IRRITABILTY

Irritability is that characteristic of living organisms of being able to detect and respond to stimuli.

WHY IS THE RESPONSE TO STIMULI IMPORTANT TO SURVIVAL?

1. To escape predation - animals may move away to avoid detection by a predator or may curl up to protect
itself. Plants may close their leaves. The sensitive plant closes its leaves when touched.
2. To move away from unfavorable environments, such as moving from dry areas or areas with high
temperatures to avoid desiccation.
3. To find food
4. To maintain constant internal conditions such as body temperature, glucose level, water levels to maintain
efficient and so on for the cells to function properly.
5. To move towards favorable conditions. Plants grow towards light which is needed for photosynthesis.
Roots grow towards gravity which anchors them in the soil and allows them to obtain water and minerals.
Roots grow towards water which is needed for photosynthesis.

Changes in the internal and external environment are detected by receptors while effectors allow a response to be
made. The stimulus detected by the receptor is communicated to the effector via nerves and hormones.
DEFINITIONS

 Stimulus - is a change in the environment (either external or internal) that is detected by a receptor. For example it
could be a change in blood glucose or blood carbon dioxide or a change in external temperature.

 Response - is a change in the organism resulting from the detection of a stimulus. For example the response to
touching a hot object is to pull your hand away while the response to increased blood glucose is to lower it.

 Receptors - groups of specialized cells which can detect a change in the environment (stimulus). Sense organs
contain groups of receptors that respond to specific stimuli.

 Effector – structures such as muscles and glands which produce a response to a detected stimulus.

THE RESPONSE OF GREEN PLANTS TO STIMULI IS DUE TO GROWTH MOVEMENTS (TROPISMS) OR

PART MOVEMENTS.
Part movements are usually due to changes in turgidity of cells. Some examples are:

 Plants may close their leaves to protect them from damage

 Leaves and flowers may open in the day and close at night
 Insectivorous plants may close parts to trap insects.
Growth movements or tropisms - A tropism is the movement of a part of a plant due to growth in response to a
stimulus. Tropisms may be positive if the plant grows towards the stimulus or negative if it grows away from the stimulus.
Some examples are:

 Phototropism – this is the response to light. Shoots show a positive phototropic response in order to get light for
photosynthesis.
 Geotropism – shoots show a negative response to gravity while roots show a positive response. This allows the
roots to find water and minerals in the soil and anchor the plant.
 Hydrotropism – roots show a positive response and grow towards water which is needed for photosynthesis and
other reactions.
Plants do not have a nervous system unlike animals so chemicals known as plant hormones or plant growth regulators are
responsible for most communication within plants. They are called growth regulators normally and not hormones as
unlike animal hormones which are made by endocrine glands in the body and bring about a response elsewhere (the target
organ/tissue), plant hormones do not necessarily move from where they are made and affect nearby cells. Animal
hormones have a variety of effects on the body but plant hormones mainly affect plant growth.
Advantages of tropic responses:
Positive phototropism of shoots: by growing towards the source of light, a shoot brings its leaves into the best situation to
trap a maximum amount of light for photosynthesis. Similarly, the flowers are brought into an exposed position where
they are most likely to be seen and pollinated by flying insects.
Negative geotropism in shoots: Shoots that are negatively geotropic grow vertically. This lifts the leaves and flowers
above the ground and helps the plant to compete for light and carbon dioxide. The flowers are brought into an
advantageous position for insect or wind pollination. Seed dispersal may be more effective from fruits on a long, vertical
stem.
Positive geotropism in roots: By growing towards gravity, roots penetrate the soil, which is their means of anchorage and
their source of water and mineral salts. Lateral roots are not positively geotropic; they grow at right angles or slightly
downwards from the main root. This response enables a large volume of soil to be exploited and helps to anchor the plants
securely.
 Phototropism
The response of shoots to unilateral light is due to the plant growth substance auxin. Auxin is mostly made in the tips of
the growing stems and roots. It can diffuse away from the tip to the cells below. It also moves in the phloem. Auxin has an
effect on cell enlargement. Stems and roots respond differently to high concentrations of auxin:

 Auxin promotes growth in cells in stems so they grow more

 Auxin inhibits growth in cells in roots so they grow less

When a shoot is exposed to light from one side, auxins that have been produced by the tip move towards the shaded side
of the shoot (or the auxins are destroyed on the light side, causing an unequal distribution). Cells on the shaded side are
stimulated to absorb more water or grow more than those on the light side, so the unequal growth causes the stem to bend
towards the light. Growth of a shoot towards light is called positive phototropism.
Geotropism

Stems grow against the force of gravity, this is known as a negative geotropism while roots grow in the direction of the
force of gravity, and this is known as a positive geotropism. Just like phototropism, geotropism is also caused by an
unequal distribution of auxin.

When a seedling is placed horizontally, auxins accumulate on the lower side of the shoot and root, due to gravity.
In the root, since auxin inhibits growth, the upper side grows more causing the root to grow downwards. In the
shoot, the lower side grows more as auxin promotes growth, so the shoot grows upwards.

Some investigations:
1. Phototropism in wheat coleoptiles - When wheat seeds germinate (start to grow) they produce a shoot covered
by a protective sheath called a coleoptile. This helps to prevent damage to the new leaves as they push through the
soil. The coleoptile shows responses to light and gravity in a similar way to other plant parts. Wheat coleoptiles
only take 2 or 3 days to grow and they show responses very quickly, so they are ideal for tropism experiments.
The tip of the coleoptile, where it is expected that auxins would be produced, can be cut off without killing the
plant, but effectively removing the source of the auxin. The diagram below shows an investigation, treating
coleoptiles in different ways.

Results:
A - No growth of the coleoptile occurs and there is no
bending.
B - The coleoptile grows taller and bends towards the
light.
C - The coleoptile grows taller, but there is no
bending.
D - The coleoptile grows taller and bends towards the
light.
Interpretation:
In A, the source of auxin has been removed. Auxin is needed to stimulate growth and stimulates a response to light.
In B, auxin is produced by the tip of the coleoptile. It diffuses down the coleoptile and collects on the shaded side of the
coleoptile (or is destroyed by the light on the light side). Cells on the shaded side respond to the auxin by growing faster
than on the light side causing the coleoptile to grow towards the light.
In C, auxin is produced by the tip and diffuses down, causing all cells on both sides of the coleoptile to grow at an equal
rate, causing an increase in length. However, the black paper prevents the light influencing the auxin at the tip and as a
result auxin is evenly distributed. There is no response to the direction of light but the plant grows taller.
In D, the tip of the coleoptile produces auxin. It diffuses into the agar block. When the agar block is replaced on the cut
coleoptile, the auxin diffuses down from the agar and collects on the shaded side of the coleoptile (or is destroyed by the
light on the light side). Cells on the shaded side respond to the auxin by growing faster than on the light side causing the
coleoptile to grow towards the light.

2. Geotropism in pea radicles

o Soak about 20 peas in water for a day and then let them germinate in a vertical roll of moist blotting-
paper.
o After 3 days, choose 12 seedlings with straight radicles and pin six of these to the turntable of a clinostat
so that the radicles are horizontal.
o Pin another six seedlings to a cork that will fit in a wide mouthed jar. Leave the jar on its side.
o A clinostat is a clockwork or electric turntable, which rotates the seedlings slowly about four times an
hour. Although gravity is pulling sideways on their roots, it will pull equally on all sides as they rotate.
o Place the jar and the clinostat in the same conditions of lighting or leave them in darkness for 2 days.

Results:
The radicles in the
clinostat will continue to
grow horizontally but
those in the jar will have
changed their direction
of growth, to grow
vertically downwards

Interpretation:
The stationary radicles have responded to the stimulus of one-sided gravity by growing towards it due to accumulation of
auxin on the lower side. Auxin inhibits growth. The radicles are positively geotropic. The radicles in the clinostat are the
controls. Rotation of the clinostat has allowed gravity to act on all sides equally and there is no one-sided stimulus so they
grow horizontally. The auxin is evenly distributed.
3. Phototropism in shoots
o Select two potted seedlings, e.g. sunflower or runner bean, of similar size and water them both.
o Place one of them under a cardboard box with a window cut in one side so that light reaches the shoot
from one direction only
o Place the other plant in an identical situation but on a clinostat. This will rotate the plant about four times
per hour and expose each side of the shoot equally to the source of light. This is the control.

Result:
After 1 or 2 days, the two plants are
removed from the boxes and compared.
It will be found that the stem of the plant
with one-sided illumination has changed
its direction of growth and is growing
towards the light. The control shoot has
continued to grow vertically.

Interpretation:
The results suggest that the young shoot has responded to one-sided lighting by growing towards the light. The shoot is
said to be positively phototropic because it grows towards the direction of the stimulus because of accumulation of auxin
on the shaded side. However, the results of an experiment with a single plant cannot be used to draw conclusions that
apply to green plants as a whole. The control plant got light equally from all sides so continued to grow straight up as
auxin was evenly distributed on all sides.
INVESTIGATING THE RESPONSE OF INVERTBRATES TO STIMULI USING A CHOICE CHAMBER
Choice chambers are an investigative method used to study animal behavior and to determine the favored
conditions for a habitat.

Investigating the response of woodlice to light and moisture

Method:

1. Fold a piece of filter paper in half and cut it to ensure that it can
fit into half of the dish neatly. Dampen it and place it one side of
the dish.
2. Add 10 woodlice to the centre, cover and leave for 5 minutes to
allow them to adjust to the surrounding. The larger the sample
used the more accurate the results.

3. Record at one minute intervals the number of woodlice on each

side. Do this for 10 minutes.
4. Return the organisms to the place you found them when the lab is
completed.

Observations: most of the woodlice are found on the damp side.

Interpretation: Since most of the woodlice are found on the damp side,
we can conclude that they show a positive response to moisture or prefer
moisture. These are soft-bodied organisms, which normally live under
rocks and leaf litter which are moist places. This prevents their bodies
from drying out.

This investigation can also be done to investigate other factors like the
preference for light and dark by covering half the dish with dark paper.
 NERVOUS SYSTEM IN MAN

Make up the central nervous

system.

Nerves carry impulses to the

central nervous system from
receptors in the sense organs
of the body.

Nerves carry impulses from

the central nervous system to The nerves that connect the
effectors such as muscles x to the central nervous
body
making them contract or to system make up the peripheral
glands which produce nervous system. Nerves are
enzymes or hormones. made up of nerve cells, called
neurones. Most nerves will
contain a mixture of sensory
and motor fibres. So a nerve
can carry many different
impulses

Neurones or nerve cells are specialized for the conduction of nervous impulses. They are a means of communication
between receptors which detect stimuli and effectors such as muscles and glands which respond to stimuli.

sensory neurone

brain/spinal cord
relay
neurone

motor neurone

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RECEPTORS, EFFECTORS, NEURONES AND THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The function of the central nervous system is:

1. to process sensory information. The CNS receives electrical impulses from sensory neuron s connected to
the sense organs and
2. to coordinate the body's response. The CNS transmits electrical impulses, along motor neurons, to
glands and muscles. Muscles produce rapid responses by contracting. Glands produce responses more
slowly by releasing chemicals.
As shown above there are 3 types of neurons:

1. Sensory neurones- take the electrical impulse from the receptor to the central nervous system
2. Relay neurones - take the electrical impulse from the sensory neurone to the motor neurone
3. Motor neurones – take the electrical impulse from the relay neurone to the effector which is usually a
muscle or gland

Relay neurone

Sensory neurone

TABLE SHOWING THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE PARTS OF THE NEURONE
Has a nucleus surrounded by a little cytoplasm and has most organelles. The cell bodies of the
Cell body neurones are mostly located in the brain or in the spinal cord and it is the nerve fibres that
run in the nerves.

Dendrons and
Conduct impulses towards the cell body. The dendron is a fibre but dendrites are small and branching.
dendrites

This is a nerve fibre which takes the impulse away from the cell body. It may be several metres long.
The cytoplasm inside is called the axoplasm. The end of the axon forms many small branches with
swollen ends called synaptic knobs.
Axon
The nerve fibres to the foot have their cell bodies in the spinal cord and the fibres run insi de
the nerves, without a break, to the skin of the toes or the foot. A single nerve cell may have a
fibre 1 m long.

Found on the outside of the axon or dendron. The membrane of the cell wraps itself around the axon
Schwann cell
or dendron like a roll called the myelin sheath.

Modified mainly lipid cell membrane wrapped around the neuron. The myelin is interrupted at
Myelin sheath intervals called the nodes of Ranvier. The nodes allow the nerve impulse to jump from one to the next
speeding up nervous transmission.
direction of impulse
dendrites – small
dendron. They take the
impulse TO THE CELL
cell body BODY

nucleus

node of Ranvier –
areas with no myelin myelin sheath – insulates
the axon which speeds up
transmission

axon – is a long fibre which takes the

impulse AWAY FROM THE CELL BODY

nerve ending – ends in a swelling or

synaptic knob which allows the
nerve impulse to go to the effector
(muscle or gland)
 receptor

direction of impulse

nerve ending

node of Ranvier

dendron – this is a dendron

not an axon as the impulse is
myelin going towards the cell body

cell body

swelling/synaptic knob
- nerve ending ends in axon – this is an axon as
a synaptic knob or the impulse is moving
swelling. This allows away from the cell body.
the impulse to cross to
the next neurone (the
relay neurone). Where nerve ending
2 neurones meet but
do not touch is called a
synapse.
direction of impulse
Nerve fibre
dendron

Cell body

axon

Nerve ending

Swollen ends of
nerve ending
 THE REFLEX ARC

 A reflex action is a rapid automatic response to a stimulus. Reflex actions are involuntary and do not
necessarily involve the brain. The same response is given each time.
 Reflex actions protect the body from further damage by allowing it to react quickly to stimuli, such as
high temperatures, that may be harmful.
 It provides a means of rapidly integrating and coordinating a stimulus with the response of an effector
without the need for thought or a decision.
 When a particle of dust touches the cornea of the eye, you will blink; you cannot prevent yourself from
blinking. When a bright light shines in the eye, the pupil contracts. You cannot stop this reflex and you
are not even aware that it is happening.
 The nervous pathway for such reflexes is called a reflex arc.
 In the picture below the nervous pathway for the ‘knee-jerk’ reflex is shown.
 One leg is crossed over the other and the muscles are totally relaxed.
 If the tendon just below the kneecap of the upper leg is tapped sharply, a reflex arc makes the
extensor muscle of the upper leg contract and the lower part of the leg swings forward.
 Hitting the tendon stretches the muscle and stimulates a stretch receptor.
 The receptor sends off impulses along a sensory neurone which sends the impulse across a
synapse (where two neurons meet but do not touch) to a relay neurone in the spinal cord which
then synapses with a motor neurone which eventually sends the impulse to the thigh muscle
which makes it contract and jerk the lower part of the limb forward.

sensory
neurone

motor neurone

 The reflex just described is a spinal reflex as the impulse goes to the spinal cord. Responses that take
place in the head, such as blinking and iris contraction, the impulse goes to the brain but it is still not
consciously controlled.
 Some reflex actions are learned e.g. riding a bike, walking and typing. These are called conditioned
reflexes.
THE BRAIN

The brain has 2 halves or hemispheres: right and left. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body,
and the left hemisphere controls the right side. In most people, the left hemisphere regulates language and
speech, and the right hemisphere controls nonverbal, spatial skills. If the right side of the brain is damaged,
movement of the left arm and leg, vision on the left, and/or hearing in the left ear may be affected. Injury to the
left side of the brain affects speech and movement on the right side of the body.

The cerebrum's outer layer is split

into two hemispheres and is highly
folded. These two hemispheres
make up the cerebral cortex. This
controls most of our senses,
intelligence, personality, conscious
thought and high-level functions,
such as language and verbal
Regulates memory.
temperature and
water balance
within the body. Controls balance, co-ordination of
movement and muscular activity.

pituitary gland Controls

– secretes unconscious
several activities such as
hormones heart rate and
involved in breathing rate.
growth, sexual
reproduction
and water
The brain has two
balance

 The brain and spinal cord are the central nervous system. Nerves and sensory organs make up the
peripheral nervous system.
 Together, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous systems transmit and process sensory information
and coordinate bodily functions. The brain and spinal cord function as the control center. They receive data and
feedback from the sensory organs and from nerves throughout the body, process the information, and send
commands back out.
 The autonomic nervous system or involuntary nervous system is the part of the nervous system that controls
muscles of internal organs (such as the heart, blood vessels, lungs, stomach, and intestines) and glands (such as
salivary glands and sweat glands). One part of the autonomic nervous system helps the body rest, relax, and digest
food and another part helps a person fight or take flight in an emergency.