 24 0.24 5,144,340
Fresh weathered schist Phyllite 24 0.23 8,086,010

Loading conditions

The analysis is used to establish the stress conditions induced by the self-weight of the dam.
The load/deformation analysis option in SIGMA/W is used for determining the stress conditions.

Analysis method and assumptions

A 2D stress-strain analysis on a vertical cross section with a unit length is conducted using
SIGMA/W load-deformation analysis option. SIGMA/W is used for determining the stress
conditions using nonlinear elastic and linear-elastic model (Mohr-Coulomb). It is clear that the
dam will be constructed in stages within one or two years if there is a delay in construction for
some reason. Accordingly, arbitrary number of stages was considered to evaluate the possible
deformation. Creating several stages will increase analysis perfection but it preferred to take
smaller stages to be on safer side. The analysis is carried at the maximum dam section.

Figure 8-92: Model schematization for analysis

The vertical and horizontal displacements of the dam at the end of construction are 28cm
(Figure 8-93) and 4cm (Figure 8-94) respectively. Considering the maximum possible
deformation to be about 28cm the camber depth i.e.; 42cm adapted for the Ngoma dam is
sufficient and can accommodate any possible deformation at the end of construction as well as
during earthquake.

Figure 8-93: Estimated vertical deformation during stage construction

8-96
Figure 8-94: Horizontal deformation

8.5 Spillways Design

8.5.1 Introduction

Spillway is a major structure that safely discharges the surplus flood from the reservoir to
downstream of the dam. Topographical and geological conditions, hydraulic conditions,
downstream conditions, the arrangement of the dam and the diversion conduit are considerable
factors in the design of spillway structure. For fill dams in general, spillways are installed either
on the left or right abutment, distanced from the main body of the dam.

Ngoma Dam is a hydraulic structure designed to provide water supply System Project, in the
region. The spillway is an essential component of the dam, designed to safely release excess
water during flood events. The design of the spillway is critical to ensure the safety and stability
of the dam. In this report, we will discuss the hydraulic design of the chute spillway for the
Ngoma Dam project

Since the Ngoma River Water Supply System Dam is a fill dam (Earth fill), the chute spillway
was planned herein to be on the right abutment of the Dam, where foundation conditions are
relatively more favorable based on the latest geological survey. The spillway structure,
empirically designed at Ngoma River Water Supply System Project, the overall arrangement of
control section, chute channel, vertical curvature in, and arrangement of stilling basin. In order
to proof performance of the above mentioned components of the structure, evaluation of the
hydraulic structure need to be checked with Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model.

Flow 3D is an accurate, fast, proven CFD software that solves the toughest free surface
problems. In order to get robust and real representation of the design performance of hydraulic
structures, it is important to ensure that the problem being modeled represents the actual
physical situation as closely as possible. With the state of art free surface modeling, Flow 3D, is
enables to model three-dimensional flow pattern in most complex geometric configuration.
These allow addressing wide range of existing and proposed design problem of any hydraulic
project. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is a computer solution of the governing equations
for fluid flows (the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy) and the Navier Stokes at

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thousands of discrete points on a computational grid, giving the analyst a full three-dimensional
representation of the fluid flow domain. The specified governing equations are discretized and
solved using the numerical methods.

8.5.2 Background

The Spillway structure in for Ngoma Dam project is designed based on standard empirical
formula and the empirical formula represents only one dimension and it does not show the
spatial and temporal variation of Hydraulic parameters. As mentioned, empirically designed
spillway structure at Ngoma Dam Project, need to be evaluated with either physical modeling or
3D flow numerical modeling. These days, numerical simulation capability gives engineers the
power to quickly and inexpensively explore different design options and often demonstrates
how a water resource project can be constructed and or operated more efficiently. Thus, the
hydraulic conditions and parameters are needed to be checked for 1,000 year return period
flood/ Discharge for the proposed design.

8.5.3 Objective

The objective of the design of a spillway structure is to safely control and divert excess flows
from a reservoir, preventing them from overtopping and potentially causing damage or failure of
the dam structure. The design process involves various considerations, such as the anticipated
inflow design flood, the topography and geology of the area, and the desired spillway capacity.
The spillway structure is primary designed based on 1D empirical formula. The objective of
CFD simulation analysis is to improve the performance of 1D design for hydraulically safe
structure of complex section using the state- of- art of 3D hydrodynamic modeling. The
evaluation of spillway performance using Flow 3D provides valuable insights into the
effectiveness and efficiency of the spillway design. It helps identify potential issues such as flow
separation, excessive velocities that may lead to erosion or structural instability. By examining
the results obtained from the numerical simulations, decisions regarding the need for design
modifications or operational adjustments to optimize the spillway's performance can be made.

Hence, this modeling exercise is done:

• To evaluate the hydraulic structure performance of each spillways components

• To evaluate the hydraulic parameter for confirmation of robust hydraulic design
parameter

8.5.4 Spillway Works

8.5.4.1 General Design Considerations

The spillway is an essential component of the dam, designed to safely release excess water
during flood events. The design of the spillway is critical to ensure the safety and stability of the

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dam. The hydraulic design of the chute spillway for the Ngoma Dam is discussed in subsequent
sections.

8.5.4.2 Spillway inflow and outflow design flood

The control structure of the spillway is designed in to discharge the 1000-year flood and 10,000
routed outflow flood. The conveyance chute channel and the energy dissipater (stilling basin)
are hydraulically designed to capacitate the peak outflow hydrograph with 1,000 years return
period. For the selected effective crest length of 15m, the routed outflow peak discharges for
1,000 and 10,000 years return periods are 95.4 m3/s and 168m3/s respectively.

8.5.4.3 Location, Alignment and Proposed Layout

Primarily, location of the spillway is based on considerations of economy in cost of the structure
and the possible interference with layout of the dam body as well as other structures of the
Ngoma Dam. In addition, the topography, geology and layout, hydraulic conditions,
downstream conditions, and the diversion conduit are the main considerations guiding the
choice of location of the spillway structure.

In the case of the Ngoma Dam Project, right bank of the river has been selected due to the
geological and topographic considerations. Along the centreline of the spillways structure, the
geological profile is investigated. The geological profile along the selected alignment of the
chute channel and stilling basin reveals several layers. The topmost layer consists of brownish
black topsoil, which unsuitable engineering property.

Beneath the topsoil, there are two distinct layers of rock formations. The foundation of the chute
channel is primarily situated on highly weathered phyllite-schist. Overall, the geological
conditions along the selected alignment show a combination of weathered phyllite-schist. These
conditions are taken into consideration during the design and construction phases to ensure the
stability and longevity of the chute channel and stilling basin. In addition to the geological
formation of the right abutment route, the topographic condition support relatively less
excavation cost. Accordingly, the right abutment route is selected for Ngoma spillway location.

In order to select the suitable spillway type for Ngoma Dam, Hydraulic condition, economic
feasibility, and structural stability, are considered. Adjacent to the right abutment the stream
flows at relatively shorter distance and joins the Ngoma River downstream of the dam. The
proposed design arrangement should consider the natural flow of the Ngoma River.

Chute channel spillway- The natural stream flow and spillway discharge flow separately in
their boundary and hence there will not be flow interference one another. This option requires
about 75.66 m concrete lined discharge carrier rectangular chute channel with bed width 15m
and 10m for 5.64 and 55m respectively, 13.30m length energy dissipater and with 7.50m depth
of retaining walls. The general layout of the dam of is shown in Figure 8-95.

The Chute channel spillway is designed with the considerations below:

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 • The slope and the level of water in the Chute channel shall be made to avoid, cross
wave - turbulence and submergence of the crest of the spillway control;
• Full submergence of the crest is not allowed;
• Consolidation grouting treatment below the structure is also provided.

General Arrangement
 The chute spillway including ogee weir and chute channel are laid in the direction of
flow, which is parallel to the dam axis;
 The control section is connected to the channel chute by 15m width rectangular followed
by 10m bed width discharge carrier;
 High velocity flow of the chute will have its energy dissipated in a stilling basin, at the
downstream end; and
 Flow from the stilling basin is released to the river guided with extended 15m length wall.

Figure 8-95: General layout and arrangement of spillway

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8.5.4.4 Hydraulic Design of Spillway

The inflow hydrograph was routed over the reservoir and the outflow discharge for the 1,000
years flood year is 95.4m3/s considering an affective crest length of 15m. The flood levels
corresponding to the 1,000 year are EL 1779.00masl. Detailed hydraulic computation of the
spillway was also conducted with flow 3D hydraulic model Section (8.5.6), which results an
outflow flood levels of EL 1779.00masl and EL 1780.00masl for the 1,000 years and 10,000
years routed outflow respectively.

8.5.4.4.1 Discharge over the weir

The control section of the spillway is designed as ogee shape weir which has good hydraulic
performance. Discharge over the weir is expressed as:

Q = CLeHe 3 / 2 Eq. 8-14

Where
Le = L -2× (N× Kp+Ka)× He
Q = Discharge, L = length of the weir, Le= effective length, He = height of energy line above the
crest = Hd + V2/2g, Hd = Design head excluding the velocity head of the approach flow, C =
Discharge Coefficient, N= Number pier=0, Kp= pier contraction coefficient for round nosed: =
0.01, Ka = abutments correction factor

For Ngoma Spillway no bridge is provided over the spillway crest and no pier is provided.
Hence, the effective length is equal to the total length i.e. L=Le, though there will be effects of
abutments.

Design parameters

 Spillway crest level: 1,777.00 m.

 Total Crest length:15m,
 Spillway design discharge: 95.4m3/s
 Flow depth over the spillway crest, Hd=2.00m
 Proposed weir section = Ogee shaped and C=2.139 is adapted.

8.5.4.4.2 Design of approach channel

Approach channel admits reservoir water to the control structure of the proposed spillway. The
approach channel partly excavated channel for creating access and close to the control section.
The approach channel length of the spillway is considered to be 50.87m, and the width of the
control section/ spillway crest length / is, W=15m. From the result of 1,000 years recurrence
interval of flood routing, the head over spillway is 2.00m for spillway crest length of 15.00m.

Hence, for 1,000years flood, weir height (P=2.00m), with rectangular cross section approaching
channel,

8-101
The flow depth,

𝑦 = 𝑃 + 𝐻𝑑 = 2.00𝑚 + 2.00𝑚 = 4.0𝑚

𝑄 = 95.4𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝐵 = 15.0𝑚

𝐴 = 15.00 ∗ 4.00 = 60𝑚2

𝑄 95.4𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣𝑎 = = = 1.59𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 60𝑚2

𝑣𝑎 2
ℎ𝑎 = = 0.13𝑚
2𝑔

𝐻𝑒 = 2.00 + 0.13 = 2.13𝑚

Check for Submergence,

𝐻𝑒 + 𝑝 = ℎ𝑑1 + 𝑑1

𝑞 2
�𝑑 �
1
2.13 + 2.00 = 𝑑1 +
2𝑔

2.06
4.13 = 𝑑1 +
𝑑1 2

4.13𝑑1 2 − 𝑑1 3 = 2.06

𝑑1 = 0.7838𝑚

Hence, for 1000years,

ℎ𝑑 1 + 𝑑1
> 1.7
𝐻𝑒
𝑣1 2 𝑞 6.36
ℎ𝑑1 = , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑣1 = = = 8.116
2𝑔 𝑑1 0.7836

(8.116)2
ℎ𝑑1 = = 3.357𝑚
19.62
3.357𝑚 + 0.7838𝑚
> 1.7
2.13𝑚

1.944 > 1.7 ok

8-102
8.5.4.4.3 Spillway crest shape
Vertical upstream face ogee shaped is proposed for the spillway control section. The
downstream profile of the ogee spillway can be represented by the equation:

n −1
H y
x = e
n

K Eq. 8-15

Where (x, y) are the coordinates of the point on the crest profile with the origin at apex crest, He
is the design head including velocity head, K and n are constants depending on the upstream
face.

Figure 8-96: Discharge coefficient other than Design Head

Figure 8-97: Crest shape profile

8-103
Figure 8-98: Ogee Crested shape Defined by compound curves

For a spillway having a vertical upstream face and K= 0.508 and n =1.842, the downstream
crest is given by:

𝒙𝟏.𝟖𝟒𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔𝟏𝑯𝒆𝟎.𝟖𝟒𝟐 𝒚 Eq.8-16

For He = 2.1389,

𝑥1.842 = 1.961𝐻𝑒 0.842 𝑦

Can be rewritten as:

𝑌 = 0.2887𝑋1.842 Eq. 8-17

A downward slope of glacis 0.9 H: 1V is provided below tangent point of downstream profile.

Derivation of equation 8-17 and equating for the tangent point of the parabolic curve and the
straight line, dy/dx = 1.11 for slope of 0.90H: 1V and the horizontal distance X and the vertical
distance, Y is found to be 3.09m and 3.47m respectively. The different elements of the curve
shown in Figure 8-98 are determined with the following equations.

𝑅2 = 0.495𝐻𝑒= 1.059m Eq. 8-18

𝑅1 = 0.210𝐻𝑒= 0.449m Eq. 8-19
𝑥𝑐 = 0.250𝐻𝑒= 0.5348m Eq. 8-20
𝑦𝑐 = 0.095𝐻𝑒= 0.2032m Eq. 8-21

8-104
The downstream crest shape is computed with Equation 8-17 starting from the origin. The down
ward slope of glacis 0.90H: 1V is provided below tangent point of downstream profile. The
calculated coordinates of the crest shape are shown Table 8-43

Table 8-43: Coordinates of downstream crest profile

x 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.03
n
y=-kH0(x/H0) -0.07 -0.27 -0.57 -0.99
Elevation (m) 1776.93 1776.73 1776.43 1776.01

The bed level of the chute channel is designed to avoid submergence of the control section and
hence, the downstream slope will be extended up to the required design bed of the chute
channel.

8.5.4.4.4 Spillway chute channel design

The slope of the spillway was fixed based on the natural topography along the proposed route
and the location of formation material. In all chute slopes a super critical slopes is maintained to
keep super critical flow along the length of the spillway. The width of the chute reduced from
15m to 10m as given table below. Accordingly considering topography, location of preferable
foundation for the stilling basin, and hydraulic criteria, the chute slopes proposed are shown in
Table 8-44

Table 8-44: Proposed chute slope and stilling basin

Chainage or Bed width Spillway, bed
Remark
length (m) (m) slope
0+54.34 - 0+60.00 15 0.027 Chute channel
0+60.00 - 0+72.00 Varies Chute channel/Contraction/
0.027
(15to10) Transition Channel
0+72.00-0+115.00 10 0.027 Chute channel
0+115.00-0+130.00 10 0.406 Chute channel
0+130.00-0+143.30 10 Horizontal Stilling Basin

8.5.4.4.5 Water surface profile

The water surface profile of the chute channel is calculated using the principles of momentum
equation. The height of chute wall should be sufficient enough to prevent the flow from
overtopping the bank. The freeboard need to be provided for the chute channel is determined
by:

Fb = 0.61 + 0.041Vd 1 / 3 Eq. 8-22

Where

V and d; are mean velocity (m/s) and depth (m) in the chute reach under consideration. The
analysis is carried out with spreadsheet and the result is presented in Table 8-45

8-105
Table 8-45: Chute spillway water surface profile, 1,000yrs-RT

Note: for better visibility you may refer calculation work sheets.

8-106
8.5.4.4.6 Cavitation Damage
The damage potential resulting from cavitation is dependent upon the boundary shape, the
damage resistance characteristics of the boundary, the flow velocity and depth, the elevation of
the structure above mean sea level, and the length of time cavitation occurs.

A threshold velocity around 30.5 m/s or a cavitation number of about 0.25 gives the order of
magnitude of the limit beyond which aeration of the flow is recommended. As shown in Table
8-46 the maximum velocity at the end of the cute is 16.54m/s which is less than the threshold
velocity. The cavitation index can be calculated with the following formula:

H o − HV
σ=
 VO 2 
  Eq.8-23
 2g 
 

Where σ =cavitation index, Ho= reference head, Hv = Vapor head of water and Vo2/2g velocity
head.

Table 8-46: Estimated cavitation index at different location of the chute

Chainage Flow depth
σ
2
Ho (m) Hv (m) Vo Vo ha
(m) (m)
54.34 0.78 9.16 0.24 8.11 65.84 3.36 2.66
60.00 0.67 9.16 0.24 9.46 89.51 4.56 1.96
62.00 0.68 9.16 0.24 9.72 94.55 4.82 1.85
64.00 0.70 9.16 0.24 9.97 99.45 5.07 1.76
66.00 0.72 9.16 0.24 10.21 104.22 5.31 1.68
68.00 0.74 9.16 0.24 10.44 108.91 5.55 1.61
70.00 0.77 9.16 0.24 10.65 113.49 5.78 1.54
72.00 0.80 9.16 0.24 10.86 118.00 6.01 1.48
75.00 0.85 9.16 0.24 11.23 126.06 6.43 1.39
80.00 0.79 9.16 0.24 12.09 146.06 7.44 1.20
85.00 0.74 9.16 0.24 12.81 164.00 8.36 1.07
90.00 0.71 9.16 0.24 13.42 180.05 9.18 0.97
95.00 0.68 9.16 0.24 13.94 194.36 9.91 0.90
105.00 0.65 9.16 0.24 14.78 218.39 11.13 0.80
115.00 0.62 9.16 0.24 15.40 237.16 12.09 0.74
120.00 0.59 9.16 0.24 16.05 257.63 13.13 0.68
130.00 0.58 9.16 0.24 16.54 273.54 13.94 0.64

The minimum cavitation index is 0.64 which is greater than 0.25 and hence based on the
threshold velocity and cavitation index (number) criteria the spillway is safe from cavitation and
hence additional treatment provision is not recommended for this spillway to mitigate cavitation.

8-107
8.5.4.4.7 Thickness of chute floor
The excavation level of the spillway foundation is fixed mainly based on the hydraulic
requirements. The geological feature of the spillway foundation is composed of mainly
weathered rocks and accordingly proper treatment measures were proposed as stated in
section 8.4.3.5. The stilling basing is located on moderately weathered phyllite-schist which is
relatively sound foundation. However, providing sufficient floor thickness and anchor bars are
required to overcome the uplift pressure and sufficient thickness from structural requirements.

In this chute channel design, an attempt was made to estimate the required floor thickness that
will overcome the dynamic uplift pressure resulting from flowing water. A typical requirement
where there is high velocity flow is to make allowance for dynamic uplift forces, based on the
following:

V2
U = 0.15 ρw Eq. 8-24
2g
Where U = Uplift (kN/m2), V = Velocity in each section of the chute (m/s), ρ w = density of water
(kN/m3)

The thickness of the floor required to counter balance the dynamic uplift pressure is computed
by:

U
t = Eq. 8-25
G −1

Where t = Floor thickens (m), U is the uplift pressure in (m), G= Specific gravity of floor
material, 2.4

The spillway velocity is high, thus the proposed lining material is Reinforced Concrete flooring.
Details of the reinforcement and concrete grade will be reported in the structural design of the
dam appurtenant structures.

Table 8-47: Uplift Due to Dynamic Force on the Chute and required floor thickness
Floor thickness Requirement On the Chute
U Computed Floor Adapted floor
2
Chainage Bed level water.s v=q/d (KN/m ) thickness (m) thickness (m)
54.34 1775.00 1775.78 8.11 4.94 0.20 0.50
60.00 1773.47 1774.14 9.46 6.71 0.27 0.50
68.00 1771.30 1772.05 10.44 8.17 0.33 0.50
70.00 1770.76 1771.53 10.65 8.51 0.34 0.50
72.00 1770.22 1771.02 10.86 8.85 0.35 0.50
75.00 1769.41 1770.26 11.23 9.45 0.38 0.50
80.00 1768.06 1768.85 12.09 10.95 0.44 0.50
90.00 1765.35 1766.06 13.42 13.5 0.54 0.55

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 95.00 1764.00 1764.68 13.94 14.58 0.58 0.60
105.00 1761.30 1761.94 14.78 16.38 0.66 0.65
115.00 1758.59 1759.21 15.40 17.79 0.71 0.70
120.00 1756.56 1757.15 16.05 19.32 0.77 0.80
130.00 1752.50 1753.08 16.54 20.52 0.82 0.80
Note: The structural design requires a minimum thickness of floor slab 0.5m to allow minimum concrete cover
of 100mm as the floor is subjected to high velocity of floor, resulting erosion.

8.5.4.4.8 Design of terminal structure

At the end of the chute channel an energy dissipater is provided to change the incoming flow
from supercritical to subcritical. The type of energy dissipater depends on Froude number of the
incoming flow. From hydraulic computation at the end of the chute the velocity is 16.54m/s and
the corresponding flow depth is 0.58m. The Froude number at the end of the chute or entrance
of the stilling basin is 6.95.

The sequent depth of flow is estimated by the equation:

d1
d2 = ( 1 + 8 F1 − 1)
2

2 Eq. 8-26
d2 = 5.39m

For Froude number greater than 4.5 and flow velocity less than 18.2m/s; the USBR
recommends type III as shown in Figure 8-99.

Figure 8-99 Proposed stilling basin

In order to achieve the required performance; the tail water should be to the minimum equal to
the energy level of the flow exiting the energy dissipater.

8-109
The water surface level post jump corresponding to 1:1000 floods will be basin floor level plus
the conjugate depth. Accordingly, the estimated water surface level will be 1757.89m
(1752.5.00+5.39m= 1757.89m). Therefore, for better performance of the energy dissipater the
terminal structure will be designed to meet the tail water requirements as discussed in
subsequent section.

The different dimensions of the stilling basin are expressed in terms of the incoming flow depth
i.e. d1=0.58m, accordingly the dimensions are shown in Table 8-48

Table 8-48: Proposed stilling basin dimensions

Designation Template Proposed
dimension (m) Dimension (m)
d2 d2 (Conjugate flow depth) 5.39
L L/d2=2.47 13.31
h1 h1=d1 (m) 0.58
W1 W1=d1 (m) 0.58
0.8d2 0.8d2 (m) 4.31
h3(m) 1.75d1 1.01
h4 (m) 1.40d 0.81
1

S3 (m) 0.75h3 0.76

W3 (m) 0.75h3 0.76

The free board for stilling basin is given by:

FB( feet ) = 0.1(V1 + d 2 �) Eq. 8-27
FB = 0.1 (16.54 + 5.39)

FB= 2.18m

Hence, the total wall height of the stilling basin = 5.39+2.18≅7.50m.

8.5.4.4.9 Spillway exit channel

The downstream exit channel will convey the spilled water for about 15m before it joins the
natural river course. The spilled water is made to join the Ngoma River. The exit channel will
(with guide wall 15m) have the same bed width as the energy dissipater but with rectangular
cross section. The Tail water level =1757.81m.

8.5.5 Consideration of Hydraulic Features, Design Data for flow 3d

8.5.5.1 Approach channel and control section

The spillway walls extended nearly 3.47m into the approach channel in form of training the
crest of the spillway is at El. 1777.00 m, and its height is 2m. The chute type of spillway with
ogee crest consists of an effective hydraulic crest length of 15m has been selected.

8-110
8.5.5.2 Chute Channel

The chute channel has a length of 75.66m from the controlling section to the stilling basin with
two consecutive slopes changing from mild slope (0.271) to steep slope (0.406). Within this
range, the channel consists of one horizontal curve and one vertical curve designed to reduce
flow disturbance that arises from cross-wave patterns and super elevation.

8.5.5.3 Stilling Basin

The stilling basing is designed based on Froude number range and velocity range. From 1D
hydraulic analysis; the Froude number is (Fr no. =6.81) and velocity (v=16.45m/s) at the end of
the chute channel. It is greater than 4.50 and less than 18.2m/s respectively. Hence, the USBR
recommends type III stilling basin and its length is determined to be 13.3m and it’s is guide wall
is extended for a length of 15m to natural exit channel. The flow depth in the stilling basin
before and after jump is d1=0.58m and d2=5.39m respectively.

8.5.6 FLOW 3D Model set-up

8.5.6.1 General

The Model Setup is where the basic input parameters for the currently- selected simulation are
defined. This includes General settings, Physics models, Fluids, Geometry, Meshing,
Component properties, Initial conditions, Boundary conditions, Output options, and Numeric.

The model is set based incompressible flow mode with free surface and sharp interface
tracking flow-surface interaction. Time of simulation is fixed for 100sec where the system
attempt steady flow condition. The flow is entirely dependent on gravitational potential
difference and the RNG (Renormalized Group) turbulence model. The viscosity and turbulence
model adds the computation of viscous stresses and turbulence quantities to the solution. That
are; Wall Shear Stresses, Wall-Shear Stress, Turbulence Models, Wall Effects: Slip, Shear,
and Component Roughness, and Viscous stresses.

At the beginning of the simulation, coarser linked meshing (x=y=z=0.25m) is used and the
resulting hydraulic parameters and variables are evaluated. Then, nested meshing is used to
refine the most sensitive flow areas to investigate the features and hydraulic phenomenon
(Example: at the ogee crest in the channel trough and stilling basin.)

8.5.6.2 Geometry and Meshing

FLOW-3D provides flexibility of constructing solid geometry, importing ASC or Stereo –

lithography (STL) file from AutoCAD output to define flow region for a simulation. In the case of
Ngoma Dam, the spillway geometry is produced in solid-works software with STL file extension
and imported to FLOW-3D. All the dimensions and arrangement of the geometry are taken from
the design drawing of spillway. The orientation of the geometry is rearranged to optimize the

8-111
meshing to reduce simulation time. The natural ground condition is also incorporated in using
terrain formation from the topographic survey data. The roughness friction factor = 0.019 for a
concrete lined channel and 0.035 for the Downstream Channel were utilized in the model.

Figure 8-100 Stereo-lithography (STL) Geometric file for Ngoma Spillways

FLOW-3D uses a structured mesh that may be defined in either a Cartesian or cylindrical
Coordinate System. The geometries interact with the mesh following the FAVOR method,
where obstacles and baffles are embedded in the mesh by partially blocking cell volumes and
face areas. This allows completely independent definitions of the mesh and geometry, so the
geometry may be modified without redefining the mesh. The FAVOR approach therefore
provides much simpler and faster than mesh generation with body fitted coordinates. For the
purpose of this project, a Cartesian hexagonal meshes Linked and nested mesh blocked are
used to define multiple mesh blocks (multi-block gridding) as well as creating more efficient
meshes to get refined solution for specific flow of interest region. The result of simulation is
checked for different mesh sizes(∆x=∆y=∆z) 0.50m and 0.25m (nested mesh).

8.5.6.3 Meshing Boundary Conditions

The equations governing the motion of fluid flow can be categorized as initial-boundary value
problems, meaning that the solution must be known at the initial time and at the boundaries in
order to be found. This paradox is handled by assuming the solution at the boundaries (setting
the boundary conditions) and initial time (initial conditions) and using these assumed values to
solve the governing partial deferential equation (PDE) inside of the domain. This implies that
the solution of the problem is fundamentally defined by what is assumed at the boundaries.
Therefore, it is quite important that the solution assumed at the boundary is a good
approximation at this location.

8-112
The boundary conditions associated with Geometry are handled by the choice of component
type (discussed in the Creating Components section) or via other component-specific
properties that are associated with a particular physical model/equation. However, boundary
conditions on the faces of each mesh block also need to be defined; the options and procedure
for doing this are described in the subsequent sections.

Boundary condition types

There are ten different boundary conditions that can be set on the faces of the mesh. For the
purpose of Ngoma spillway model, five boundary condition types are used:

 Continuative: Set a zero-gradient condition at the boundary. i.e. Fluid flow out
one or more boundaries of the computational domain. A continuative boundary
condition consists of zero normal derivatives at the boundary for all quantities. The
zero-derivative condition is intended to represent a smooth continuation of the flow
through the boundary.
 Specified pressure: Specify the pressure at the boundary. If the fluid elevation is
also specified, the pressure at the boundary will follow a hydrostatic distribution.
 Symmetry: Applies a zero-gradient condition at the boundary as well as a zero
velocity condition normal to the boundary.
 Wall: Applies the no-slip condition at the boundary as well as a zero velocity
condition normal to the boundary
 Volume flow rate: Applies the specified flow rate at the boundary.

Figure 8-101: Meshing Boundary condition for Ngoma Spillway Model

8-113
8.5.7 Result OF FLOW 3D SIMULATION

The routed 1,000-years flow which is 95.4m3/s was considered for design. As per the design,
flow depth for 1,000 years flood is 2.00 m. Data was taken at 4 different locations in order to
consider the flow in the approaching channel and over the spillway the control section in 3D
model at four points. The first two points were taken in the approaching channel and the other
two points on the top of the spillway the control section.

8.5.7.1 Approaching Channel

Approaching Channel is an important component of spillway structure located upstream of the

spillway that allows the surplus water to smoothly approach the structure. All obstructions that
restrict the flow of excess water should be kept out of the channel. Therefore, adequate
approaching Channel length, perpendicular to the spillway axis, should be provided so that the
effect of flow over the spillway crest would not be affected.

In the case of Ngoma water supply System reservoir, the spillway axis and the dam axis are
aligned parallel to each other and the length of the approaching channel is about 50.87m.

8.5.7.2 Evaluation of Spillways Control Section Using Flow3d

Design Discharge for 1,000-years RT which is 95.40 m3/s is set as Upstream boundary
condition and downstream of the control structure, the simulated flow rate is observed (Using
Flux Surface in flow 3d) averaged discharge is 95.38m3/s. Similarly, the design head (Hd
=2.00m), is compared with the simulated average depth on the spillway control simulated
section (d=2.0325m) as shown in the Figure 8-102.

Figure 8-102: CFD result, Flow Depth over spillway, at approaching channel

8-114
From the 1D empirical design, approaching velocity =1.59m/s and over ogee crest= velocity
=3.18m/s, and as shown in the Figure 8-103 the corresponding simulated approaching velocity
=1.62m/s and over ogee crest= velocity =3.16m/s is observed.

The evaluation of the spillways control section using Flow3D shows that the simulated average
discharge closely matches the design discharge for a recurrence interval of 1000 years, with a
difference of only 0.02m3/s. The simulated average head is slightly higher than the design head,
indicating a slightly increased flow depth over the spillway crest. This small deviation is within
acceptable range. The simulated approaching velocity and velocity over the ogee crest closely
match the design velocities, with only a slight difference. The fact that the simulated velocities
are very close to the design velocities indicates that the spillway is functioning as intended and
can effectively handle the design flow. Overall, the evaluation using Flow3D confirms that the
spillways control section meets the design requirements and can safely handle the anticipated
flow conditions. The small differences between the simulated and design values are within
acceptable range and do not significantly impact the spillway's performance.

Figure 8-103: CFD result, Flow Velocity over spillway, at Approaching Channel

8.5.7.3 Evaluation of Flow condition along Chute Channel

The flow along chute channel is supercritical flow and the design slope of the channel is 0.27
(m/m) and 0.40 (m/m) from 0+054.34 to 0+115 and 0+0+115 to 0+0+130 respectively. The
chute Channel has bed width of 15m, 10m from 0+54.34 to 0+60 and from 0+075 to 0+130
respectively.

8-115
Transition rectangular channel is provided from 0+54.34 and 0+075. For each section, 7
representative locations of the chute channel are checked for basic hydraulic parameters which
are the flow velocities, flow depths and Froude numbers are compared for the chainages
indicated in the tables below.

8.5.7.3.1 Flow Depth Evaluation along Chute Channel

The design evaluation of the chute channel spillways was conducted using Flow3D to analyze
basic hydraulic parameters such as flow depth, flow velocity, and Froude number. In this part of
the report, the focus is on the analysis of flow depth. At each of the seven representative
locations along the chute channel, the measured flow depth and the corresponding simulated
flow depth were compared. The results showed that for the majority of the locations, the
simulated flow depths closely matched the measured flow depths.

Table 8-49: Statistical Analysis and Comparative Flow depth for 1D design analysis & CFD
result,( 1,000Yrs)
3 D result Difference Percent
1 D result For Flow Depth in the For Flow in flow Difference
Depth In the Depth
CHUTE CHANNEL /1,000Yrs
Partial 1D-3D 1D-3D
№ Chainage 1D Depth 3D depth
Distance ∆x Depth Depth
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (%)
1 54.34 0.78 0.78 0.00 0
2 60.00 5.66 0.67 0.71 -0.04 7.58
3 70.00 10 0.77 0.77 0.00 0
4 80.00 10 0.79 0.80 -0.01 1.27
5 90.00 10 0.71 0.73 -0.02 2.82
6 115.00 25 0.62 0.67 -0.05 8.06
7 130.00 15 0.58 0.61 -0.03 5.24
Average Error(in Depth) -0.15

The statistical analysis revealed that the mean difference between the measured and simulated
flow depths was relatively small, with a maximum difference of 0.05m (5cm). The percent
difference ranged from 0% to 8.06%, indicating a close agreement between the measured and
simulated flow depths. These findings indicate that the Flow3D simulation accurately predicted
the flow depths in the chute channel spillways. The small differences between the measured
and simulated values are within acceptable range and do not significantly impact the
performance of the spillways.

8-116
Figure 8-104 CFD model result for Flow Depth in Chute from Station 0+054.36 to 0+130

Further analysis is required to evaluate the other hydraulic parameters such as flow velocity
and Froude number. However, based on the results of the flow depth analysis, it can be
concluded that the chute channel spillways perform as intended and can effectively handle the
anticipated flow conditions.

Overall, the design evaluation of the chute channel spillways using Flow3D provides confidence
in the performance of the spillways and supports the design decision. Further analysis and
evaluation of the remaining hydraulic parameters will provide a more comprehensive
understanding of the spillways' performance.

8.5.7.3.2 Flow Velocity Evaluation along Chute Channel

To examine the agreement between the measured and simulated flow velocities, a statistical
analysis is performed. The mean absolute error (MAE) and root mean square error (RMSE) are
calculated.

8-117
Table 8-50: Statistical Analysis and Comparative Flow Velocity for 1D design analysis & CFD
result, (1,000Yrs)
3 D result Difference
1 D result For Flow Velocity in the CHUTE CHANNEL
For Flow in flow
/1,000Yrs
Velocity Velocity
Partial 1D 3D 1D-3D
№ Chainage
Distance ∆x Velocity Velocity Velocity
(m) (m) (m) (m) m
1 54.34 8.11 8.38 -0.27
2 60.00 5.66 9.46 9.38 0.08
3 70.00 10 10.65 10.94 -0.29
4 80.00 10 12.09 12.1 -0.01
5 90.00 10 13.42 13.26 0.16
6 115.00 25 15.4 14.75 0.65
7 130.00 15 16.54 15.41 1.13
Average Error 0.20

The MAE is given by:

1
𝑀AE = � � ∗ Σ |measured velocity − simulated velocity|
n

The RMSE is given by:

1
RMSE = sqrt �� � ∗ Σ (measured velocity − simulated velocity)2 �
n

Using these formulas, the MAE is calculated to be 0.2 m/s, and the RMSE is calculated to be
0.52 m/s.

Figure 8-105 CFD model result for Flow Velocity in Chute from Station 0+054.36 to 0+130

8-118
8.5.7.3.3 Froude Number Evaluation along Chute Channel
To examine the agreement between the measured and simulated Froude Number, a statistical
analysis is performed. The mean absolute error (MAE) and root mean square error (RMSE) are
calculated.

Table 8-51: Statistical Analysis and Comparative Froude Number for 1D design analysis & CFD
result,( 1,000Yrs)
Difference
3 D result For
1 D result For Flow Froude Number in the in flow
Flow Froude
CHUTE CHANNEL /1,000Yrs Froude
Number
Number
Partial 1D-3D
1D Froude 3D Froude
№ Chainage Froude
Distance ∆x Number Number
Number
(m) (m) (m) (m) m
1 54.34 2.93 2.96 -0.03
2 60 5.66 3.68 3.37 0.31
3 70 10 3.88 3.76 0.12
4 80 10 4.34 3.98 0.36
5 90 10 5.08 4.76 0.32
6 115 25 6.25 5.2 1.05
7 130 15 6.95 5.83 1.12
Average Error 0.46

The MAE is given by:

1
𝑀AE = � � ∗ Σ |measured Froude Number − simulated Froude Number|
n

The RMSE is given by:

1
RMSE = sqrt �� � ∗ Σ (measured Froude Number − simulated Froude Number)2 �
n

Using these formulas, the MAE is calculated to be 0.46, and the RMSE is calculated to be 0.62.

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Figure 8-106 CFD model result for Froude Number in Chute from Station 0+054.36 to 0+130

Overall, the results of the statistical analysis indicate a good agreement between the design
and simulated values for both flow velocities and Froude numbers. The MAE and RMSE values
for both parameters are relatively small, suggesting that the Flow3D software accurately
reproduces the hydraulic behavior of the chute channel spillways.

8.5.7.3.4 Evaluation of Flow condition in The Stilling Basin

One of dissipative structures often used in a large hydraulic structure is the stilling basin by
hydraulic jump. Various conducted research projects in which various types of stilling basins
and energy dissipaters under various operating conditions were studied in a two-dimensional
physical model; however, these studies do not allow the knowledge of the dynamics of the flow
and the dissipation energy, important for the optimization study. With the continuous
development of the computational resources, the numerical models for hydraulic jump
predictions have motivated various researchers. The versatility of the numerical models, even if
the model is not to be used in the final determination of the best geometry, turn the numerical
models into valuable tools that can easily be used in the adjustment of various design details
and in geometry modifications.

The stilling basin for Ngoma Spillway is designed for energy dissipation at station 0+130 and
the design is based on 1,000 years return period routed outflow. The dimension in 1D is
analyzed and type III stilling basin selected based on the criteria of upstream channel Froude
number and velocity range result from 1D analysis.

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Figure 8-107: CFD model result for Flow Depth in Stilling Basin from Station 0+130 to 0+143.30

The objective of this part of the report is to evaluate the design performance of a stilling basin
using the Flow3D simulation software. The stilling basin is designed for a discharge of 95.4m3/s
for 1,000 years return period at chainage 0+130. The design flow depth before the hydraulic
jump is d1 = 0.58m and after the hydraulic jump is d2 = 5.39m. The corresponding design
velocity and Froude number before the jump are 16.54m/s and 6.95, respectively. The Flow3D
simulation provides simulated values for the flow depth, velocity, and Froude number, which are
compared with the design values.

The designed flow depth before the hydraulic jump is d1 = 0.58m. The simulated flow depth
before the hydraulic jump is d1 = 0.61m. The difference between the design and simulated
values is 0.03m. The designed flow depth after the hydraulic jump is d2 = 5.39m. The simulated
flow depth after the hydraulic jump is d2 = 5.30m. The difference between the design and
simulated values is 0.09m.

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Figure 8-108 : CFD model result for Flow Velocity in Stilling Basin from Station 0+130 to
0+143.30

This result of the simulation shows, the hydraulic jump occurred within the provided length
(L=13.30m). The magnitude of velocity reduced from 15.41m/sec to 0.49m/sec at sill of the
stilling basin as shown in velocity distribution in the longitudinal flow profile of stilling basin
shown Figure 8-108

The designed velocity before the hydraulic jump is 16.54m/s. The simulated velocity before the
hydraulic jump is 15.41m/s. The difference between the design and simulated values is
1.13m/s. The designed Froude number before the hydraulic jump is 6.95. The simulated Froude
number before the hydraulic jump is 5.83.

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Figure 8-109: CFD model result for Froude Number in Stilling Basin from Station 0+130 to
0+143.30
Based on the results, the Flow-3D simulation provides values that are close to the design
values for the flow depth, velocity, and Froude number. However, there are some differences
between the design and simulated values. The difference in flow depth before the hydraulic
jump is small (0.09m), indicating that the stilling basin is performing as intended. The difference
in flow depth after the hydraulic jump is slightly lower suggesting some deviation from the
design value.

Overall, the stilling basin designed using Flow3D simulation performs reasonably well. The
simulated values for flow depth, velocity, and Froude number are close to the design values,
with slight variation.

8.5.8 Conclusion

• The results of the statistical analysis indicated a good agreement between the design
and simulated values for flow depth, flow velocities and Froude numbers in the Chute
channel.

• In most of the spillway structure components, the flow parameter from 1-D simulation
gave satisfactory result; however: by the 3-D, the hydraulic design was evaluated and
detail hydraulic flow feature is observed.

• The simulation result in flow 3D mainly depends on the mesh size. Some hydraulic
parameters and variables have different sensitivity related to mesh sizes. For instance,
the result of flow rate does not much alter by coarser mesh while the pressure is more
sensitive and requires finer mesh to get reliable result.

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8.5.9 Structural Design of Chute Spillway and bridge over the spillway

Weir (Control Section), left and right walls (LW and RW), Channel Slabs and Spillway Crossing
Bridges, among others, are the most important part of Ngoma Spillway in Ngoma Water Supply
System.

So that they deliver their intended purposes within their design with tolerable and repairable
damage, the structures were designed to ensure their stability and strengths without
compromising economy.

The strengths were evaluated at critical sections based on amount of re-bars and section
dimensions obtained from civil design optimization.

The structures are subjected to different types of loading with varying magnitude within their
design period. Within this period, the structures shall withstand the loads, with tolerable
damage and deliver services for which they are designed for.

So that they deliver their intended services, the structures have been designed to safely carry
extreme load(ultimate load) with %5 probability of being exceeded .Moreover, consideration
have been made to guarantee that ,under service load, cracking width and deformations on to
the structures are within acceptable limits.

Generally speaking, ultimate limit state of design approach has been followed to design the
structure. Under limit state design approach, structures are designed for service as well
extreme loads.

Moreover, stresses coming from shrinkage and season temperature were also considered while
designing by providing code specified minimum amount of re-bars whenever required.

The responses of the structures to ultimate loads and the service loads were determined with
help of SAP2000 software with capability of static as well as dynamic finite element analysis.
The latest version, version 14, of the software was employed for the same purpose.

The responses obtained at critical sections of the structure, as result of the analysis, were used
to determine the reinforcement and check adequacy thickness of members, of the structures, to
limit crack width to code specified values.

The determination and the checking were based on the recommendations of US Army of Corps
of Engineers Manuals. The manuals were invoked to help designing of concrete sections for
ultimate loads and ensure fulfillment of minimum requirements with respect durability and
constructability.

Separate reports for the structural design of the spillway and the spillway bridge is Annexed for
further reference.

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8.6 Intake, Conduit, valve cambers and valve houses

8.6.1 General

Dams are built across rivers to establish reservoirs upstream, creating a storage space that
serves multiple purposes such as water supply, irrigation, power generation, and conservation.
In order to effectively manage the release of the stored water based on the needs downstream,
an outlet structure is essential. This structure is strategically positioned either on the upstream
or downstream side of the dam, enabling controlled discharge of the impounded water to meet
the specific requirements of the surrounding areas. By incorporating an outlet structure, dams
can optimize water resource management, ensuring the regulated flow of water for various
beneficial applications while maintaining the overall stability and functionality of the dam
system.

The dam outlet, which regulates how much water to be released from the reservoir, is an
essential part of a dam system. The dam's stability is maintained while ensuring the efficient
and safe discharge of water. The outlet structure often consists of a number of components,
such as conduits, trash rack, valves, and gates. The reservoir's size and capacity, the dam's
hydraulic properties, and the intended use of the water release are all taken into account in the
design of the outlet structure.

The capacity of a dam outlet structure to regulate water flow using movable gates and valves is
one of its important characteristics. Depending on the requirements of downstream areas, the
outlet structure can release water gradually or in carefully timed by altering the gates and
valves. Conduits are pipes or channels that are part of the structure and transport the water that
has been released from the dam.

To full fill the above functional requirements the planning and design of the outlet structure
requires a proper selection of appropriate site, outlet type and arrangement of intakes gates,
and terminal structures; sizing components; selecting appropriate components including
operation controls; providing adequate means for maintenance and replacement of
components. Accordingly, the outlet works of Ngoma Dam has been planned and designed
considering the following basic design concept and criteria:

• Excavation and concrete works should be as minimal as possible.

• The dimension of the outlet openings, have been fixed such that they could pass the
design discharge with minimum available head

• The outlets must be hydraulically and structurally safe.

• The outlets bounding surfaces must be erosion resistant to withstand the high scouring
velocities.

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8.6.2 Location and Alignment

The proposed outlet works is located near to the right abutment at chainage 0+057.52, with
geographical location of the centre line as shown in Table 8-52 below:

Table 8-52 Coordinate for Centre Line of Intake Structure

Coordinates
Position Easting Northing
Upstream 509040.919 843638.071
Downstream 508907.670 4843521.171

The general arrangement of the outlet work comprises of the components:

• A trapezoidal approach channel having 80.62 m long, 3.0 m bed width and 1:1.5 (V:H)
side slope have been provided to guide the reservoir water into the outlet conduit,

• One (1) circular outlet conduit that have 1m diameter and 177.27m long

• 18.80m height rectangular intake tower with trash rack at the intake openings.

• Flow regulating valves (emergency and service) and valve house at the downstream of
the dam.

The Figure 8-110 below illustrates the comprehensive layout and plan of the intake and diversion
system.

Figure 8-110 Plan of Intake and Discharge Facilities

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8.6.3 Intake Facilities

8.6.3.1 Approach Channel

The approach channel bed elevation is planned to vary from 1756.22m to 1753.0m with in the
length of 80.62m. The approach channel is designed to have a bed slope of 2.0%. The
Approach channels will be constructed by excavating the ground at side slope of 1:1.5 for both
left and right sides.

8.6.3.2 Intake Tower

The intake facility of Ngoma Dam was designed to maximize the utilization of the existing river
diversion facility's intake structure by implementing hydraulic adjustments instead of requiring
additional provisions. During the construction phase, the intake tower will serve the dual
purpose of diverting water and subsequently become the permanent intake structure for the
project. To achieve this, a 1-meter diameter pipe will be installed with an invert elevation of
1753.0 meters above sea level (asl), establishing a direct connection to the diversion inlet
channel. This approach allows for a seamless transition from diversion operations to the
permanent intake system, optimizing the efficiency and functionality of the overall project.

Upon the completion of the diversion process, the permanent intake system of the project will
be established. This intake system will consist of three gates, each measuring 1.7 m in height
and 1.7m in width at an elevation of 1766.65m asl which is corresponds to the 25 years dead
storage level on the either side of the intake tower. The primary function of these gates is to
serve as permanent intakes, allowing the controlled inflow of water into the project.

Furthermore, the top part of the intake structure will be designed and utilized in a manner that
enables its functionality even beyond the design period of the project. This forward-thinking
approach ensures the longevity and sustainability of the infrastructure, making efficient use of
the intake structure for an extended period.

8.6.3.2.1 Size of the Intake Tower

The intake tower is of the stand-alone type, serving as a crucial component of the system. It
rectangular features with internal inlet size measuring 2.0 m by 2.0 m in a vertical orientation.
The intake level of the tower is set at an elevation of EL.1766.65 m, allowing for optimal water
intake operations.

8.6.3.2.2 Design Discharge

The designed discharge for the facilities is 0.70m3/s. This discharge allocation is divided into
three components: 0.55 m3/s for water supply demand, 0.07m3/s for downstream irrigation and
0.07m3/s for downstream environmental release. This design ensures an efficient distribution of
water resources while considering both human needs and environmental considerations.

A summary of the design discharge of the intake facility has been presented in Table 8-53 below:

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Table 8-53 Design Discharges of Intake/Discharge Facilities
Water supply Downstream irrigation Environmental
demand(m3/s) requirement (m3/s) Demand (m3/s)
0.55 0.07 0.07

8.6.3.2.3 Size of the Inlet

An inlet's size and placement are often carefully considered to account for potential
maintenance requirements as well as the importance of the structure. The following
considerations should be made while performing hydraulic calculations:

• The approach velocity must be less than 1.5 m/s in order to reduce the amount of silt that
enters intake facilities and valve.

• It must be able to get the design discharge even when the water level is at the lowest level
in the reservoir.

8.6.3.2.4 Approach Velocity

According to the USBR, Design of Small Dams 1980, it is recommended to have an approach
velocity ranging from 0.6 to 1.5 m/s. In this particular project, a velocity of 1.0 m/s was assumed
for the incoming flow, and the dimensions of the inlet were calculated accordingly. To ensure
ease of construction and structural stability, a rectangular shape is chosen.

𝑸
A = Eq. 8-28
𝑽

0.70
= = 0.7m2
1.0

Where,

V: approach velocity (1.0m/s)

Q: Design discharge (0.7 m3/s)

A = Area of the Inlet

As a result, it was found that the design approach velocity could be maintained with a minimum
size of 1.0m * 1.0m. However, due to structural requirements, the intake size was decided to be
with internal dimension of 2.0m*2.0m.

8.6.3.3 Outlet conduit

To efficiently transport the reservoir water from the intake tower to its intended destination, a
conveyance conduit with a length of 177.27m has been incorporated into the design. This
conduit serves as a crucial link in the water delivery system, ensuring a smooth and controlled

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flow of water. The size of the intake conduit is determined considering the allowable velocity
during operation and it is assumed that a flow velocity of 1m/s is considered in the system.

• Design discharge (Q) 0.70m3/s

• Average approach velocity (V): 1.0 m/s
• Diameter of headrace steel pipe (D)
𝟒∗𝑸
D = �𝝅∗𝑽 Eq. 8-29

4∗1
=� = 0.94m ≈ 1.0m
𝜋∗1

The conduit is designed with a circular pipe, measuring 1 m in diameter. This choice of
diameter is based on hydraulic consideration of both daily demands of the project as well as to
ensure diversion flood corresponds to the 25-year return period. The circular shape optimizes
the flow characteristics, reducing resistance and promoting efficient water movement.

8.6.3.4 Exit Channel:

The exit channel, designed as an open channel, plays a vital role in the controlled discharge of
water from the system. It has a bottom width of 2.5 m and side slope of 1V to 1H, allowing for
adequate channel capacity.

8.6.4 Water Supply Outlet Hydraulics

8.6.4.1 General

Outlet works are specifically engineered to ensure the controlled release of water at
predetermined rates, which are determined by the downstream needs and requirements. The
delivery of water supply, in particular, is determined based on project considerations, taking into
account factors such as consumptive use and specialized water requirements. The capacities
of the outlet works are determined through comprehensive reservoir operation studies.

In this specific case, the required release of water for water supply purposes is set at 0.55m3/s,
while an additional 0.20 m3/s is designated for irrigation and riparian release. Consequently, the
total demand amounts to 0.70m3/s.

8.6.4.2 Outlet works position in relation to reservoir storage levels

The outlet must be placed sufficiently below the minimum reservoir operating level to provide
the head required for outlet works to deliver the required discharge. It is common practice to
make an allowance in a storage reservoir for inactive storage to accommodate sediment
deposition. The positioning of the intake sill then becomes an important consideration; it must
be high enough to prevent interference from the sediment deposits, but at the same time, low
enough to permit either a partial or a complete drawdown below the top of the inactive storage.

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The size of an outlet conduit for a required discharge varies according to an inverse relationship
with the available head for producing the discharge. This relationship is expressed by the
following equation:

Q2
HT = K L Eq.8-30
2gA 2

Where:

HT = total available head needed to overcome the various head losses to produce the
discharge (m)
Q = required outlet works discharge (m3/s),
KL = loss coefficients,
A = required area of the conduit (m2), and
g = acceleration due to gravity 9.81(m/s2).

Head loss computation for various parts of the structure is discussed in Section 8.6.6 of the
report below.

8.6.4.3 Bottom Outlet Inlet Transitions

To reduce head losses and prevent the formation of cavitation pressures, it is recommended to
streamline the entrance of a pressure conduit. This can be achieved by shaping it into a smooth
bell mouth form, allowing for gradual changes in flow. In the case of a square or rectangular
entrance, an elliptically curved entrance is preferred as it helps minimize the negative pressure
effects. The equation defining this elliptical curve is as follows:
x2 y2
+ =1
D2 (0.33D)2 Eq. 8-31

Table 8-54 Bell Mouth Entrance Curve Computation

D 1
X 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80
x^2/D^2 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.09 0.16 0.25 0.36 0.49 0.64
1-(x^2/D^2) 1.00 0.99 0.96 0.91 0.84 0.75 0.64 0.51 0.36

Y^2= (1(x^2/D^2)) *(0.33D) ^2 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.04
Y 0.33 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.26 0.24 0.20

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 Ngoma Bell Mouth Entrance
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
Bell Mouth Entry
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

Figure 8-111: Ngoma outlet bell mouth entrance curve

In this context, "D" represents the vertical height of the conduit, which is used to determine the
curves at the top and bottom, as well as the horizontal width of the conduit, which is used to
define the curves at the sides.

8.6.4.4 Arrangement of Water Supply Pipe Bifurcation

Once the 1m diameter pipe reaches the downstream valve room, it is designed to bifurcate into
two separate 0.5m diameter pipes. This bifurcation process is necessary to split the flow into
two smaller streams, allowing for more controlled and manageable distribution of the water.

To achieve this bifurcation, two different mechanisms were considered. These mechanisms,
labeled as Figure 8-112 (a) and Figure 8-112 (b), represent different approaches to achieving
the desired split in the flow. Each mechanism likely involves specific components and
configurations tailored to ensure a smooth and efficient division of the fluid into the two 0.5m
diameter pipes.

The selection of the appropriate bifurcation mechanism depends on factors such as hydraulic
considerations, flow rates, pressure requirements, and system specifications. Careful analysis
and evaluation would have been conducted to determine which mechanism best suits the
project's needs, ensuring optimal performance and operational reliability.

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 (a)

(b)

Figure 8-112 Pipe Bifurcation Arrangement a) Y bifurcation b) T bifurcation

The selection of the angle for the branch and bend pipe is crucial and depends on the specific
hydraulic flow conditions and head losses. In general, standard bending angles of 30, 45, and a
maximum of 60 degrees are commonly used in branch pipes. These angles are determined
based on hydraulic considerations to ensure optimal flow performance and minimize potential
issues such as cavitation and vibration within the pipe.

Exceeding the maximum bending angle of 60 degrees can negatively impact the hydraulic flow
conditions and result in undesirable effects. These effects may include increased head losses,
potential cavitation, and excessive vibration, which can compromise the efficiency and stability
of the system.

In addition to the aforementioned reasons, It is also important to note that the manufacturing
and installation process of the pipe involves various factors. The workshop conditions where

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the pipe is fabricated and assembled can be complex, including considerations for safety
stresses and bend diameter requirements. These factors play a significant role in ensuring the
structural integrity and functionality of the pipe.

Given the reasons discussed earlier, the bifurcation type depicted in Figure 8-112(a) has been
selected as the most suitable and optimal choice.

8.6.5 Pressure Flow in Outlet Conduit

8.6.5.1 General

The control gate of the Ngoma dam is situated downstream of the conduit, resulting in a
continuous pressure within the conduit. Under conditions where the reservoir water level is low
and there is a high demand for water supply irrigation and downstream release, calculations are
performed to determine the head loss in the system. The flow within a closed conduit pipe
system can be analysed using Bernoulli's equation, expressed as follows:

HT = hL + h v 2 Eq. 8-32
Where:
HT = total head needed to overcome the various head losses to produce discharge
hL= Cumulative losses of the systems, and
hv2 = Velocity head at the valve.
HT = (ht+he+hf+htrn+hb+hg+hbif+hex) +hv2 Eq. 8-33
Where:

ht = Trash rack losses

he = entrance losses

hf = friction losses

htrn = transition losses

hb = bend loses

hg = gate or valve losses

hbif = bifurcation losses

hex = exit loss

For the discharge at the outlet, HT is measured from the reservoir water surface to the
centreline of the outlet conduit at the exit.

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8.6.6 Head Loss Computation

8.6.6.1 Trash rack Losses

Trash rack has provided at intake levels such as at diversion level, at 25 years sediment gate
level. The size of the trash rack is fixed in such a way that the velocity should not more than 1.5
m/s.

The Trash rack consists of diameter 12 mm spaced 78 mm bars flash mounted at the inlet.
Where maximum loss is computed assuming where 50% of the rack area is clogged. The loss
from trash rack is computed from the equation:

v 2 
ht = k t  n  , and Eq. 8-34
 2g 
 
2
a  a 
k t = 1.45 − 0.45 n  −  n  Eq.8-35
 ag   ag 
   
Where:
Kt= trash rack loss coefficient
an = net area through the rack bars
ag= gross area of the racks and supports, and
vn = Velocity through the net trash rack area
The net area through the rack bars and their horizontal struts An = 0.31 m2, and the gross area
calculated is Ag= 2.89 m2, giving kt = 1.39. Flow velocity for 50% clogged is computed to be
0.73 m/s.

The computed head loss hf through the trash rack will be = 0.038m.

8.6.6.2 Entrance Loss

The loss of head at the entrance of the conduit is computed from the equation:

 1  v2
h e =  2 − 1
C  2g Eq. 8-36
Where:

V=Q/A Eq. 8-37

2
Entrance loss coefficient, Ke =(1/c )-1 for square cornered entrance, USBR, Design of Small
Dams, 1987-Page 458, Table 10.1, recommends to be (min =0.7, max=0.4) = averagely 0.55
was adopted in this analysis.

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Entrance height is fixed to be 1.7 m and the width is 1.7 m so that entrance area will be 2.89 m2
and the flow velocity at entrance computed as 0.24 m/s with discharge of 0.70m3/s for one
opening gate. Having the equation:

𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒆 = 𝒌𝒆 𝟐𝒈 Eq. 8-38

Entrance head loss will be 0.002 m.

8.6.6.3 Transition Loss (From Intake Tower to Water Way Conduit)

As per the guidelines outlined in the Design of Small Dams by the United States Bureau of
Reclamation (USBR) in 1987, the contraction loss coefficient Kc is determined to be 0.5 for an
abrupt constriction. Considering the geometry of the structure, the upstream area (A1) is
measured to be 4.0 m2, while the downstream area (A2) is 0.785 m2. Combining these, the
average area is calculated to be 2.39 m2.

The corresponding flow velocity for the averaged area is determined to be 0.29 m/s. the head
loss due to water way transition at the intake tower is computed by the equation:
𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒕 = 𝒌𝒄 𝟐𝒈 Eq. 8-39
and the computed loss due to section transition becomes 0.002m

8.6.6.4 Friction Losses in Water Way

 Friction Loss in Intake Shaft

The head loss in the intake tower is calculated using the Manning formula, which provides a
method to estimate the energy losses due to friction in the flow. This formula takes into account
various factors such as the pipe diameter, flow velocity, pipe length, roughness coefficient, and
fluid properties to determine the head loss.

The Manning formula for head loss in closed conduit pipes can be expressed as:

𝑳 𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟏𝒏𝟐 � 𝟒� 𝟐𝒈 Eq. 8-40
𝒓𝟑
where:
L= length of section over which losses are being computed, and
r = hydraulic radius

By considering the given parameters for the intake tower, including a height of 18.8 meters, a
cross-sectional area of 4m2, and a wetted perimeter of 8m, the hydraulic radius (R) can be
calculated as 0.5 m. The flow velocity in the vertical stem is determined to be 0.18 m/s.

According to the Design of Small Dams by the United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR),
1987, a Manning coefficient of 0.014 is typically used for the concrete surface of in-situ cast

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structures. Utilizing the Manning's formula, the computed head loss is found to be
approximately 0.0004 m.

 Friction Loss in Water Way Conduit

a. By manning formula

Similar to the estimation of friction loss in the intake tower, the friction loss in the waterway
conduit is also determined using a similar approach. The conduit, which serves as a pathway
for the flow of water, experiences frictional resistance as the water moves through it. This
resistance results in energy losses in the form of head loss.

To calculate the friction loss in the waterway conduit, the same principles of the Manning
formula presented in Equation 8-40 is applied. The Manning formula takes into account factors
such as conduit length, diameter, flow velocity, roughness coefficient, and fluid properties. By
considering these parameters, the head loss due to friction can be estimated.

For the water way conduit having a length of 191.7 m, a cross-sectional area of 0.785 m2, and a
wetted perimeter of 3.14 m, the hydraulic radius (R) is calculated as 0.25 m. The flow velocity in
the is determined to be 0.89 m/s. Considering the manning roughness coefficient of 0.012 for
welded steel joints based on USBR, Design of Small Dam 1987 the head loss computed with
manning equation

191.7 0.89
ℎ𝑓 = 29.1 ∗ 0.0122 � 4�
0.253 2 ∗ 9.81

= 0.210m
b. Using Darcy Weisbach Formula

To calculate pipe friction losses, various factors need to be considered, including the length of
the pipe, the diameter of the pipe, the roughness of the pipe's interior surface, and the flow rate
of water through the pipe. These factors are used to determine the Reynolds number, which
indicates the flow regime (either laminar or turbulent) and influences the magnitude of friction
losses.

The Darcy-Weisbach equation is commonly used to calculate pipe friction losses in waterway
systems. It involves incorporating the friction factor, pipe length, pipe diameter, and the velocity
or flow rate of water. Based on Darcy-Weisbach equation the pipe friction loss is given by:

Eq. 8-41
L V2
hf = f × ×
d 2g
Friction factor, f, according to Colebrook and White equation

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 1  K 2.51 
= −2 log +  Eq. 8-42
f  3.7D Re f 

Where:
Re= Reynold nr. =VD/n,
K= effective roughness size of steel pipe=0.15mm (USACE = United State army
corps of Engineers)
n=Kinematic viscosity, = 1.3 x 10-6 m2/s
L=Length of steel pipe = 191.7 m
D=Diameter of pipe = 1m
Q=Discharge = 0.70m3/s

By iteration the value of f is found to be 0.0150 and therefore, for 191.7 m steel lined conduit
length having a flow velocity of, V = 1.27 m/s head loss is found to be, hf =0.117 m.

The maximum head loss from the two methods is adopted hf = 0.210 m.

 Friction Loss in Bifurcated Pipe

According USBR, Design of Small Dams, 1987 the average value of n for steel pipe is 0.012.
Area of conduit A = 0.196 m2 and wetted perimeter, P = 1.57 m and then hydraulic radius (R) =
0.125m. The length of water way is 14.1 m and the Flow velocity at 0.50 m3/s discharge is
1.91m/s.

14.1 1.912
ℎ𝑓 = 29.1 ∗ 0.0122 ∗ � 4 � 2∗9.81
(0.125)3

Head loss due to pipe friction is found to be, hf = 0.176m

 Friction Loss in 0.5m Pipe

According USBR, Design of Small Dams, 1987 the average value of n for steel pipe is 0.012.
Area of conduit A = 0.196 m2 and wetted perimeter, P = 1.57 m and then hydraulic radius (R) =
0.125m. The length of water way is 42.6 m and the Flow velocity at 1.40 m3/s discharge is
0.55m/s.

42.6 1.42
ℎ𝑓 = 29.1 ∗ 0.0122 ∗ � 4 � 2∗9.81
(0.125)3

Head loss due to pipe friction is found to be, hf = 0.286m

8.6.6.5 Bend Losses

Bend loss refers to the energy loss or pressure drop that occurs when fluid flows through a pipe
bend or elbow. When fluid encounters a bend, it experiences a change in direction, resulting in
flow separation, turbulence, and increased resistance to flow.

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The magnitude of bend loss depends on several factors, including the bend angle, radius of
curvature, fluid velocity, and viscosity. Sharp bends with smaller radii and higher flow velocities
tend to cause greater loss due to increased turbulence and flow separation.

In the outlet schematic of the Ngoma Dam Project, there are bends in the system, and the
corresponding losses due to these bends are calculated as follows:

a. Bend 1 (at Intake Tower)

Radius of bend= 2m, diameter of the bend = 1m, R/D=2, and based on USBR, Design of Small
Dams, 1987 bend coefficient Kb for the respective R/D ratio is 0.4, number of bend =1, flow
velocity =0.89m/s.

𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒕 = 𝒌𝒃 𝟐𝒈 Eq. 8-43
𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟒 ∗
𝟐 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏
= 0.014

b. Bend 2 (at Downstream of the Dam)

Radius of bend= 1m, diameter of the bend = 1m, R/D=1, and based on USBR, Design of Small
Dams, 1987 bend coefficient Kb for the respective R/D ratio is 0.55, number of bend =1, flow
velocity =0.446m/s.
0.4462
= 0.55 ∗
2 ∗ 9.81
= 0.006

c. Bend 3 (on 0.5m Water Supply Pipe)

Radius of bend= 0.5m, diameter of the bend = 0.5m, R/D=1, and based on USBR, Design of
Small Dams, 1987 bend coefficient Kb for the respective R/D ratio is 1.0, number of bend =7
(two horizontal and five vertical), flow velocity =1.90m/s.

2.552
= 7 ∗ 0.3 ∗
2 ∗ 9.81
= 0.26

Total bend loss in the system will be = 0.033 + 0.006+ 0.26

= 0.280m

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8.6.6.6 Gate Valve losses

Head loss at a gate valve refers to the energy loss or pressure drop that occurs as fluid flows
through the valve. This head loss is primarily caused by the flow resistance created by the gate
valve's and the turbulent nature of the fluid passing through it. The head loss at a gate valve
depends on several factors, including the valve size, flow rate, fluid properties (such as
viscosity), and the degree to which the valve is open or closed. When the gate valve is fully
open, the head loss is minimal, as the fluid encounters little resistance. However, as the valve
is partially closed, the flow area is reduced, leading to increased flow resistance and a
subsequent increase in head loss.

According to the design of small dams by the United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR)
1987, the gate valve loss coefficient (Kg) for wide-open gate valves is 0.15 and for Ngoma Dam
Project there are three valves installed in the water supply line as shown on the drawing.

a. Valve Head Loss on 1m Conduit

In the Ngoma project, the gate opening on a 1m diameter pipe has an area of 0.785 m2. The
corresponding flow velocity is 0.89 m/s. The head loss can be determined using the relation or
formula:
𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒈 = 𝒌𝒈 𝟐𝒈 Eq. 8-44
0.7852
ℎ𝑔 = 0.15
2 ∗ 9.81
=0.006m

b. Valve Head Loss on 0.5 m Conduit

On this pipe, there are two valves, one for emergency and the other for service purposes. The
area of the pipe is 0.196 m2, and the estimated flow velocity is 1.91 m/s. Consequently, the
head loss in the two valves can be computed using the aforementioned equation, resulting in:
𝑣2
ℎ𝑔 = 2 ∗ 𝑘𝑔 2𝑔
1.912
ℎ𝑔 = 2 ∗ 0.15
2 ∗ 9.81
=0.056m
Therefore, when considering the three valves on the pipe system, the head loss due to the gate
valve is calculated to be 0.062 m.

8.6.6.7 Loss due to Bifurcation

Diameter of bifurcated pipe Db=0.5m, area of bifurcated pipe Ab= 0.196m2, Db/D=0.5,
Qb/Q=0.5, Vb/V= 2, Kbif = 0.55 (IS 11625, Criteria for Hydraulic Design of Penstocks, 1986)
velocity in bifurcated pipe = 1.91 m/s.

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 𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒃𝒊𝒇 = 𝒌𝒃𝒊𝒇 𝟐𝒈 Eq.8-45
1.912
ℎ𝑏𝑖𝑓 = 0.55 ∗
2 ∗ 9.81

Head loss due to due to bifurcation found to be, hg = 0.102m

8.6.6.8 Exit Loss

Pipe exit loss refers to the energy loss or pressure drop that occurs as fluid exits a pipe. When
fluid flows through a pipe, it undergoes a series of changes in velocity and pressure. At the exit
of the pipe, the flow expands into a larger area, causing a sudden change in velocity and
resulting in a loss of energy.

For wide-open gate valves, exit Loss Coefficient Kex = 1 (USBR, Design of Small Dams,
1987), area of outlet A=0.193 m2 and flow velocity with discharge of 0.5m3/s is 1.91 m/s.
𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒆𝒙 = 𝒌𝒗 𝟐𝒈 Eq. 8-46
1.912
ℎ𝑣 = 1.0 ∗ 2∗9.81

= 0.028 m

8.6.6.9 Total Loss

In summary, the total loss of the system at minimum operating conditions will be the sum of
various components to the system which is:

Table 8-55 total head loss computed in the outlet system

Trash Rack Loss 0.038
Entrance Losses 0.002
Transition Head Loss 0.002
Friction Loss in Intake 0.0004
Pipe Friction Losses in Bifurcated
0.178
Pipe
Friction Loss In 1m Diameter Pipe 0.21
Friction Loss In 0.5m Diameter Pipe 0.286
Gate Valve Losses 0.28
Pipe Bend Loss 0.062
Bifurcation Loss 0.102
Exit Head Loss 0.028
Total 1.190
Therefore, Total loss HT in the water way conduit will =1.190 m

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8.6.7 Outlet Capacity during Low Reservoir Level

The calculation for determining the minimum outflow capacity of the conduit during low flow is
as follows:

The size of the outlet conduit needed to achieve a desired discharge is inversely proportional to
the available head for generating that discharge. This inverse relationship can be represented
by:
𝑉2
𝐻𝑇 = 𝐾𝐿 2𝑔 Eq. 8-47
or
𝑄2
𝐻𝑇 = 𝐾𝐿
2𝑔𝐴2
2𝑔𝐻𝑇
By rearranging 𝑄 = 𝐴 ∗ � 𝐾𝐿

HT is measured from reservoir water surface level to the center of outlet pipe. The minimum
reservoir level of Ngoma Dam is fixed to 1766.65 m asl, and the outlet pipe center level is
1754.25 m asl. The difference will be 12.40 m.

A is area of the outlet pipe, which is 0.5m diameter and the KL is the total head loss coefficient
to be computed as provided in Table Annex 8.6_A-1.

Therefor the minimum flow capacity through the water supply pipe will be computed as:

2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 12.40
𝑄 = 0.196 ∗ �
10.42

= 0.95 m3/s

The estimated value appears to exceed the design requirement, which is 0.55m3/s for the water
supply demand. One possible approach to increase the overall loss is by reducing another
element, such as the size of the outlet. However, it is not practical to minimize the diameter of
the outlet due to the reason that the out let size was fixed to accommodate the 25 years return
period flood which might be occurred during construction time.

8.6.8 Provision of Bottom Outlets

As previously discussed, the outlet works incorporated in the design of the Ngoma Dam serve
multiple purposes. It doesn’t only facilitate diversion but also act as intake facilities to meet the
water supply demands. In addition, the diversion conduit has been planned to function as a
bottom outlet for the controlled evacuation of the reservoir during emergency situations.

To enable this functionality, two valves will be installed at the end of the diversion conduit.
These valves will remain fully closed during normal operation, allowing the diversion conduit to

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primarily serve its intended purpose. However, in times of emergency, these valves can be
partially opened to initiate the controlled discharge of water from the reservoir.

By equipping the diversion conduit with these valves and employing them accordingly, the
Ngoma Dam ensures a reliable emergency response mechanism. This approach allows for the
safe and regulated release of water when necessary, minimizing potential risks and protecting
the dam's structural integrity, as well as the surrounding environment.

8.6.9 Bottom Outlet for Environmental Release

One of the disadvantages of constructing a dam on a river channel is that it disrupts the natural
flow of the river, leading to environmental impacts downstream. To address this issue, a
solution has been implemented in the form of a 150mm diameter provision on valve chamber
two, as depicted in the figure below. This provision allows for the controlled release of water to
the downstream environment, serving as a water supply mechanism for users downstream
while the dam is in operation.

Figure 8-113 Layout of Pipe Installation for Down Stream Release

8.6.10 Bottom Outlet Drawdown Flow

According to recognized criteria (ICOLD), it is essential to have a reservoir drawdown facility

that can be utilized in emergency situations within a predetermined timeframe. In the case of
the Ngoma Dam, the facility is capable of accommodating a discharge range of 5.70 to
1.04m3/s, depending on the water level in the reservoir.

However, it is important to note that the general Indian standard IS 4880-part VII, 1975,
recommends a permissible velocity range of 1.6 to 9.0 m/s for steel-lined conduits.

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Therefore, despite the capacity of the facility provided by the Ngoma Dam, it is deemed
necessary to limit the outflow discharge to 1.25m3/s during emergencies. This limitation is
imposed to restrict the velocity and minimize the occurrence of excessive surges within the
conduit.

Summary of the discharge through the bottom outlet gate, taking into account the coefficient of
head loss (KL) and the restricted flow are presented in Table Annex 8.6_A-2.

Based on the information provided in the Table Annex 8.6_A-2, it is evident that the depletion of
water in the Ngoma reservoir can be achieved without compromising the safety of the dam or
the downstream environment. The table indicates that this process would require a period of 12
days. During this time, the water level would gradually decrease, ensuring a controlled and safe
discharge of water from the reservoir.

8.6.11 Structural Design of Intake and Conduit

8.6.11.1 General

The Ngoma Dam Project comprises of reinforced concrete Hydraulic structures such as water
Intake Tower, Spillway, a bottom outlet, Valve Chamber and Valve Control house, etc. This
report covers the structural design of Intake tower and outlet conduit with its corresponding
Valve Control structures.
The structures are subjected to different types of loading with varying magnitude within their
design period. Within this period, the structures shall withstand the loads, with tolerable
damage and deliver services for which it is designed due.
So that it delivers its intended services, the structure is designed to safely carry extreme load
(ultimate load) with 5% probability of being exceeded. Moreover, it is designed to carry service
load that imparts acceptable cracking width and deformations on to the structures.
Generally speaking, ultimate limit state of design approach has been followed to design the
structure. Under limit state design approach, structures are designed for service as well
extreme loads.
For the service loads, especial attention was paid to limiting the crack width of the structures
because the structures are exposed to water with high pressure. By satisfying the minimum
requirement for the crack width, it is possible to limit permeability of concrete; as result, the
durability of concrete would be ensured. A crack width of 0.2mm has been set as maximum
tolerable crack width under the service loads.
The responses of the structures to extreme loads and the service loads were determined with
help of SAP2000 software with capability of static as well as dynamic finite element analysis.
The latest version, version 22.0.0, of the software, was employed for the same purpose.

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The responses obtained at critical sections of the structure, as a result of the analysis, were
used to determine the reinforcement and check the adequacy of the components of the
structures and calculate the crack width.
The determination and the checking were based on the recommendations of the U.S Army
Corps of Engineers, Engineer Manual, ACI 350M-06, ACI 318-14, ASCE-7-16, BS8007, EN
1992-2015, EN 1998-2015, and AASHTO 2012. The provisions of ACI were invoked to help to
design of concrete sections for ultimate loads and ensure fulfilment of minimum requirements
with respect to durability and constructability. However, the provisions of BS 8007, regarding
crack width were used to guarantee the durability of the structures.

8.6.11.2 Design Inputs

Reports of geological, geotechnical, and seismology studies provided inputs for structural
analysis and subsequent design of the structures. In addition to these reports, drawings issued
after hydraulic design provided the design in puts for structural modeling of the respective
structures.

8.6.11.2.1 Inputs from Hydraulic Design

The maximum water level (+1779.0masl) and Water level bottom of the Trash rack
(1766.65masl) which had been fixed based on hydraulic design and the top elevation of
Foundation slab (+1752.20masl) were inputs for purpose of modeling the static load due to
water. As result, 30.0m head of water has been taken as the maximum head for checking
flotation and 14.65m that can act on to external face of main walls for the dry well situation. The
plan and sections of the Intake Tower used for the Structural Modeling are shown in Figure 8-
115 and Figure 8-116.

8.6.11.2.2 Inputs from Geotechnical Investigations

The dam site is located on a well-defined and narrow deep-cut section of the river course,
where the bedrock is found to be covered by a thin residual soil layer. The thickness of the
residual soil layer decreases towards the riverbed.

The Geotechnical investigation at the Dam site has been carried out using core drilling and
geophysical survey using resistivity imaging as well as vertical electrical soundings (VES) and
test pit excavations. Additional insitu testing and sampling of materials was carried out using
automatic trip hammer for Standard Penetration Testing (SPT).

A total of eight (5) bore holes with a total depth of 100m were drilled at the Dam axis and a
location of appertaining structures during this investigation. The purposes of these boreholes
were to assess the rock mass condition at the dam foundation, abutments and spillway route
and to obtain representative samples for the laboratory testing of geotechnical properties of the
materials.

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The Geological profile plotted using the investigation results from the core drilling. The location
of foundation levels for the pertaining structures to be designed for the project is also included.

The Water Supply intake tower is located at the Center right 83m upstream of the Dam axis.
Meanwhile, the geotechnical investigations and subsequent Geological recommendation
revealed that the structure will be placed on after removing the top overburden brownish black
top soil overlain the completely weathered Schist-Phyllite, the Highly weathered Phyllite-Schist
and the moderately weathered Phyllite Schist layer. Foundation of the Intake tower will be
placed on the slightly weathered Phyllite-Schist layer which can be described as fair to good
rock mass to support the weight of Intake tower. The computed average global rock mass
strength of the rock foundation below 6.0m depth from OGL implies about 4.289MPa, with an
average deformation modulus of 5610.06MPa. (See Geotechnical report page 38). The
following strength parameters were used for the design of foundation.

Table 8-56: Engineering property of foundation rock layers (Geo report page 38)
UCS Intact rock (Mpa) 2.1775
Calculated parameters

Unit Weight (KN/m3) 27

Rock mass, C (MPa) 1.255
Tensile Strength (Mpa) 0.1345
Rock mass, Ø (deg) 29.375
Rock mass, E (GPa) 5610.06
Rock mass, E (GPa) 5610.06

Figure 8-114: Geological profile at Dam Axis and intake tower

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8.6.11.2.3 In puts from Civil and Mechanical Design Drawings
Civil drawings, the result of after the hydraulic design, were used for: -
• Structural modeling of the Structure,
• Determination of self-weight, and
• Original ground levels and foundation level, and height of backfill material.
The Mechanical drawing served as source of information to obtain the weight of Trash Rack,
Valves for the control room, etc.

8.6.11.2.4 Inputs from Site specific Seismic Hazard Analysis

The study conducted on the seismicity of the region in which the project located revealed that
structures of the project may be exposed to standard horizontal peak ground acceleration as
big as 0.18 g and 0.092 g for 10% and 5% probability of exceeding the PGA value (OBE and
SEE) respectively.

Seismic forces associated with OBE are unusual loads. Those associated with the SEE are
considered Extreme loads.

Selecting the design Earthquake bases itself on the critical classification of the structure.
According to EM 1110-2-2400 a structure is classified as critical if whose failure during or
immediately following an earthquake could result in loss of life. It describes a critical Intake
tower based on its capability to lower the reservoir, Damage to or failure of an intake tower
located at high hazard project may result in a reduced ability to lower the pool following an
Earthquake. In addition, where the loss of capacity to lower the pool will result in downstream
fatalities, the tower is a critical project feature. If these conditions do not jeopardize lives, the
tower is not critical. In this regard, the Ngoma Intake tower can be classified as critical
structure. As a result, it would be checked and designed for the SEE and OBE level of ground
motion respectively.
For purpose of analyzing the Dynamic Earth pressure load with seismic recommendation and
stability of the Intake tower, from ACI code, 2/3 of the peak ground acceleration has been
utilized as design ground motion. As result, 0.0613 has been adopted as horizontal seismic
coefficient.

 2  a 
αh =   ∗  g  , where αh is seismic coefficient, ag is peak ground acceleration, and g is
 3   g 

ground acceleration.

αh =(2/3) *(0.092g/g)=0.0613,

8.6.11.3 Specification of Construction Materials

Construction material properties of reinforced concrete structures of the hydraulic Structures

were specified in view of ensuring their durability and strength so that they can withstand loads

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and adverse environmental conditions with tolerable damage; and carry out their intended
functions properly during their design life.
Next to specification of the construction materials, during analysis stage it was assumed that
the concrete of the structures will not be in contact with harmful substances that exist in
foundation material and contained liquid; moreover, it was envisaged that the concrete should
be impermeable enough to allow migration of little water or other liquid resulting from a
chemical reaction in the compartment.
To impart the impermeability to the concrete, its grade has been selected to be 37Mpa as
characteristic cubic strength of the concrete.
 The properties of the concrete and re-bar specified for static analyses: -
• Characteristic cylindrical compressive strength of structural concrete (ƒ’c)
=30 Mpa..
• Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement bars (ƒy)
=420 Mpa. for all bars that carry flexural as well as shear stresses.
• Poisson’s ratio for the structural concrete =0.2.

• Module of Elasticity of concrete (Ec) = 4700√fc’ =23.02Gpa.

 For dynamic analysis and design the following material properties were also used:
• Characteristic Cylindrical compressive strength of structural concrete
(ƒ’c)=1.15*30= 34.50Mpa .
• Characteristic Yield strength of reinforcement bars (ƒy) =400Mpa for all bars
that carry flexure as well as shear stress.
• Poisson’s ratio for the structural concrete =0.14
• Module of Elasticity of concrete (Ec) =26.47 Gpa.
• Constant modal Damping ratio ξ =0.05 for seismic analysis of control-room.

For purpose of analysis, the concrete sections of the Structure have been assumed to be un-
cracked regardless of level of stress sustained by the concrete section. Consequently, the
seismic as well as the static analysis of the structure were presumed to be elastic in nature.
The same nature will exist for calculation of crack width instigated by service loads.
Nevertheless, designing of the section for flexure and shear has been based on cracked
section.

8.6.11.4 Structural Object Modeling

8.6.11.4.1 Structural object modeling of Intake Tower

The Ngoma intake tower is free Standing with four-sided (Rectangular shaped in plan) concrete
structures. It is a submerged type with downstream control valves with a single level inlet (At
+1766.65) arranged on three side walls and a total height of 17.80m above foundation. A
horizontal trash rack is also provided on top of the intake structure. A Gate control building

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downstream of the outlet conduit is also provided. At the bottom opening, it is provided with a
diversion inlet of size 1m x1m which will be plugged during impounding.

Considering structural height to width ratio (18.30m/3.0m =6.10>2), the intake tower is
classified as squat.

The rectangular Gate shaft is the main structural component of the Intake tower that provides
lateral stiffness to Seismic loads as well as resistance to high hydrostatic pressure load and
gravity loads. It has an average thickness of 0.8m except at the location of openings.

Due to its complex geometry, For the purpose of analysis, the Ngoma Intake tower has been
structurally idealized with help of 3D FEM Shell modeling, analysis and design l is done to take
its irregularity into account directly.

The structural object modeling has been accomplished using SAP2000 Version 22.0.0 software
which is with finite element modeling capabilities. In addition, other shape builder software is
used to obtain geometry of equivalent rectangular section for calculating hydrodynamic loads.
The model has been constructed based on dimensions of the structure as shown on Figure 8-
115 and 8-116. The dimensions are given in mm.

Figure 8-115: Typical Structural Section of Intake Tower (AT and above ELV+1766.65)

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Figure 8-116: Vertical Section of Intake Tower (Section A-A)

Figure 8-117: Plan of Valve Chamber

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Figure 8-118: Valve Chamber Section A-A

Figure 8-119: Plan of Valve House

8-150
Figure 8-120: Section A-A of the Valve House

In 3D modeling technique, shell elements were employed. From this modeling technique
internal stresses on each structural component and at critical locations like corners and around
openings can be easily captured.

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 Figure 8-121: 3D shell model of Intake structure (Left) and Valve Chamber (Right)

8.6.11.4.2 Structural object modeling of outlet conduit

A 2D frame modeling technique was utilized for the outlet conduit analysis and design. But the
side slopes are checked to satisfy the minimum requirement so as to have uniform compacted
layer and avoid piping failure.

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 Figure 8-122: outlet Typical Section

Figure 8-123: Outlet Conduit Layout

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Figure 8-124: Typical 2D Structural Model of Outlet Conduit (Beam Model)

The provided thickness (600mm) is found to be adequate to safely transfer the embankment
load to the underlying rock foundation.

8.6.11.5 Estimation of Service and Ultimate Loads

Estimation of the service and ultimate loads was concerned with calculation of the loads that
are exerted directly or indirectly onto the structures. The loads that act onto the model were
estimated for purpose of stress analysis and subsequent designing of its sections.
The service loads were used for stability analysis and serviceability limit state design and the
ultimate loads were utilized for ultimate limit state design.

First the service loads were estimated followed by calculation of the ultimate loads by
multiplying the service load with their load factors.

The load factors were adopted from ACI-318-08 and engineering manuals of Army of Corps of
Engineers.

The following loads have been considered: -

• Dynamic and static earth pressure loads
• Hydrostatic and hydro-dynamic loads.
• Equipment loads.

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  At level 1766.65 (Trash racks)
o Weight of Trash racks (3 on side wall and 1 on top) = 48.0 kN

• Equipment operation loads

• Hydrostatic load at bottom level of trash rack.

8.6.11.5.1 Hydrostatic Load

The hydrostatic loads were calculated as linearly distributed loads and the unit weight of the
water has been taken to be 10KN/m3. The worst condition for the walls is when the water level
drops below the inlet level (i.e 1766.65m).

8.6.11.5.2 Earth Pressure Load

Earth Pressure Load on walls is calculated based on their restraint condition. For walls whose
top is restrained against lateral movement, at rest earth pressure is calculated based on
Rankine formula. The average value for the angle of internal friction is used the coefficient of at
rest earth pressure.

𝑃𝑎 = 𝐾𝑜𝛾𝑠 𝐻

Where;𝑃𝑎= at rest Earth pressure Load

𝐾𝑜 = at rest earth pressure coefficient; 𝐾𝑜 = 1 − sin ∅

𝛾𝑠 =Is the unit weight of backfill soil

For walls whose top is not restrained against lateral movement, a state of active earth pressure
is expected to develop behind walls. Based on Coulombs approach, The Active Lateral Earth
Pressure is;

𝑃𝐴 = 𝐾𝑎𝛾𝑠 𝐻

8.6.11.5.3 Loads due to Temperature Change

Temperature changes will impose internal stress on concrete structures. The process of wetting
and drying and the process of Casting of large volume of concrete pose temperature change.

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This is addressed through heat of hydration analysis for foundation slab and provision of
minimum reinforcement as per code recommendations.

8.6.11.5.4 Earth-Quake Loads

During analysis, Design and stability checking of Intake tower and related components, great
emphasis has been given to earthquake induced loads since they govern the design process.

Earthquake induced loads manifest themselves in form of dynamic earth pressure load,
hydrodynamic load, and seismic triggered inertial loads.

Dynamic Earth pressure Load

Dynamic Earth pressure load is calculated based on Mononobe-Okabe approach

Based on Mononobe-Okabe approach, the total Static + Seismic Earth pressure;

𝑃𝐴𝐸 = 𝐾𝐴𝐸 𝛾𝑠 𝐻

Where 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑘ℎ

Kh is the coefficient of horizontal ground acceleration (ag), Kh =2/3 ag

The seismic component (Ka – KAE) is assumed to be an inverted triangular with maximum value
at the ground surface. The resultant is located 0.6H of walls.

Seismic Inertial Load

In order to estimate the inertial loads of model of intake tower, two design earth quakes with
mutually perpendicular components has been specified.

The two horizontal components were taken to be equal and with peak ground acceleration of
0.092g for OBE and 0.18g for MDE.

Using the peak ground accelerations, design response spectra or target response of the earth
quake were determined. the design response spectra has been derived by multiplying the peak
ground acceleration with standard shape of response spectra which are available on Eurocode-
8.

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 As per the code,

For the site Geology described in the geotechnical report and Ground Type A,

Ground
type S TB(S) TC(S) TD(S)
A 1 0.15 0.4 2
Figure 8-125 and 8-126 depicts one of the horizontal response spectrum and the vertical
response spectrum develped based on the reccommendatoin of Eurocode-8 for the OBE
Condtion.

Normalized Horizontal Response Spectrum

(OBE)
0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

Figure 8-125: Normalized horizontal response spectrum (OBE)

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 Normalized Horizontal Response Spectrum
(MDE)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 8-126: Normalized Horizontal response spectrum (MDE)

Hydrodynamic Load

During idealizing of the intake tower for hydro-dynamical loading, it was assumed that the
intake is hallow rectangular cross section with 0.80m thickness and outer dimensions of 3.60m
by 3.60m.

During the hydro-dynamical modeling, it was assumed that the occurrence of earthquake and
the normal pool level are coincidental with maximum design earth quake.

The hydrodynamic loads acting on the intake tower due to earthquake excitation was idealized
using Goyal-Chopra approach of modeling hydrodynamic pressure.

As per the approach, the hydrodynamic loads were converted into equivalent added mass that
would be lumped at the nodes of the shell.

The hydrodynamic loads acted along two perpendicular directions i.e. along x-axis an along Y-
axis. Since the equvalent geomertry of the intake tower is symmetrical, the Hydro-dynamic
added mass calculated is the same in both direction.

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Figure 8-127: Hydrodynamic added mass (kN/m) vs Intake Tower Height (m)-Goyal, Chopra,
1989

8.6.11.6 Loading Condition and Their Combinations

Several loads and their combination act on the hydraulic structures with varying magnitude
during their design period. Also, their time occurrences vary.Therefore, for analysis and design
of the structures, the most likely combinations should be chosen.

As result ,the most likely combinations of the load has been selected accordingly.

The loads were combined based on the recommendations of US Army of Corps of Engineers,
ACI and AASHTO. In addition, they gave load factors for the respective combinations.

i) Loading conditions and load combinations for Intake Tower

The following loading conditions were envisaged for checking stability and structural design of
the intake tower structure. All of the Extreme loading conditions were investigated to chose the
most governing ones for over all stability analysis and structural design.

a) For structural design of the components of Intake structure the following load conditions
were utilized (Loading condition-1):-

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 • Hydrostatic load at normal pool level.
• Seismic Inertial load.
• Weight of intake tower
• Static earth pressure load.
• Dynamic and static soil pressure.
• Weight of equipment.

b) For checking of overall stability of the intake, following loading conditions were used
(Loading condition-2):-

• Hydrostatic load at normal pool level

• Seismic inertial load
• Static weight of stems of intake tower
• Static weight of foundation of intake tower
• Weight of water in the compartment of the intake tower.
• Uplift load from reservoir at pool level.

c) For determination of safe pressure load at the base of the intake tower, loads of loading
condition-2 were used.
d) For designing of the intake tower, dead loads, live loads and earthquake loads were
combined using relation stated here below. The relation has been recommended by the
engineering manual released by Army of Corps of Engineers

U=D+L+1.1*E/Rm

Where, U=value of thrust, shear, bending moment and shear resulting from simultaneous
occurrence of live loads ,dead loads and earthquake loads D=internal forces from self
weight, E=internal forces from maximum credible earth quake loads, and Rm=moment
reduction factor (Rm=1 for shear and Rm=2 for bending moment).

e) For load combination involving service loads the following load combination has been
chosen in line with recommendation of Army of Corps of Engineers (Army of Corps of
Engineers, 2003)
f) Stability analysis of the intake tower has been performed using un-factored load.

The un-factored loads, in turn, have been used to determine un-factored moments and trust
loads. The moments and trust loads then used for proportioning foundation components or
checking whether the bearing pressures below the foundation were not higher than the
allowable bearing pressure.

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8.6.11.7 Static and Dynamic Analysis

Static and dynamic analysis involves determinations of internal reactions to the external loads
determined as elaborated in the previous section.

For all structures, the determinations of the internal reaction have been carried out after
ultimate load conditions have been estimated.

8.6.11.7.1 Analysis of Intake Tower

In order to checking the stabilities and design the structures, the dynamic as well as static
analysis has been run with help of software.

The idealized model of the structure and the prescribed earthquake ground motions ae used to
estimate the dynamic response of the structure to earthquake. The dynamic analysis is
performed using the response spectrum method. The response spectrum method is usually a
preferred tool because the maximum response values for the design can be obtained directly
from the earthquake response spectrum.

8.6.11.7.2 Modal analysis

Modal analysis of the intake tower was determined in order to know the shape and periods of
significant modes. They in turn were used to determine the number of significant mode for
seismic analysis of the intake tower model. The modal analysis was carried out using the Eigen
Vectors for the purpose of determination of the same.

The number of significant modes was determined in such a way that the participating modal
mass ratio in each direction becomes at least 90%. The modes considered are modes in x,y,
and z directions. The total number of significant modes found to be 5.

8.6.11.8 Maximum Response of the Structures to the Loads

The loads determined in previous sections were applied to the shell model. The responses of
the structure were estimated with help of SAP2000 analysis Software. The figures and Tables
shown here below are used to summarize the maximum responses of the structure in form of
bending moment, for the Linear equivalent static and dynamic analysis Axial forces, Shear
forces, and top deflection.

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Figure 8-128: Bending moment M11 Contour for Env of Ultimate load Combination (Max =
184.93kNm/m, Min = -84.21kNm/m)

Figure 8-129: Bending moment M22 Contour for Env of Ultimate load Combination (Max =
202.58kNm/m, Min = -84.21kNm/m)

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Figure 8-130: Shear force V13 Contour for Env of Ultimate load Combination (Max =
375.40kNm/m)

Figure 8-131: Shear force V23 Contour for Env of Ultimate load Combination (Max =
404.44kNm/m)

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Figure 8-132: Membrane Tensile force F11 Contour for Env of Ultimate load Combination (Max
= 337.26kNm/m)

Figure 8-133: Deformation contour for service load combination of the Outlet conduit model,
(∆max = 0.235mm)

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Figure 8-134: Bending Moment Diagram for the Outlet Conduit model, Envelope of Ultimate limit
state Load Combination (Mmax = 103.21kNm/m, Mmin = -64.20kNm/m)

Figure 8-135: Shear force Diagram for the Outlet model, Envelope of Ultimate limit state Load
Combination (Vmax = 358.20kNm/m, bottom corner)

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Figure 8-136: Valve Chamber Deformation Contour for Service Load Combination (∆max =
0.24mm)

Figure 8-137: M11 (Left) and M22 (Right) Contour for Ultimate Limit State Load Combination of
Valve Chamber

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Figure 8-138: V13 (Left) and V23 (Right) Contour for Ultimate Limit State Load Combination of
Valve chamber

Figure 8-139: F11 Contour for Ultimate Limit State Load Combination of Valve Chamber

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Figure 8-140: Reinforcement Intensity for Ultimate Limit State Load Combination
(Asmax=250mm2/m < Asmin) of Valve Chamber

Table 8-57: Analysis Result for Shell model of Intake Tower

Bending Moment
Depth D Concrete Cover F11 (Hoop
Structural Component (kNm/m)
(mm) (mm) Tension)
M11 M22
1000 50 -79 -84
Foundation
1000 50 162 174
800 50 -83.3 -53.62
Shaft wall (0.00 - 6.75m) 337.25
800 50 83.06 67.6
Shaft Wall (6.75 - 800 50 -60.81 -8.4
12.20m) 800 50 55.67 12
Shaft Wall (12.20 - 800 50 -23.04 9
15.15m) 800 50 21.69 -4
Shaft Wall (15.15 - 800 50 -6 9
170
18.30m) 800 50 7 0

8.6.11.9 Designing of Structural Members

8.6.11.9.1 Design of the structures to Ultimate Loads

The critical sections of the hydraulic structures have been designed depending on serviceability
and ultimate limit state design requirements.

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The requirements have been met, during designing of the structure, by applying the
recommendations provided in the code U.S Army of Corps of Engineers manual (EM 1110-2-
2400).

Based on Ultimate limit state requirements, assuring ductility in case of failure due to
unforeseen loading has been given great deal of emphasis.

Equally huge attention has been paid to guaranty that the requirements of serviceability limits
are observed.

Serviceability limit states such as deflection and crack have been considered during designing
of the reinforced concrete structures.

Among the two serviceability’s, the stringent limit state of crack in case of hydraulic structures
has been taken care of. To do so, recommendation of BS 8007 regarding crack width upper
limit has been applied.

Concerning deflection, it was ascertained that depth of the component the structures such as
beams and slabs were greater or equal to code recommended minimum depth. As result, there
was no need of calculating the deflections and comparing them with code requirements.
Usually, codes specify minimum deflection requirement.

The procedures for seismic design of intake towers given in US Army corps of Engineers
manual is followed to design as well as check adequacy of provided sections.

8.6.11.9.2 Designing of the Structures for Service Loads

The crack width caused service load should not be greater than 0.2mm. The checking whether
the crack width induced by service load has been carried out. It is based on the equation
proposed by BS 8007 and BS 8110, given here below.

2(𝑎𝑐𝑟 − 𝐶)
𝑤 = 3𝑎𝑐𝑟 𝜀𝑚 /(1 + )
ℎ−𝑋

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𝑤 = Calculated Crack Width

𝑎𝑐𝑟 = distance from the point considered to the surface of the nearest longitudinal bar

𝑆 ∅ ∅
𝑎𝑐𝑟 = √(( )2 + (𝐶𝑂 + � )2 � −
2 2 2

𝜀𝑚 = Average strain for calculation of crack width = 𝜀1 − 𝜀2

𝑓
𝜀1 = Strain at soffit of Concrete beam = � 𝑠 � ∗ (ℎ − 𝑋)/(𝑑 − 𝑋)
𝐸 𝑠

𝜀2 =Strain due to Stiffening effect of concrete between cracks = 𝑏(ℎ − 𝑋)2 /(3𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 (𝑑 − 𝑋)) for
crack width of 0.2mm.

Concrete stress 𝑓𝑐 = (𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠 )/(0.5 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑋)

Reinforcement stress 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑀𝑠 /(𝐴𝑠 𝑍)

𝑍 = (𝑑 − 𝑋/3)

Depth to neutral axis 𝑋 = (−𝛼𝜌 + �((𝛼𝜌)2 + 2𝛼𝜌) ∗ 𝑑

𝜌 = 𝐴𝑠 /(𝑏𝑑)

8.6.11.10 Conclusion

A standard approach based on international manuals and standards on hydraulic structures

was utilized to assess design inputs and predict loads and load combinations in order to
evaluate the structural performance of the structures. A finite element program was also used
to analyze and record stress resultants at important locations. The generated stress resultants
were once again employed to verify the section size and to provide reinforcements to withstand
the resulting tensile stresses.

Based on this, it is determined that the given section for the Intake tower and valve chambers is
sufficient to resist seismic lateral load. Additionally, the thickness is sufficient to withstand
bending and in-plane shear stress. Adequate reinforcement is provided to counteract the
internal tensile stress created as a result of flexure and direct tension from the applied loads.
The provided section and rebar have since been verified for crack limits and are confirmed to
be within the limit.

The 2D frame model and analytical findings were utilized to inspect the section and provide
reinforcement in the case of the outlet conduit. A steel liner was installed to manage leaks and
excessive internal pressure since it is a downstream control system. The thickness was
determined according to the requirement for internal pressure from a static head, handling, and
pressure fluctuations.

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8.7 River Diversion

8.7.1 Overview

Before initiating the actual construction of any structure within the bed of a natural river, it is
essential to divert the river away from the intended work area for the duration of the
construction period. This diversion is crucial to ensure uninterrupted progress of the
construction without being hindered by flood events. The specific method and arrangement
employed for the diversion work are primarily determined by factors such as the cross-section
characteristics of the river valley, the type of dam being constructed, the construction duration,
the required diversion discharge, and the nature of bed material present in the riverbed.

In the design and construction of a dam across a stream channel, it is essential to incorporate a
diversion system to redirect the flow of the stream during the construction phase. One of the
key challenges in this process is to select and implement an appropriate diversion scheme
considering the relationship between the inlet invert level of the outlet and the diversion of
stream flow. The extent of the river diversion problem can vary from site to site, necessitating
the identification of the most suitable scheme that minimizes the risk of potential flood damage
to the ongoing construction while keeping costs at a minimum.

The selection of the diversion method and arrangement is influenced by various factors,
including:

Magnitude of the flood that needs to be diverted: The diversion scheme must be capable of
accommodating the expected flood levels and safely redirecting the water flow.

Nature of appurtenant structures: Consideration must be given to the design and function of
related structures, such as spillways and outlet works, to ensure compatibility with the diversion
system.

Physical features of the site: The river morphology, topography of the valley, geological
characteristics, and other site-specific factors play a significant role in determining the most
suitable diversion approach.

Infrastructure development downstream: The existing infrastructure and development

downstream of the dam site must be taken into account to minimize any potential negative
impacts during the diversion process.

Type, size, and construction period of the dam: The specific dam type, its dimensions, and
the duration of the construction phase are crucial factors in designing an effective and efficient
diversion scheme.

The primary objective is to select a diversion scheme that offers practicality, cost-effectiveness,
and minimal risk, striking the optimal balance among these considerations.

In the case of Ngoma Dam Project, it is proposed to provide diversion through steel lined
concrete conduits provided in the bed of the river. This arrangement has been preferred to

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providing the diversion conduit near to the right abutment after taking into consideration all
relevant features associated with the method of diversion work.

8.7.2 Diversion Design Flood

The determination of the design flood for river diversion during the construction phase primarily
considers the risks and potential damages associated with the diversion setup. In the context of
constructing an earth fill embankment dam, it is crucial to ensure that flood water do not exceed the
coffer dam's capacity. Planning for diversion of the most extreme flood event that has ever
happened or could possibly happen at the location is not financially viable. Hence, a more
reasonable criterion needs to be established. The selection process for this criterion will take into
account the following factors:

• How long the work will be under construction in order to determine the number of
flood seasons that will occur
• The cost of possible damage to work already completed or still under construction if
it is flooded.
• The cost of delay to completion of work, including the cost of forcing the contractor's
equipment to remain idle.
• The safety of workmen and possibly the downstream inhabitants is at stake.

The probability of exceedance of the design event, P, in T years of service life (construction
period in this case) is given as (Wieland, 2004).

1 T
P( X > X p ) = 1 − (1 − )
P
The probability of a design flood of a certain return period being exceeded during different
construction years is given in the Table 8-58 below.

Table 8-58 Probability of exceedance of a return period, P construction period, T

Return period, construction P(X>=xT

P, in years Time, N, in years at least once in N years)

2 7.84%

5 18.46%
25
7 24.86%

10 33.52%

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After analyzing the overflow risk (R), which refers to the likelihood of surpassing a 25-year flood
during a 2-year construction period, it was determined that the maximum probability of overflow is
7.84%. Consequently, the probability of avoiding overflow during construction is higher than
92.16%. Furthermore, the risk of overflow will decrease even further after the second year, as the
main dam's height will surpass that of the upstream cofferdam.

Given that the Ngoma Dam is an earth-fill dam prone to overflow during construction, a diversion
flood of a 25-year magnitude has been chosen as the design criterion. This particular flood event
has been calculated to have a flow rate of 28.78m3/s.

As a result of the routing exercise, a conduit with a diameter of 1 m has been selected to allow for
the passage of a flood with a return period of 1 in 25 years, thereby accommodating potential flood
events.

8.7.3 Diversion Method

The selection of a flood diversion method or scheme during the construction phase is determined by
several technical factors. These factors include the magnitude of the flood to be diverted, the
physical characteristics of the site, the size and shape of the intended dam structure, the specific
requirements of auxiliary components such as spillways and outlet works, and the anticipated
sequence of construction operations. The primary objective is to identify an appropriate scheme that
aligns with considerations of practicability, cost-effectiveness, and risk management.

In the case of the Ngoma Dam, which is designed as an earth fill dam, the cofferdam will be
integrated into the main dam structure. This decision is based on the recognition that a full
cofferdam approach imposes fewer restrictions on the construction process, thus enhancing overall
efficiency.

Regarding the diversion conduit, a culvert will be installed within the body of the dam. This selection
is guided by a comprehensive assessment of geological and topographical conditions at the site, as
well as an evaluation of economic feasibility. The culvert will serve as the intake and discharge
facility for the dam system once construction is completed.

8.7.4 Type and Scale of River Diversion

8.7.4.1 Type and Scale Diversion Conduit

When determining the optimal size and design of a diversion conduit, it is imperative to prioritize
cost-effectiveness while simultaneously considering its future utility and constructability.

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For the Ngoma Dam, a comprehensive evaluation was conducted to ascertain the ideal section,
type, and scale of the diversion conduit, taking into account the following pivotal factors:

Firstly, the steel pipe conduit that will be installed inside the diversion conduit subsequent to the
dam's completion has been meticulously specified to possess a diameter of 1.0 meters.

Secondly, given that the primary dam is an earth-fill structure incorporating the cofferdam as an
integral component, opting for a smaller diversion conduit coupled with a higher cofferdam yields
heightened cost-effectiveness.

The ensuing decision regarding the typical section of the diversion conduit was shaped by a holistic
analysis, emphasizing structural robustness and hydraulic efficiency. Consequently, a circular
shape was deemed optimal, characterized by an internal diameter of 1 m and an outer wall slope
conforming to a ratio of 1V:0.2H. This specific geometric configuration not only facilitates
uncomplicated compaction during construction but also fosters enhanced bonding between the
concrete and embankment fill.

Furthermore, the invert elevation of the diversion conduit has been firmly established at EL.
1753.0~753.67 meters, accommodating a slope of 0.1%. The proposed section is shown in Figure
8-141, which provides an illustrative depiction of the typical section and dimensions of the diversion
conduit.

Figure 8-141 Typical Section of the Diversion Conduit

8.7.4.2 Inlet Diversion Channel Design

For the Ngoma Dam Project, the strategy for diverting flood flows during the initial stage involves
constructing a temporary diversion channel within the dam structure.

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The channel will facilitate the redirection of floodwaters during the construction period. To ensure
optimal design, a trapezoidal section has been adopted for the diversion channel. The specific
parameters and details of the diversion channel are presented in the Table 8-59 below:

Table 8-59 Input Parameters for the Inlet Diversion Channel

Parameters Unit Amount

Design Flood m3/s 28.78

Bed width m 3
Depth of flow m 2
Side slope 1.5H:1V
Bed slope 0.02
Freeboard m 0.5

Table 8-60 Computed Parameters of Diversion Channel

Parameters Formula Unit Results

2
Cross-section Area Ac =(B+1.5D) D m Ac = (3+1.5*2) *2= 12
Pw = m Pw = 3+(2*2(1+1.52)0.5)
Wetted Perimeter B+ 2D(1+z2)0.5 = 10.20
Hydraulic Radius R = Ac / Pw m R = 12/10.2= 1.18
3
Discharge Q = Ac*V m /s Q = 12.0*(1.182/3*0.020.5/0.035)
=Ac*(R2/3*S0.5/n) = 54.00 > 28.78

Hence the proposed diversion channel section is adequate for the design flood.

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Figure 8-142 Typical Section of Exit Channel

8.7.4.3 Type and Scale of the Upstream Cofferdam

The choice to include the upstream cofferdam into the main dam construction was taken to
ensure economic viability. As a result, a fill dam type that matched the design of the main dam
was chosen for the cofferdam.

The reservoir flood routing study performed on the diversion conduit allowed for the
determination of the level of the crest of the upstream cofferdam. The maximum reservoir
water surface level, which was established by reservoir flood routing, is included as safety
buffer.
The cofferdam's maximum level for a flood event of the 25 years return period was established
during the reservoir flood routing analysis. The maximum reservoir water surface for the 25-
year return period was therefore determined to be EL.1771.5m.

Table 8-61 Results of Flood Routing

Diversion Peak inflow Max Routed water level Remark
conduit (m) (m3/s) Discharge (EL.m asl)
3
1m Ø 28.78 8.6 1771.50

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Figure 8-143 Typical Section of the Upstream Cofferdam

8.7.4.4 Downstream Cofferdam

In order to mitigate the potential negative effects of water backflow through the conduit during
diversion, it is a common procedure to build a cofferdam downstream. However, before
constructing the cofferdam, it is essential to assess the magnitude of the diverted flow within
the river channel to determine if a downstream cofferdam is necessary. This analysis is carried
out by developing a rating curve for the downstream section of the main dam.

To perform this analysis, the water levels in the downstream river for different discharge
capacities have been thoroughly examined. This comprehensive review has allowed the
creation of a rating curve, which is presented in Figure 8-144 below. The rating curve serves as
a graphical representation that illustrates the relationship between the discharge capacity and
the corresponding river water levels downstream of Ngoma dam.

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Figure 8-144 Rating Curve of Tail Water Levels versus Discharges

Based on the rating curve depicted in the above Figure 8-144, it is estimated that the elevation
of the 25-year return period flood at the downstream of Ngoma Dam is approximately 1752.55m
asl. Furthermore, after analyzing the contour map of the dam seat area, it has been determined
that all elevations are above EL1954 m asl. Consequently, the potential issue of backflow is not
considered significant for this particular project.

8.7.4.5 Seepage Control along Diversion Conduit

Constructing an embankment adjacent to a conduit is a challenging task that requires careful

attention. The conduit within the embankment is critical, and addressing any issues with the
surrounding earth fill becomes difficult once construction is underway. Therefore, it is crucial to
ensure proper placement and compaction of the earth fill around the conduit during
construction.

8.7.4.6 Diversion Conduit

A diversion conduit, which generally consists of an inlet, culvert, outlet, and outlet channel, is a
critical component of water supply projects. In the case of the Ngoma Dam construction, the
diversion inlet will be closed or plugged using a second stage concrete at the inlet of the intake
tower once the construction operations of main dam and other appurtenant structures are
completed. To initiate water impoundment in the reservoir, the diversion intake needs to be
sealed. This will allow water to accumulate within the reservoir, gradually filling it to the desired
level.

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8.7.4.7 Alignment

The alignment of the diversion conduit was determined based on careful evaluation of factors
such as topography, geology, inlet and outlet conditions, water conveyance to the downstream,
conduit length, and other relevant factors.

The major considerations were as follow:

• Because the diversion conduit is constructed inside the dam body, it must, if at all
feasible, be installed on a rock foundation to improve the bonding between the
excavation face and concrete culvert and avoid leaks.

• In order to reduce excavation and length, an alignment with shallow bedrock depth must
be chosen.

• The exit must be situated where discharge water may naturally join the flow direction of
an existing river.

After considering the aforementioned factors, the decision was made to choose the area near
the right abutment. This location minimizes the need for excavation and provides a natural
connection with the river flow. The selected alignment will be straight and will intersect the dam
axis at chainage 0+057.52, resulting in the shortest possible conduit length.

Figure 8-145 Plan of the Diversion Conduit

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8.7.4.8 Outlet Exit Channel

The outlet channel serves as an open-cut connection between the outlet of the diversion
conduit and the existing river. It starts with a floor elevation of EL.1753.85m asl and meets the
river at an elevation of 1748m asl. The hydraulic calculation results for the outlet channel are
provided in the Table 8-62 below:

Table 8-62 Input Parameters for the Inlet Diversion Channel

Parameters Unit Amount

Design Flood m3/s 28.78

Bed width m 2.50
Depth of flow m 1.50
Side slope 1.5H:1V
Bed slope 0.035
Freeboard m 0.5

Table 8-63 Computed Parameters of Diversion Channel

Parameters Formula Unit Results

Cross-section Ac =(B+1.0D) D m2 Ac = (2.5+1.0*1.5) *1.5 = 6

Area
Wetted Perimeter Pw = m Pw = 2.5+(2*1.5(1+1.02)0.5)
B+ 2D(1+z2)0.5 = 6.70

Hydraulic Radius R = Ac / Pw m R = 12/10.2= 0.90

Discharge Q = Ac*V m3/s Q = 6.0*(0.92/3*0.040.5/0.035)

=Ac*(R2/3*S0.5/n) = 32.5 > 28.78

Hence the assumed diversion exit channel section is adequate for the design flood.

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Figure 8-146 Typical Section of Exit Channel

8.7.4.9 Plugging Works

Once all aspects of the dam construction and ancillary works have been completed and
thoroughly inspected, it is essential to permanently seal or plug the diversion conduits at the
intake tower. This crucial step marks the readiness of the dam to begin impounding water.

Plugging the diversion conduits ensures that water from the upstream source is directed solely
into the reservoir, allowing it to accumulate and fulfill its intended purpose. By sealing the intake
tower, any potential bypass of water through the diversion conduits is prevented, ensuring that
water flows exclusively into the reservoir.

The decision to permanently plug the diversion conduits is made after a comprehensive
evaluation of the dam's construction, ancillary structures, and components. This inspection
process ensures that all aspects of the dam are in accordance with the required standards and
safety measures.

By sealing the intake tower, the dam can effectively impound water, enabling it to serve its
designated functions such as water supply, irrigation, or Downstream Requirement.

The Figure 8-147 below illustrates the sections of the intake tower where plug work is required:

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 Figure 8-147 Sections of the Intake Tower a) Before Plugging and b) After Plugging

8.8 Construction Plan

8.8.1 General

Given the urgency and volume works of the Ngoma Dam Construction Project, the completion
of the head work facilities, including the dam and its appurtenant structures, is scheduled to be
accomplished within a strict timeframe of 12 months. This project entails various major activities
that need to be undertaken, such as establishing temporary facilities, diverting the river,
constructing the main dam, construction of the spillway, and construction of the outlet facilities.

To begin, the project necessitates the establishment of temporary facilities to support the
construction process. These facilities may include construction offices, worker
accommodations, storage areas, and access roads. These are crucial for facilitating smooth
project operations and ensuring the efficient coordination of activities throughout the
construction period.

Furthermore, due to the construction of the dam and its appurtenant structures, it is essential to
divert the river flow temporarily. This diversion enables to work on the dam site safely and
effectively. The diversion process involves the careful rerouting of the river's course using
temporary diversion culvert, ensuring the uninterrupted progress of construction activities.

The construction of the main dam is a central component of this project. This phase involves
the meticulous planning and execution of the dam's foundation, foundation treatment, and
embankment work. It requires the precise placement of each embankment materials on their
respective zones.

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Simultaneously, the construction of spillway needs to be constructed. The spillway serves as an
overflow channel during periods of high-water levels, preventing the dam from being
overtopped and ensuring the controlled release of excess water.

Additionally, the project includes the construction of outlet facilities, which facilitate the
controlled release of water from the dam for various purposes, such as water supply irrigation
or downstream release.

Given the complexity and volume of the works involved, the project team must adhere to a well-
defined schedule and employ effective project management techniques. Continuous
monitoring, timely problem-solving, and proactive coordination among various stakeholders are
vital to ensure the successful completion of the Ngoma dam construction project within the
stipulated 12-month timeframe.

Overall, the Ngoma dam construction project is a highly time-sensitive endeavor with numerous
critical activities. The completion of head work facilities, encompassing the construction of the
dam and its appurtenant structures, demands careful planning, diligent execution, and close
collaboration among all project stakeholders to achieve a successful outcome.

8.8.2 Preparatory Works

The Ngoma dam construction project requires essential preparatory activities to be completed
within 15 days. This includes constructing access roads for efficient transportation, establishing
camps and facilities for the construction team, and mobilizing machinery and manpower. The
access roads are carefully planned, cleared, and graded to withstand project demands,
ensuring smooth logistics throughout the project. Camps and facilities provide necessary
amenities, while utilities support operations. Mobilizing specialized equipment and skilled
personnel is crucial for effective construction.

The completion of preparatory work within the designated timeframe is essential for a timely
execution of subsequent phases, such as dam, coffer dam, spillway and outlet construction.

8.8.3 Provision of Temporary Facilities

Temporary facilities are vital for the Ngoma dam construction project and encompass various
components such as site preparation, batch plants, crusher plants, power supply, water supply,
communication systems, and environmental facilities. The preparation of the temporary site
must be initiated promptly after the construction begins and completed within a 15-day period to
ensure readiness for the subsequent construction activities.

8.8.4 Detailed Plan for each Structure

8.8.4.1 River Diversion

The river diversion for the Ngoma Dam Construction involves the construction of a cofferdam to
block the river flow at the dam location and a diversion conduit to redirect the water flow.

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The planning of the river diversion takes into account factors such as topography, geology,
riverbed conditions, flood levels, and the scale of construction to ensure safety.

Considering the local conditions, the river diversion will be carried out using a full cofferdam
and a diversion conduit. Prior to commencing the construction of the dam, an earth cofferdam
will be built upstream of the dam, which will later become a part of the main dam upon its
completion. Simultaneously, a diversion conduit will be laid inside the dam body on the riverbed
or right abutment. Once the dam is completed, the diversion conduit will be permanently
sealed, allowing for the construction of the power house to commence.

The excavation work for the cofferdam and diversion conduit will begin during the first month of
the construction period. These activities are expected to be mostly completed within the first
three months of construction. The embankment work for the cofferdam and diversion site is
scheduled for 30 days, with a daily embankment fill of approximately 1100 m3. The construction
of coffer dam and diversion conduit will commence once mobilization is finished.

8.8.4.2 Construction of Main Dam

The construction of the main dam is a vital component of the project and holds significant
importance in the construction schedule. The main dam encompasses several crucial activities,
including:
• excavation work to prepare the foundation of the dam
• foundation treatment will be carried out. This process may involve various techniques to
enhance the stability and durability of the foundation
• then finally embankment fill will be executed and this involves the placement and
compaction of materials, such as soil or rock, to build up the dam's structure.

i. Main Dam Excavation Work

The excavation work for the main dam is scheduled to begin within the first months of the
project, and it is anticipated to be completed within a two-month timeframe. The total volume of
excavation required for the main dam is estimated to be approximately 41,179.24m3. With the
designated 60-day duration for foundation excavation, an average output of more than
686m3/day is expected to be achieved. Timely completion of the excavation work is crucial to
ensure the project stays on schedule and enables subsequent construction activities to
progress smoothly.

ii. Main Dam Foundation Treatment Works

Once the foundation of the dam has been successfully excavated and prepared, the next
crucial step is to begin the foundation treatment. This activity aims to enhance the stability and
durability of the dam's foundation, ensuring its long-term structural integrity.

The foundation treatment selected for Ngoma dam is curtain grouting that is selected based on
the specific geological conditions and engineering requirements of the site.

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The foundation treatment activity is carefully planned to be completed within a two-month
timeframe. This duration takes into account the complexity of the treatment required and allows
sufficient time for the application of the curtain grouting.

iii. Embankment Fill

After the successful completion of excavation and foundation treatment for the dam, the next
phase of construction involves embankment fill work. This stage is anticipated to commence
during the sixth month of the overall construction period.

The total volume of embankment fill required for the dam is estimated to be approximately
166,479 m3. The construction timeline allows for the completion of this embankment fill work
within a three-month timeframe. To meet this target, an average embankment fill volume of
approximately 1,850 m3 per day is expected to be achieved.

8.8.4.3 Spillway

The construction of spillway is designed to have a construction timeline equivalent to that of the
main dam. This synchronized scheduling ensures that both structures will be constructed
simultaneously, allowing for their coordinated completion.

8.8.5 Construction Schedule

The construction of the Ngoma Dam is a comprehensive endeavor that is expected to be

completed within a total timeframe of 12 months. This project will be methodically executed,
following a carefully planned and structured schedule. The schedule for the construction
activities is as follows:

Preliminary Site Preparation (Month 1): This phase involves initial site clearing, leveling of the
terrain, and establishing temporary facilities required for the construction process.

Foundation Excavation and Treatment (Months 2-3): The excavation work for the dam's
foundation will be conducted, followed by the necessary treatment of the foundation to ensure
stability and durability.

Construction Of Coffer Dam and Diversion (Months 2-5): During this stage construction of coffer
dam and diversion conduit will be completed

Embankment Fill (Months 2-12): During this stage, the dam's structure will be gradually built up
through the placement and compaction of suitable materials, such as soil or rock, to create a
stable embankment. in addition, construction of spillway will be constructed in this period.

Installation of Electromechanical Facilities (Months 10-12): This period will involve the
installation of additional features, intake structures, gates, and other components that are
essential for the functioning of the dam.

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By adhering to this well-planned schedule, the construction team can effectively manage
resources, coordinate activities, and ensure the timely completion of the Ngoma Dam. the
construction schedule of the project mentioned above has been presented in the following
figure.

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Figure 8-148 Construction Schedule

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8.9 Dam Instrumentation and Monitoring

8.9.1 Role of Instrumentation in the Life of a Dam

The primary purpose of a dam is to store water safely. However, the storage reservoir created
by a dam presents a potential hazard to downstream inhabitants and property. A dam failure
can result in many deaths and tremendous economic loss. A period of progressively increasing
structural distress within a dam and its foundation normally precedes catastrophic failure of a
dam from causes other than extreme floods or earthquakes (Ministry of Water Resources, GI,
2018).

Anomalous inside the dam or of dam distress can be detected by a monitoring scheme
designed with the right instrumentation. Instrumentation consists of the various electrical and
mechanical devices used to measure pressure, water flow, movement, stress, strain, and
temperature at a dam and its appurtenant structures. Monitoring is the collection, reduction,
presentation, and evaluation of the instrumentation data. An effective surveillance program then
relates the identified symptoms to specific problems at an early stage of development by
ongoing examination of the collected instrumentation data combined with a review of operation
and maintenance records to decide if a dangerous trend is developing or appears likely to
develop. The role of dam instrumentation in a project life of a dam is discussed here under
(USBR, Embankment Dams, 2014).

• Original Dam Design

• For use in the design and/or the development of the construction specifications.
• For baseline information, so that when the dam is completed and the
reservoir is filled, changes in water levels at the site and in the vicinity can be
determined for engineering and/or legal reasons.
• Original Dam Construction
• Verification of design assumptions and analyses during the construction process
• Controlling construction activities
• Maximizing worker safety at the construction site
• Dam Modification
• The modification design effort will have the benefit of the instrumentation data
collected for the dam and dam site during its years of operation. This is a very
different data situation than existed during the original design process for the
dam.
• First Reservoir Filling
• Long-Term Performance Monitoring
• Response to Adverse or Anomalous Performance

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8.9.2 Purpose of instrumentation and monitoring

The purpose of instrumentation and monitoring is to maintain and improve dam safety by
providing information to

• Evaluate whether a dam is performing as expected and

• Warn of changes that could endanger the safety of a dam.

8.9.3 Mode of Failure of Embankment Dam

The principal causes of embankment dam failures and incidents are:

• Overtopping from inadequate spillway capacity, spillway blockage, or excessive

settlement resulting in erosion of the embankment;
• Erosion of embankments from failure of spillways, failure or deformation of outlet
conduits causing leakage and piping, and failure of riprap;
• Embankment leakage and piping along outlet conduits, abutment interfaces, contacts
with concrete structures, or concentrated piping in the embankment itself;
• Foundation leakage and piping in pervious strata, soluble lenses, and rock
discontinuities;
• Sliding of embankment slopes due to overly steep slopes, seepage forces, rapid
drawdown, or rainfall;
• Sliding along clay seams in foundations;
• Cracking due to differential settlements; and
• Liquefaction.
A number of the items listed above cannot realistically be effectively addressed
using instruments. Instead, routine visual monitoring is required, in addition to instrumented
monitoring. The need for both instrumented and visual monitoring would exist for many other
potential failure modes as well ( (Federal Emergency Management Agency(FEMA), FEMA 93,
1979).

8.9.4 Types of Instrumentation

The following are common types of instrumentation that can be installed for embankment dam.

• Seepage monitoring
• Water pressure monitoring
• Earth pressure monitoring
• Deformation monitoring
• Seismic ground motion monitoring

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8.9.5 Design and selection of instrumentation

Development of instrumentation program is about designing and selecting appropriate

instruments based on:

• Long-term reliability, as simple as possible, Vandal resistant, Low maintenance,

Compatible with construction techniques to be employed and low cost considerations
• Failure modes considerations that can give maximum and reliable data for intended
purpose.

8.9.6 Design of Monitoring Instrumentation

8.9.6.1 General

The main dam (embankment dam) has a crest elevation of 1781m, a crest width of 8.0m, a
maximum height of 29.0m (structural height), and a crest length of 120m. The main monitoring
items are horizontal and vertical displacements of dam surfaces and inside the dam, earth
pressure, contact pressure and displacement of the clay core, displacement of shoulder, Water
pressure and seepage quantity, reservoir water level and tail water level.

8.9.6.2 Dam Monitoring Program

General arrangement of instrumentation for Ngoma Dam has eight monitoring sections of which
four sections (section 2-2, 4-4, 7-7 and 8-8) (Figure 8-150) are equipped with different
monitoring instruments and the rest are planned for surface deformation monitoring purpose.
Among four sections, Section 4-4 will be the main monitoring profile as it is located at the
maximum section of the dam. The layout of dam monitoring instrumentation is shown in Figure
8-147. Similarly, batch of instruments on each location is shown in Figure 8-150.

In Ngoma Dam, the following dam instrumentation monitoring will be installed. The
instrumentation has been designed based on failure mode and monitoring requirements. The
summary of instrumentations planned for Ngoma Dam is shown in Figure 8-149 and Figure 8-
150. Details of the dam instrumentation design are presented in A separate Report, Dam Safety
and Instrumentation.

• Deformation monitoring
• Seepage monitoring
• Water pressure monitoring
• Earth pressure monitoring
• Seismic ground motion monitoring

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Figure 8-149: Dam instrumentation layout for Ngoma Dam

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Figure 8-150: Dam Instrumentation profile along the dam axis

Typical dam cross section showing different type of instrumentation is shown in Figure 8-151,
8-152 and 8-153.

Figure 8-151: Typical Section showing dam instrumentation facilitates at sections 2-2 and 3-3.

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Figure 8-152: Typical Section showing dam instrumentation facilitates at sections 4-4 and 5-5.

Pore pressure measurement is carried out by vibrating wire instruments that can be installed
inside the embankment as well as inside foundation. A summarized section is shown in Figure
8-152 (Section 4-4) which considers the above listed premises as well as some additional for
malfunction of instruments during the operation and according to the “upper less and lower
more” principle.

Figure 8-153: Typical Section showing dam instrumentation facilitates at sections 6-6 and 7-7.

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8.10 Project Cost Estimation

8.10.1 General

The costs for the Ngoma Dam Project are mainly categorized as Direct Costs (construction
costs for major structures such as dam and appurtenant structures, electromechanical facilities
for the outlet system, and temporary construction facilities like camp offices as well as access
roads to the construction materials location.

8.10.2 Unit Prices

Unit prices for equipment rentals, wages, and major material procurements in Rwanda’s
construction market were considered in order to determine the unit prices and also the
experience of similar project namely Muvumba Multi-purpose project which is completed
recently by the JV of KECC and HCC.

8.10.3 Project cost estimation

The bill of quantity is estimated based on design drawings. The unit rate is fixed following the
experience of similar project mainly Muvumba multi-purpose and international experiences.

Accordingly, the estimated total cost including VAT 18% is found to be 7,595,074,763.32 Rwf
(Seven Billion Five Hundred Ninety Five Million Seventy Four Thousand Seven Hundred Sixty
Three and Thirty two cents). The summary cost is presented in Table 8-64 and detail is
submitted in a separate file.

Table 8-64: Estimated Cost Summary

Total Cost
No. Items
(FRW)

1. General Items
427,528,058.82
2. Main Dam and Upstream Coffer Dam
2,612,538,769.16
3. Spillway and Bridge over the spillway
1,762,647,423.49
Intake Tower, Diversion Conduit, Valve
4.
Chambers and Valve House 1,451,043,315.85
5. Measuring Instruments 182,746,469.39
Sum Sub-Total 6,436,504,036.71
VAT (18% of the Direct Costs) 1,158,570,726.61
Grand Total Cost (RWF) 7,595,074,763.32

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8.11 Conclusions

This proposed dam will contain the dam of 27 meters high with 1.3161 Mm3 storage capacities.
An upstream intake is provided to abstract water from the reservoir and the water will be
conveyed into downstream valve chambers and valve house by 1.0m diameter conduit lined
with steel. Just upstream of the valve house the incoming 1.0m pipe is bifurcated into two 500m
pipes which convey raw water into treatment plant.

The design of Ngoma dam and its appurtenant structures was done following the standard
procedures and using the state of the art models and software to arrive at the final design of the
different components.

The following are key issues from the whole design process:

 The mean monthly flow of Ngoma River is estimated to be about 0.32m3/s.

 The revised hydrology revealed that the 1000 and 10,000 year flood is 97.6m3/s and
172m3/s respectively. And the routed outflow discharge for 15m spillway crest length is
95.4m3/s for the 1000 year flood whereas 168.20m3/s for the 10000 year flood. The
spillway is designed for 1000 year flood and the dam safety check flood from over toping
is 10,000 year.
 Different sizes of diversion conduits were used to route the design 25-year flood to
estimate the minimum height of the cofferdam required for a given conduit size during
construction. Thus, the routing exercise indicated that the minimum cofferdam required
for a 1m conduit is about 16.5 m resulting crest level of the upstream coffer dam to be at
1771.5masl.
 Since there has been no record of sediment yields at the proposed dam site, specific
sediment deposits determined with the neighboring catchments have been applied. Two
existing literature data and the results of the sediment yield studies conducted in
Muvumba catchment were considered for the present report. The detailed studies for
potential large dams in the Kagera Basin (NELSAP, 2012) suggested 448m3/km2/year.
On the other hand, the sediment yield estimation by Detailed Design for Muvumba Dam
(RWFA, 2018) suggested 482m3/km2/year and this is considered for the proposed dam
study for Ngoma.
 Sediment distribution was done for 25 years sediment, accordingly the dead storage
level for a 25-year economic life of the dam is fixed at 1766.65masl.
 The reservoir simulation was carried out for three dam height options, i.e., Full reservoir
level at 1775masl, 1776masl and 1777masl to see if increasing dam height could bring
higher dependability and more water supply. According to the results, the proposed dam
could dependably supply a daily amount in the order of 15,000m3/day for a dam which,
the full reservoir level, is at 1777 masl. The dependability of this dam for supplying
15000m3/day would be about 98.86% under 2035 preferred condition while satisfying
the other demands/releases.
 The gross storage corresponding to EL1777m is 1.3161Mm3 and live storage of 1.0219
Mm3.

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 Drilling is used to access deeper geological layers and to core and recover samples of
both soils and rocks from various depths. With due consideration the surface conditions,
five boreholes with a total depth of 100m have been drilled along the proposed dam axis
at right, left abutment, and at riverbed by considering appurtenant structures of the
project. Based on the recovered core photos, in-situ tests and laboratory test results
engineering geological profile along the dam axis have been prepared to be used for the
engineering design.
 The general foundation of the dam is placed on weathered rock and soil foundations on
the left and right abutments whereas on slightly weathered in the valley section. The
general foundation on soil foundation fixed after removing the loose soil formation to
minimize the excavation costs. The cutoff foundation is placed on rock foundation
(weathered and slightly weathered) throughout its length along the dam axis.
 Cutoff trench and curtain grouting is recommended for the rock foundation along the
whole dam axis including the spillway. When the dam foundation founded on rock which
is not impervious enough for uncontrolled seepage, it has to be engineered to satisfy the
requirements. Thus, for foundation seepage improvement purpose, a cut off together
with grout curtain is implemented.
 The proposed dam is embankment earth fill dam with maximum height above the river
bed 27m and crest length of 120m. The upstream slope is (3.0H:1V) and for
downstream slope 2.25H:1V above berm and 2.5H:1V below berm. The stability and
analysis of the seepage as well as safety against exit gradient (piping) were checked
with state of the art software of GeoStudio Family. Accordingly the dam is safe against
all loading conditions and safe from piping at downstream of the core as well as at the
end of the dam.
 In order to select the suitable spillway type for Ngoma Dam, Hydraulic condition,
economic feasibility, and structural stability, are considered. Adjacent to the right
abutment the stream flows at relatively shorter distance and joins the Ngoma River
downstream of the dam. The proposed design arrangement has considered the natural
flow of the Ngoma River.
• A chute spillway is designed. It requires about 75.66 m concrete lined discharge carrier
rectangular chute channel. The control section is 15m width (length), and then the chute
channel will be tapered into 10m width within 15m transition length. Initially the spillway
is designed with excel based 1-D calculation sheets. The proposed spillway hydraulic
design is also analysed with flow 3D hydrodynamic model. The results of the statistical
analysis indicated a good agreement between the 1D design and simulated values with
flow 3D for flow depth, flow velocities and Froude numbers in the Chute channel. It is
concluded that the spillway structure components, the flow parameter from 1-D
simulation gave satisfactory result.
 To withdraw water from the reservoir an intake is provided having an opening on three
sides. Trash racks has been provided to avoid entrance of logs and bigger tree branches
into the outlet system. Water will be conveyed with 1.0m diameter internally lined with
steel.
 The conduit will also serve for diversion during construction. Downstream of the dam
valve chambers were provided which control flow to the diversion channel and the water

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 supply line. The 1.0m conduit will be bifurcated into two 500mm each water supply lines.
Day to day control flow into the water supply main transmission line will be carried out by
the valves provided in the valve house located downstream of the dam.

 According to recognized criteria (ICOLD), it is essential to have a reservoir drawdown

facility that can be utilized in emergency situations within a predetermined timeframe. In
the case of the Ngoma Dam, the facility is capable of accommodating a discharge range
of 5.70 to 1.04m3/s, depending on the water level in the reservoir.

 However, it is important to note that the general Indian standard IS 4880-part VII, 1975,
recommends a permissible velocity range of 1.6 to 9.0 m/s for steel-lined conduits.
Therefore, despite the capacity of the facility provided by the Ngoma Dam, it is deemed
necessary to limit the outflow discharge to 1.25m3/s during emergencies. This limitation
is imposed to restrict the velocity and minimize the occurrence of excessive surges
within the conduit.

 A very detailed structural design of the intake tower, conduit, valve chambers and valve
house is also carried out using SAP2000 software, version 22.0.0
 The bill of quantity is estimated based on design drawings. The unit rate is fixed
following the experience of similar project mainly Muvumba multi-purpose and
international experiences.
 Accordingly, the estimated total cost including VAT 18% is found to be 7,595,074,763.32
Rwf (Seven Billion Five Hundred Ninety Five Million Seventy Four Thousand Seven
Hundred Sixty Three and Thirty two cents).

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