LIBERTY UNIVERSITY

JOHN W. RAWLINGS SCHOOL OF DIVINITY

American Church History

Submitted to Dr. Galen Johnson,

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of

CHHI 300 – D05

Survey of the History of Christianity

by

Myles Wolf

December 6, 2021
 1

The Christian religion has been countered with different ideologies since the religion’s

inception. Christians have faced these attacks for millennia, even within a new nation founded on

the right to exercise religious freedom. By the end of the 19th century, the United States

witnessed two major movements that spiritually stimulated the people to pursue the Almighty

God. The First and Second Great Awakenings generated a major influx of churches to be planted

under the banner of their respective denominations. However, this uprising faced another counter

by several secular teachings that would impede this rapid growth. Scientific theories were on the

rise to dispute the Christian theologies, such as the Darwinist Theory. A form of Europe’s

Enlightenment Period began to be replicated in the U.S. with a movement that challenged Bible

doctrine. Nevertheless, Christian leaders began to answer these attacks with an outline of the

ideals within the Christian faith and became known as fundamentalists.

A significant leader among the movements that attempted to overshadow Christianity in

the U.S. was Darwinism. In 1859, Charles Darwin wrote his infamous book titled, The Origin of

Species, which attempted to explain the evolution of species.1 Darwin went through great lengths

to study the origin and descent of man and other species. He circumnavigated the globe from

1831-1836, in what was called the Beagle Voyage, that included his most notable destination that

seems to support his evolutionary theory, the Galapagos Islands.2 The islands are full of a variety

of species in which Darwin studied and attempted to use their unique adaptation to their climate

as an example of the branching of species. Darwin’s teaching did not take long to infiltrate the

libraries of scholars around the globe. It was a theory that seemed to have not only the answers to

1
Mark Nickens, A Survey of the History of Global Christianity, Second Edition. (Nashville, TN: B&H
Academic, 2020), 190.
2
Ian Hesketh. “Narratives of Charles Darwin Down Under.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science
Part A 88 (2021): 303–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2021.06.007.
 2

the origin of man, but the potential to overthrow the teaching of creation, performed by the one

true God.

This theory was critically analyzed and after a period of time, American scientists began

to accept it as scientific fact. Although The Origin of Species was written in 1859, the theory did

not become popular in the United States until after the American Civil War.3 Bert Loewenburg

states, “The evolution controversy is symptomatic of the new America stirring beneath the

surface in the years following Lee’s surrender.”4 Loewenburg continues by highlighting the

major shift in the ideals in comparison to before and after the Civil War.5 This scientific theory

was a direct attack on creation. It withdrew the entire concept of the Bible doctrine of creation

and its Creator. It is a false ideology that demeans Scripture, which was also apparent to many

U.S. citizens who protested its teaching in the education system.

A division among the U.S. population began to rise. The northern states within the U.S.

mostly accepted the evolution biology, but the south was not so eager to allow the theory to be

taught within their schools.6 In fact, the Tennessee Butler Act of 1925 made it illegal to teach

evolution in their school system, which inevitably resulted in the Scopes Monkey Trial.7 The

defendant of this trial was a teacher, named John Scopes, who taught biological evolution.8

Scopes received a lot of attention from not only his community, but nationwide. The trial was a

dramatic sequence of events that would influence other education systems. Scopes was found
3
Mark Nickens, A Survey of the History of Global Christianity, Second Edition. (Nashville, TN: B&H
Academic, 2020), 190.
4
Bert Loewenberg. “Darwinism Comes to America, 1859-1900.” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review
28, no. 3 (1941): 339–68. https://doi.org/10.2307/1887120.
5
Ibid
6
Mark Nickens, A Survey of the History of Global Christianity, Second Edition. (Nashville, TN: B&H
Academic, 2020), 190.
7
Ibid
8
Ibid
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guilty and was fined one-hundred dollars, however, this ruling was overturned.9 The southerners

were intent on refuting this teaching. Nonetheless, their objection was not enough to disperse the

theory that had become a solidified teaching within the U.S.

A primary reason the idea of evolution was so widely accepted was due to its premise

differentiating from the creation the Holy Bible emphasizes. It was an excuse to dismiss the Holy

Bible and its teaching, which became a movement within the U.S. as Europe witnessed during

the Enlightenment Period. The Scopes Trial was just a highlight of the movement’s aim to

criticize the Bible. Church leaders understood most of the country denied the Word of God, so to

defend Scripture, churches began publishing lists that outlined their beliefs.10 In 1919, the

World’s Christian Fundamentals Association was established and published their own

Presbyterian statement. 11 However, an outline of beliefs was not enough for Lyman and Milton

Stewart. The Stewart brothers desired to rebuttal against the variety of teachings that the secular

world was indoctrinating. They funded a series of articles to be written by scholars that attacked

the subjects of evolution, criticism of the Bible, Mormonism, and other ideologies.12 The

compilation of the articles were formed into books and was titled, The Fundamentals, as they

were published from 1910 to 1915.13 Along with this response to secularists, other church leaders

desired to spark another movement entirely. They were attempting to begin their own social

reform.

9
Mark Nickens, A Survey of the History of Global Christianity, Second Edition. (Nashville, TN: B&H
Academic, 2020), 190.
10
Mark Nickens, A Survey of the History of Global Christianity, Second Edition. (Nashville, TN: B&H
Academic, 2020), 194.
11
Ibid.
12
Ibid.
13
Ibid
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Church leaders desired a revival to take place and for society to shift back to Christianity.

This movement was called the Social Gospel. Washington Gladden was a leader for this

movement who sought to integrate the gospel and salvation in a manner that involved

encouraging social equality within workplaces.14 Another leader was Walter Rauschenbusch who

became known for his publishing of A Theology for the Social Gospel in 1917.15 These men

harnessed a message that would focus on the current hardships within society. Joseph Martos

mentions that it was not only religious leaders who became influencers, but secular authors as

well. He states, “During the 1890s and the first decade of the twentieth century, secular and

religious authors in the United States and Europe began to analyze and attack the social ills

caused by the industrial revolution: dangerous working conditions, long hours, child labor,

crowded slums, and poor sanitation.”16 Their intention was to use those hardships and mold them

into a gateway to conform the people to take part of their agendas. Christopher Evans states,

“The social gospel is an offshoot of theological liberalism that strove to apply a progressive

theological vision to engage American social, political, and economic structures.” 17 Instead of

fighting against theological controversies as the Stewart brothers intended, the Social Gospel

focused on the people struggling within the secular world for a means of sharing the gospel. All

of these events encapsulate what is now called fundamentalism.

Fundamentalism entails a variety of elements that almost creates a defensive framework.

The primary function of a fundamentalist is to demonstrate a lifestyle that emphasizes their

14
Mark Nickens, A Survey of the History of Global Christianity, Second Edition. (Nashville, TN: B&H
Academic, 2020), 193.
15
Ibid.
16
Joseph Martos. “The Social Gospel in American Religion: A History, Christopher H.Evans, New York
University Press, 2017.” Reviews in Religion & Theology 25, no. 4 (2018): 669–71. doi:10.1111/rirt.13375.
17
Christopher H. Evans. “The Social Gospel in American Religion: A History.” (New York University
Press, 2017.)
 5

worldview. In the early 1900’s, this term was used for Christian leaders that actively defended

the biblical worldview. Michael Emerson and David Hartman state, “Groups that want their

religion practiced purely are called fundamentalist, as are groups pushing for an overhaul of the

national or global political system who are at best culturally connected to a religion.” 18 They

continue to explain the complexity of fundamentalism’s definition based on its function deriving

from the existence of secularization and modernity.19 Although their approach to the meaning is

questionable, they are correct in describing fundamentalist’s taking action to push their agenda.

The increase of fundamentalism derived from the pressure Christians were receiving from the

secular environment, but the term is often used to describe Emerson and Hartman’s description

of those who actively stand for their beliefs. The increase of fundamentalism in the early 1900’s

created a movement for Christians to stand firm amid the secular environment.

The late 1800s and early 1900s was an eventful timeframe for the church in America. The

Civil War contributed to division to both political and religious ideologies. The rise of scientific

theories gave secularists a tool to raise a great amount of doubt concerning the events in the Holy

Bible. The impact evolution had on America dealt a severe blow to the Christian majority.

Church leaders decided to act, but some of their efforts were not entirely effective. Regardless of

their methods, the call for Christians around America to remain faithful to God’s Word remains

an inspiring movement in the nation’s history.

18
Michael O. Emerson and David Hartman. “The Rise of Religious Fundamentalism.” Annual Review of
Sociology 32 (2006): 127–44. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29737734.
19
Ibid
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Bibliography

Emerson, Michael O. and Hartman, David. “The Rise of Religious Fundamentalism.” Annual

Review of Sociology 25, 2006. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29737734.

Evans, Christopher H. “The Social Gospel in American Religion: A History.” New York

University Press, 2017.

Hesketh, Ian. “Narratives of Charles Darwin Down Under.” Studies in History and Philosophy of

Science Part A 88, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2021.06.007.

Loewenberg, Bert. “Darwinism Comes to America, 1859-1900.” The Mississippi Valley

Historical Review 28, no. 3 1941. https://doi.org/10.2307/1887120.

Martos, Joseph. “The Social Gospel in American Religion: A History, Christopher H. Evans,

New York University Press, 2017.” Reviews in Religion & Theology 25, 2018.

doi:10.1111/rirt.13375.

Nickens, Mark, A Survey of the History of Global Christianity, Second Edition. Nashville, TN:

B&H Academic, 2020.