Introduction Aerodynamics

This book will teach you how to trim your sails and rig in the best possible way. Aerodynamics I-low can a boat possibly sail to windward? Well,
constitutes the theoretical background for most books on sailing, but the reader should not be it can't sail directly into the wind, but may be driven
discouraged if all this seems a little daunting as it is quite unnecessary to have a profound under-
standing of this subject in order to achieve good results . forwards with the wind 30-45' on the beam.
Aerodynamics is a difficult scientific field of which few yachtsmen have a deep knowledge. Hold a strip of paper close to your lower lip and blow
"Experts" abound and try to explain sail and rig functions using the latest fashionable theories. along the strip's surface. Th e velocity differellce
Some of these theories are imprecise and do not stand the test of time. Frequently they apply of the ail' all the two sides of the stl'lP will create
to particular cases but cannot be applied in general. Lessons learned from experience and a suctiOll that will lift the strip ofpopel' IIpwards.
observation are usually more valuable than the blind application of some advanced scientific
theory that may have a poor relationship to what you are actually doing out at sea.
In this book I have tried to distil those theories and rules of thumb which are commonly agreed
The same happens when air flows along a sail (or
an airplane wmg). The shape of the sail forces the
air fl ow on the leeward side to take a longer path
o
upon in the sailing community. Having said this, I strongly fee l that carefu l observation and than on the willdward side. Therefore the air has
common sense are the best shIpmates to have on board. What distinguishes this book from the to increase its velocity on the leeward side of the
majority is the short, concentrated text with adjacent corresponding illustrations. My aim has sail resultin&..in a lower pressure than on the wind-
been to make it easy to find , understand and remember the mfornlation you are seeking.
This book has been inspired above all by North Sail's Fast Course"!, but also by many other books
ward side. (I:lemoulli's principle states that an in-
crease of velocity in a fluid flow gives a pressure
o
on sail and rig trimming, too numerous to list. No doubt it can be improved' and I will be most decrease.)
grateful to anyone who should be moved to send me correction or comment. In effect a sailboat may be "sllcked" through the
water due to the low pressure on the leeward side. Windward
Conversely a slight mcrease in pressure wi ll act
on the windward side.
To the reader and sailor, I wish you Good sailing and Good luck l
The total sail force may be split into two com-
ponents, namely lift and drag as shown on figJ .
The lift acts at nght angle to the wind and the drag
acts in the wind direction. Both lift and drag in- o.
crease with wind s)leed but drag increases faster.
lvar Dedekam As a consequence different sailshapes have optimum
lift/drag ratios at different wind speeds. Lift Tolal sailforce
When sailing to windward (beating/close reaching)
lift should be maximized and drag minimized.
With the wind abaft the beam (broad reaching
and running), however, drag works in the right Llfill[!/
direction ano contributes to boat speed. Drag
Contents Take a look at figA where total sail force is once
more split into two components, in this case drive
Genoa/Main sail trim Trimming the Spinnaker 43 Rig tuning 61 fo rce aligned with the dIrection of movement and
Aerodynamics 3 Types of spinnakers 44 Rig types 62 heelillg force aligned with the boat's beam. The
Apparenl Wind 5 Equipmenl & terms 45 Athwartship tuning 62 heeling force wi ll tend to push the boat sideways.
Points of Sailing 6 Preparing the spinnaker set 46 Fore and aft tuning 63
Sail Shape 8 Hoisting the spinnaker 47 Backstay tension 64 To optimize performallce sailillg IIpw;,rd,
Trim Devices 10 Spinnakcr pole ang le 48 Tensioning wire and rod 65 TDIal sail force
drivillg force shollid be maximized while
Miscellaneous 12 Spinnaker pole height 48 Tensioning the cap shrouds 66 heelillg force is kept below certaill limits.
Genoa trim 13 Spinnaker deplh 49 Pre-bending Ihe mast 67
Stability 20 Running 51 Kee l stepped masls 68 An efficient keel is a major factor in a boat's ability
Balance 21 Reaching 52 Maximum mast bend 69 to point high into the wind. This is because it resists
Mainsail trim 23 Broaching 53 . The fractional rig 69 leeHluy \slaeways movement through the water).
The interaction of the sails 28 Steering in heavy airs 54 Tuning under sail 71 The kee is furthermore weighted to resist heeling.
Reaching and running 30 Gybing the spinnaker 55 Straighten the mast sideways 72
MarkinglMiscellancous 32 End to end gybe 55 Adjusting the lower shrouds 73 The keel (and the rudder) act in the water as the sail
Trim examples 36 Two-pole gybe 56 Multiple spreaders 74 does in the air. The water stream flows across the
Reefing 38 Dip pole gybe 57 Tuning diagram 76 keel at an angle due to the boat's leeway. A lift will
Problems/Solutions 39 Taking down the spinnaker 58 Miscellaneous 77 therefore be generated. This lift works agaillst alld
Summary 40 The Gennaker 59 Why pre·tension? 78 reduces 'he leeway. On a reach or a run, with.Iittle
or no leeway, the li ft of the keel disappears.
o
3
Wind crossing the sail should nearly align with the
leading edge at a small allgle oflllcidellce. Too Too large angle of incidence: True wind - Boat Speed Wind - Apparent Wind
large an angle of incidence win cause the air to Separated airflow behind the Note: Boat Speed Wind direction is the opposite of boal speed direction.
separate from the sail creating large vortices. leading edge. Large vortices
[01111. YOll ClII/1Iever avoid some
[f the (loint of separation moves too far forward , separation, bill it is jmportllm
the saIl wi ll lose its lift completely - it will be 10 have il as far aft as possible.
stalled. The boat wi ll rapidly lose its speed. A
turbulent trail of air will then minimise drive and
o
increase heeling force. Correct angle of incidence: True willd (here 511l1s) _ _ • Apparent wilJd=/Om/s
If the boat is pointing too high into the wind (small Separation occurs in the aft
angle of incidence) the sail "back willds" and may part (I/Ot shown 011 lhejigure).
flap in the area near the luff - it will be lllffillg.
A good sail setting test is to ease the sheet until the BOllt Speed wind (assume 5mls ill Boat A is motoring lip wind at 5 mls.
sail luffs and then trim it in again until it just stops. Too smaU angle of incidence: each case to allow comparisons.) Baal speed and tme wind are added
Note that it is more difficult to discover a stalled The sail is IlIjfilll5. alld Ihe liji Appare'" wind will then be /0 mls.
is reduced slgllTjicllntly.
sail than one that is luffing as the appearance of the
sail does not change. This is a common beginner's
mistake (see fig.27).
Gellerally we may say that the sails are most
efficiellt whell they are 011 the verge of lllffillg.
Fig. 6 sbows how any single force can be described
by two compollellt forces within a parallelogram .
. Two component (orces can al so be comDined
into a resllltallt force. This principle is al so valid
for wind velocities (fig .7).
/ =!
Aforce (01' velocity) may be split illlo compOllell t forces.
You may split a force (or velocity) in any direction
you wish so long as the parallelogram principle is
observed, as shown on fig.6 (you don't need to
understand why). [t can be very useful to sbow a
force as two component forces.You may then see
how this force acts in specific directions (e.g. the
split into a driving and a heeling force in f1g.4).
If you are motoring ahead at 10 knots on a dead CompOlle1l1 forces may be joined info a resultallf force.
calm day, you'll feera wind of 10 knots (app. 5 m/s) 71111s
in your face. This apparellt willd will be equal in
strength but opposite in direction to the movement
of tbe boat. The real wind, which we call true willd,
is in this example 0 knots. ,
Apparent wind (relative wind) is a combination
(i.e. the vector sum) of true wind and boat speed. 1
You can find the apparent wind in this way: Draw .../" 3.5 IIlls
the true wind and Doat speed with correct direction 2
and speed (scale used III fig .7 is Icm=lm/s) and
draw the parallels as sbown. Apparent wind will 3
Boat speed
•. , / /: pparellt will" = 0 IIIls o
then be tlie diagonal in the drawn parallelogram. Boat alld lrue wind
4 (511lIs) cancel"each other out (same
Note that dlle to boat speed the apparellt willd
comes more from ahead thall the true willd.
"' ; magnitude bw opposite
directiolls). Happells ollly
5
in short periods oftime,
Exceptions are when heading directly into true wind True wini'·, e.g. when surfillg all a
(motoring). or directly away from it (on a run). Note (511lIs) . wave or motoring ahead.
ihe large ilifference III apparent willa strength wben
beating upwind compared to nmning (fig.8). This Note that examples H, G & F are ordered ill complemellf01Y symmetlY to e.xamples B,C & D (i.e. mirrored).
is the reason wby you may feel comfortable when Nole the large \'aria/iolls in oflhe apparel.". wind, which is the all koard wind youfeelJn your/ace.
lightly dressed in a boat on a run, while people on Apparent wind (9 IIlls) II vanes from 0 10 10 IIIls even if all the boals are smll1lg allhe same speed 111 the same true wmd strength.
another boat going upwind at tbe same time and
place are encountering quite a chill! Apparent wind=relative wind= the wind YOLI feel on board
o
4 5
 n,e wind comes ill over the boat's
starboard side. It ;s therefore 0 11
Points of sailing starboard tack!

Reach
Apparent Wind Allgle aJillcidellce allgle aJauack (a)
a
Broad reach

Between Beats sector 771e boat has home

away, almost 1111Inil1g
(the sails will llot sellie or before the wind.
jill properly illlhis seclOf)

Beat Beat Run The boat has hom e away 01110

a 11m alld thejib is "blanketed"
alld lVill llo {oliger slay jilled.

The sails must be constantly trimmed with a correct Bearing away through a broad reach, you'll end up
angle of attack:. When you change course or encounter rll/lIIillf before the wind. The sheets are let further
a wind shift, the sails must be adjusted accordingly. out unti it is impossible to keep the jib filled. You can
When bearing away, the sheets must be eased so that then either take down the jib or set It to windward by

- -------- .","
dIe sails' angle relative to the centreline increases. using a whiske,. pole or a spillllaker pole.

Beat (closewillded) Ooseilallied (closel\illded) A pole has been set and

The baal poillls (IS high thejib is Plllling again.
I IIIto the wllld as poss15le.

Run

/
/
Tight reach -
,
/
/ Dead run
/ 17,e ix:Ja1bears away
/ 0 1110a close reach
/ and the sheets have .....-
Broad re; ch Broad reach
) 10 be let 0 111.

Reach
The boat hears f urther Tire boalllas gybed. - --;-,..- '-'--- -
away and the sheets are The sails are now 0 11 the
Dead run let out even more. opposite side with the wind
coming over the port side.
The boat is on a port tack. Run

We say bea,. away or poillt lowe,. when the boat If you bear away until the wind is coming in straight
App. wind True wind "turns away" from the wind . Alternatively we are over the stem, you are on a dead rull. The main should
Beat ca. 20 - 40 ' ca. 35 _ 55 IlIffillg when tunJing into the wind. We may also say now be as far out as possible. Ifthe boat is turned
rca
(I

40-/35 ' . 55- 150"

.-= poillt highe,. (head higher). NB! As we bear away, further in the same dIrection, the wind will finally
Run ca. /35 -1 80 ' c(l.150 -180 ' a beat changes into tight reach, reach, broad reach, enter the leeward side of the main which now should
running and finally a dead run. be led over to the other side of the boat - you gybe.
This can be a difficult manoeuvre in heavy wmds.
6 7

Sail shape
It is difficult to describe the correct sail shape, but
the three most imponant things to adjust are:
D Sail draft (fullness of the sai l)
D Draft position
D Twist (controlled by vang and leech tension)
Sail chord depth or draft identifies the fullness
of a sail. An imaginary line from luff to leech IS
called the chord. Chord depth can then he expressed
as the ratio in percent between maxImum draft (d)
and chord length (c). Draft strIpes or seams mlhe
sail can be used to estimate the depth. It IS qUIte
difficult to measure so the cruising yachtsman uses
his eyes and experience to estimate draft.
Draft position: The distance (\) frot:n the luff to
where you find the maximum draft tn the sallIs
called the draft position.. Draft forward gIves a
lower li ft/drag ratio and you can't POInt as hIgh as
with the draft aft shape. But It IS easIer to steer
(more forgiving shape) giving a wider groove *'
Therefore draft forward suits rougher condItIOns
and/or a more inexperienced helmsman. Draft aft
gives a better li ft/drag ratio than does draft more
forward and you will be able to point higher. The
sail will stall more easily if the boat IS not steered
correctly. Draft aft sai l shape is therefore best in
easy conditions - medium winds and flat sea.
D Draft forward in rough conditions.
D Draft aft in medium winds and flat sea.
The shape of the sail's entry can he critical especially
for the genoa Uib) which has no mast ahead of It
to affect the aIr flow. A round entry reduces the
pointing a,bility but is less affected by changes in
anole of incidence making it easier to steer. A fme
entry allows higher pointmg but is less tolerant to
changes in angle of attack whIch makes steerIng
more demand mg.
The forestay and halyard tension also affect the
fullness of the sail entry as shown on page 17.
'The Groove is a narrow course range detemlined
by a combination of your sail trim, boat speed and
pointing abi lity. Once "in the Groove" )lour boat
comes alive and travels at maxImum effiCIency.
D Round entry - Wide groove, easy steering
D Fine entry - Narrow groove, difficult to steer
The groove may be easier to find if it is widened
but the flat water pointing ability will be reduced.
8 9
Sail chord depth
L<
I..
_ D_____________
00 ___
c
_ 00
Sail chord depth ill % die x 100
___________ti ______________________ _
Flal sail: Little lift alld little drag
FIlII .'wil: Much lift bl/t also lillie" drag
_________ D________________________ _
c
DI'lI/t position ill %=//c.1" 100
I..
______i1___________________________ _
.1
DniftforWilrd makes the groove wider. YOll
can 't point (IS high, but it is easier to steer.
_____________ tf_____________________ _
I.. .1
Draft aft makes the groo,'e narrower. YOll Cllll
poinl higher - bllt more difficult 10 steer correctly.
- -'I" - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - --
Rou"d entry - Wide groove, reduced pointing "biUty
Fine ell'ry - Narrow groove, good poil/lillg
Twist
Twist: True wind speed increases with height and so
___ nnn_
the higher above deck level we measure the stronger
it gets (fig. 17). As the boat speed generated wmd
is constant WIth heIght then vector addItIOn shows
that the resultant apparent wind shifts aft and in-
- ' - True wind
creases with height.
Boal Speed Apparent wi nd
You therefore have to trim the sai l in such a way
that the wind's angle of incidence to the sail will be
constant from the foot to the head of the sail. This
is done by letting the sail fall more out to leeward at
the top than in the lower parts, i.e. hvisting the saIl.
-
Mainsail twist is primarily adjusted by the kicking
sh'ap (kicker or boom van g), the 11[(linsheet and the
pOSItion of the traveller on the track (figure 21). N()te how appare1lt
The twist ofthe genoa (jib) is adjusted by moving willd shifts with
the sail's sheetingppint (fig.24). It is also affected height.
by sheet tellsion. (Note there are other, more subtle,
reasons why you may wish to twist the sails which
are not discussed in this book.)
Draft position
Vertical sail shape: The sai l should have a little
more fullness in the upper parts to be most effiCIent.
This can he difficult to judge and is of more mterest
The sail is
a lillIe j llller
near rhe head.
to the keen racing yachtsmen. Most crulsmg yachts-
.1 men and many racers don't try to fine-tune the sails
vertically beyond the curvature the sallmaker has
built into the sai ls. But in strong winds the upper
parts of the sails ought to be flattened in order to
avoid excessive forces. This is a common
problem for most yacntsmen and usually more
twist will be employed.
Sails: We will not look in detail into how sails are
-
made, but only indicate what gives the sail its shape
and depth. The sailnlaker gIves the luff of the saIl a
curved shape and/or sews (or glues) dle sail together
fTom panels with curved edges. When you set a sat!
on a straight mast or headstay, a certalll fullness IS
forced into the sail. The rest of the shape is for you
to adjust l The edg"es of the sails are named Iliff,
leech and foot. The luff of the genoa IS usually' Head Sails
attached to the headstay and the luff of the mainsaIl / '-
G> is attached to the mast track. The foot of the mam IS
nonnally attached to the boom track. Both genoa
Headboard
(jib) and mainsail are always attached to the boat
The entry by their three corners:
D Tack (to the deck or boom.)
D Head (where the halyard is attached.)
D Clew (where sheetlboom Ollthlllll are attached.)
NB! Nautical temlS can he a bit confusing and often Genoa/Jib
Mainsail
there are two or more words to describe the same
thino.
.". Bodl beating and tacking describe the same
actIvIty.
Headsail = foresail and may be either a genoa or Clew
a jib.The mainsail is often only called the lIIain . Fool Clew Tack Foot
Tack
Trimming devices
The most common devices used to
control the shape of the sails are listed
helow. On the next page these devices
are shown in more detail.
Mainsail
I. Mainsail sheet (main sheet)
2. Traveller
3. Kicking strap (boom vang)
4.0uthaul
5. Backstay
6. Mainsail halyard (main halyard)
Genoa/Jib
7. Genoa/Jib halyard
8. Genoa/Jib sheet
9. Traveller (Sheet lead, Genoa car)
10. Forestay (headstayj
10
Main sheet and kicking strap
The kicker (Qoom liang) controls the
boom's ang le in the vertical plane.
o
Telescopic vang (can
be hydraulic or with
Gil inbuill tackle).
The mail/ sheet ( I). interacts with the h'aveller (2) to
control the boom s angle to the centreline and the
twist of the mainsail. On a broad reach/run the twist
must be controlled by the kickil/g strap (boom vang)
(3) which governs the boom's vertical angle.
Mainsail and Genoa halyards
The mail/ halyard (6) and the gel/ou halyard (7)
are used to hOlst, keep in place and lower the sails.
The halyard tension also affects the position of the
maximum draft in the sails (fig. I 5). The more you
tighten the halyard, the more the draft will move
forwards.
Outhaul
The olithulil (4) controls the chord depth in the lower
part of the main. The more the outhaul is tensioned
the flatter it becomes. The buckstay (5) most noticibly
bends the upper mast which draws out and fl attens
the upper and middle sail panels.
Genoa sheet and traveller
The slleet cOlltrols the sail's
angle 10 the boal s centerline
alii! its depth alld twist.
11'170'-''''''" oj the traveller
tWIst of the genoa.
The gel/oa sheet (8) controls the sail's angle to the
boat's centreline (win also affect the twist ofthe sail).
Genoa twist is most affected by fore and aft adjust-
ments ofthegel/oa h'uveller (9). The tension of the
!orestay (10) "reatly affects the shape of the genoa
and is often by adjusting the backstay (5).
11
Miscellaneous Sailmaking Genoa trim Th e airflow is belli due 10 the
The aenoa (iib) is o.ften considered to be the boat's mail/s0l7 which allows the gel/oa
How sails are made "engfne". Toe mainsail can then be seen as a kind to be sheeted at a wider (Ingle to
of trim flap that gIves the boat Its pomtmg ablhty the boat's centreline.
TIle sails are !riven their basic shape by the sailmaker.
The luff and the various panels get their exact shapes and controls its helm balance. ThIS shoulil not be
taken too literally as each sail's function overlaps Exampieof"",,1ISh:
after thorough calculatIOns. When thesesails are 011 boats wilh multiple masts, e.g.
hoisted on a straight mast or stay, they wlH have a the other. Wlty is tlte genoa so important? Sail ships, the after sails will be
certain depth and curvature whIch the saIlor may sheeted closer to the celltreline.
vary during changing conditions of wind and sea. o The genoa does not have a mast in front of it to
disturb the air flow and create whirls and drag.
Using telltales o The genoa can be set at a wider angle to the wind
than might be expected, due to the "lIpwlISIt ".
Telltales are thin yams of 4 - 8 inch length which
are attached to the sail where you want to see how Upwash is the chang. e of air flow direction that is
the airflow behaves. Ready-made telltales lhal can created ahead of a sail (or an object) before the flow
be taped on the sails are available. But you can also The sail is given by has reached the sail (the object) itself. The genoa IS
make your own by stitching wool yams through the Bllilf·jll curvatllre ill the joinillg curved panels. in the main's upwash area and benefits from a WIder
sailcloth (this will not damage the sail). Remember IlIff(lll(/ fOOl .c,:elllef drafi wind angle (aets a "lift") and can be sheeted further
to tie a knot close to the sailcloth on both SIdes. ul/,en tile sail IS hOisted. out from the boat's centreline. Conversely the main
As long as there is an undisturbed flow along the functions in the genoa's "backwash" and must be
sail, the telltales will stream horizontaLly aft. When Telltales sheeted in harder than if it was operating alone.
the air flow is disturbed due to wrong tnm, the tell-
tales at that location will start to flutter. Trim tlte genoa for driving force anti the mllin
Often you have more than one option to correct primarily to obtain a correct Itelm balance.
the situation when telltales start to flutter:
If the windward ones flutter you are heading too The Genoas are named Genoa 0.1, 2, 3 etc. with
high and should bear away. But maybe you are able decreasing size. Genoa 3 is effectively a standllrd
to tighten the sheet a bit more? ThIS wlil gIve the jib. The sIze of the genoa ISgIven U1 square feet or
same effect without having to change course. square meters, but It is also defined by the length ,,
..... of LP (luff perpendicular). ,,
If the leeward telltales flutter the sail is stalled' draji stripe ,,
Then you either have to ease the sheet if you want We describe genoa sizes by tlle degree of"overlap". ,,
to keep your course, or you may head a bit more This is a measure of how much the sa il overlaps ,,
into the wind without touching the sheet. the mast (fig. 29). A common value for Genoa No.1 ,,
The skipper mllst enjoy good coml/I//Ilication
is 150 % for Genoa No.2 130-140 % and for the ,
with the crew if he hopes to employ the best of
Genoa 3 100% i.e. approximately no overlap.
Gel/au: Telltales til/ached 10-11"/1'0111 IIIJJllI \'OI'iOl/5 heights.
the many diJ[erent combinations ofsail settings Maill : Ribbons of 10-12" length ouoched behilld file OOl1ellS. Note that the smaller headsails can have nearly fuJI
tlwt are available. O,.dillmy telltales ill the middle parts of the sail. hoist (except the storm jib), but have a shorter foot.
Telltales are among the best (and cheapest) "trim The reason for this is that tall , narrow sails have a Overlap (%)=LPfJ xlOO
instruments" you have. Together with the Windex"" more efficient wing shape (high aspect ratio sails).
(vindvane) at the mastheaa they will supply useful Leeward
infomlation on how to trim your sails. te ll ta le lifts: When the wind picks up heeling forces should be
Head up or reduced to allow the hui, to be driven efficiently.
[n addition black draft stripes in the sails wiLl make ease sheet. A smaller genoa is used and eventually the main tS
it easier to judge the sail shape. If you don't have reefed (see fig. 49 and 50). Below you will find
such stripes, let your sailmaker put some on your a sample table as an example of when t.o use the
sails. Some of the sail seams can be used as draft different Use tbe tahle as an mdlcator but
stripes until proper stripes have been fitted. Correct trim: be guidea by' the sail maker who should know the
When the leeward telltale begins to flutter (A), the Bolh lelllaies different salVwind speed ranges.
sail is stalled (separated flow). You either have to jlowaft·
Genoa Sizes
head higher or ease the sheet a bit until the telltales
on both sides of the sail stream horizontally aft (8). Sail Overlap Apparent Wind
% mls KnOIS
This indicates attached flow. When the windward
telltale flutters (C), you should either bear away
or tighten the sheet a bit. - Windward
telltale mls:
Bear away or
sheet ill a bit.
Light No.1
Genoa I
Genoa 2
150
150
130
1- 6
3-10
10-13
2-12
6-20
20-26 1
NB! The telltales may lift a bit, especilllly in strong Genoa 3 100 12-16 24-32
wind, as long as they dOlI't f1l1tter. Also see fig. 68.

12 13
The shape of the genoa is determined by:
I. The fullness of the sail
2. The draft position
3. The twist of the sail.
Basic trimming variables:
4. Sheet tension
5. Sheet traveller position
6. Forestay tension
7. The luff (halyard) tension
The sheet is the most used trimming device. The
sheet primarily determines the sail's angle to the
centreline, but also affects sail depth and twist.
NBf The closer YOII sheet the sails to the celltrelille
the higher the boat is IIble to poillt. Remelllber also
thllt evell if II trilll Ilevice has IIl11l1ill /tlllctioll, it
IIlso affects the other fa ctors thllt determille the
shape of the Sl';/'
When you tighten the .sheet:
D The sail's angle to the centreline decreases.
D The twist of the sail usually decreases.
D The depth of the sail decreases.
In order to decide how much to baul in the sheet
you may use the distance between the spreader and
the sailcloth as a measure. Some refer to a number
of "fists", others to tape reference stripes on the
spreader (=crosstree).
The best positions differ from boat to boat but in
optimum conditions, with medium winds and smooth
seas, you may on many boats sheet your genoa in
until It just touches the spreader and thus be able
to point higher. If you want speed rather tban the
ability to point high, you can ease the sheet further
away from the spreader. This will be especially
helpful in very light airs. Filld the best positiollto
Slllt YOllr boat by elllployillg trial alld error.
The above is valid on a beat. When you bear away
on a reach, ease the sheet so that the sail has a correct
angle to the centreline all the time. Use the telltales
to set the sails until you bave the wind on the beam.
Broad reaching and running make the picture more
complicated. This will be dealt with later in the hook.
o
Rules of thumb on a beat may be:
Tape or paint stripes 2" apart.
D I fist between genoa and spreader is normal.
D 2-3 fists for speed rather tban pointing high.
D 2-3 fi sts in heavy airs and choppy sea.
D Optimum cond.: Touch spreader (max. point.)
14
Rules of thumb on a beat:
x Medium winds 1I1ldjlllt seas
when YO II wish 10 point as
a
high as possible.
Normal conditiolls.
{'){'\ For sp'eed (powel) rather
\..)\.J than high pointing.
To determine the correct twist
First position the traveller on the track so that a line
of extension througb the sheet roughly divides the
genoa's luff into two parts of equal length. Then, 1/2
as shown below, use the telltales to find the best
location of the traveller on the track.
The sail should twist to allow for change in apparent
wind direction with height. When you have found the
correct twist the genoa will luff simultaneously from ••
foot to head as the boat is gently turned into the wind.
At the same time all windward telltales will flutter. 112
The genoa has correct twist when:
D TIle sail is luffing frOIll foot to top sinlUltaneously
when you are heading into the wind.
D All windward telltales flutter simultaneously
when you bead up.
If the sail luffs first in its upper parts the genoa has
got too Illuch twist. The top windward telltale will Too much twist
then start to flutter first. Move the sheet traveller
forward to increase the dowllward pull of the sheet.
This increases leech tension and reduces the twist.
The depth in tbe lower part of the sail will then
increase a bit due to the reduced /wrizollfal pull.
The genoa has got too much twist when:
-
D The sail luffs first in the upper part.
D The top windward telltale flutters first.
If the sail luffs first in the lower part the genoa has
too little twist. The bottom windward telltale wi ll Travellerforwards
flutter first when heading up. The traveller must now
be moved further aft. This will reduce the downward
tension in the sbeet. The clew will lift and the top
of the genoa will fall off to leeward. At the same
time the sai l will be flattened in the lower part due
to an increase in the horizontal pull of the sheet.
Too little twist
The genoa has got too little twist when:
D The sail luffs first in the lower part of the sai l.
D The bottom windward telltale luffs first.
When the traveller is moved forwards:
D The twist in the sail decreases.
D The depth in the lower part increases.
When the traveller is moved aft:
D The twist in tbe sail increases.
Traveller tift
D The depth in the lower part decreases.
NB! It is lIearly always beller to hllve sails that twist
too IIIlIch thall too lillIe. It is easier to steer the
boat correctly with IIIlI ch twist (wider groove).
Adjusting the sheet
When correct twist is achieved then adjust the sail's
angle to the centreline with the sheet. The telltales
are now even more useful. On a close-hauled course
you have the following niles of thumb:
D Windward telltales flutter - bear away.
D Leeward telltales flutter - head up.
When you are not on a close hauled course you ma)'
prefer to maintai n a straight course and IIlstead
adjust the sai ls.
We then have a more general nil e of thumb:
D Windward flutter - bear away or tighten sheet.
D Leeward flutter - head up or ease sheet.
On a reach from point A to point B, for example,
you can adjust the sails and keep a straight course,
If there are no changes in wllld strengtliJdlrectlon.
NB! Apparent wind always shifts aft in the gusts
(boat speed is but true wi?d
provided there IS no shift III trlle wl/ld d,rectlOlI .
Thi s lasts until the boat has pi cked up speed and
the apparent wind has adjusted itself to the new
conditIOns. Ease the sheet ouring gusts, and take in
again during the lulls. Alternatively if you wish to
point as high as possible, head up in the gusts and
bear away again in the lulls.
Note that the apparent wind may shift fo rward in
the gusts due to a forward shift of true wind.
This is called a header. Then you have to bear away
a Little or take in on the sheet. Racillg skipl!ers will
always f1y to tack Oil a header ifgoillg to wlI/dward.
If true wind direction shifts aft in the gusts, we call
it a lift. The apparent wind will then shift aft even
more than it does with constant true wmd direction.
When racing the genoa hand should trim the genoa
on any change of apparent wind. Because it takes a
certain time to change the boat's headmg (the rudder
acts as a brake if too much nldder is applied), the
trimmer should quickly adjust the sheet when the
conditions change and then progressively trim the
sail as the helmsman changes course.
Cruising yachtsmen will norma lly not bother to
adjust the sails for every gust. They usually prefer
to head up in the gusts and bear away agam m the
lulls. In this way some speed is lost but leeway will
be reduced and crew work reduced. If you choose
to ignore the finer details, it is always wise to know
how the trim devices work and how the sallshapes
affect the boat's behaviour in various conditions.
Correctly trimmed sail s could give you the extra
miles, minutes or hours you might need to. aVOId
bad weather or other problems on a long tflp.
16
Correctly adjusted
All windward alltl
all leell'ard lellwles
stream aft.
- stay will increase the sag and add depth to the sal!.
Pointing too high
Wi"dward leI/tales
flutter.
Pointing too low
The leeward relltales f NBf Thefores/ay Imgth shollid 1I0t be adjllsted as it
jlutter.
Ease the sheet or head lip.
A dj usting sail depth
Forestay tension controls depth in the ·middle and
upper parts of the genoa. The forestay is forced to
leeward and aft by the wind pressure, it sags. A loose
The depth of the sail increases primarily in the upper
half where the sag is large relative to the chord length.
Sag also creates more depth in the sail's entry, making Sag
it rounder. This wi ll widen the groove and make It
easier to steer without getting the sail out of trim. But
you won't be able to pomt as high as wiOI a finer entry.
D Tight forestay - Flat sai l and fine entry \
Tighl joreslay Loose joreslay
D Loose forestay - More depth and round entry
In smooth water the forestay should be tight except ,
in light airs when you need sail with more depth.
The stay tension should then be about 25% of max.
In choppy conditions it is wise to ease the tension
in order to obtain a rounder entry of the sai l. It will
be easier to steer in the chop without the sail stalling
as you make your course corrections.
If the forestay tension is reduced the genoa halyard
should also be eased to avoid the draft moving too
Tight fore.flay - j louer sail with ji"e e"lIy
far forward.
How do you adjust for maximllm forestay tellsioll?
One method is to study the sag while sai ling close
hauled with a No.1 Genoa in about 20 knots (10 mls)
apparent wind.
Start with a loose forestay. Sight up the forestay
from the tack and have one of the crew tension the
stay gradually. When added tension no longer reduces
the sag, you have reached max. forestay tensIOn.
On all masthead rigs and to some degree on some Loose forestay - More depth with a rOlll/der el/tly
fractional rigs you may tension the forestay by
tensioning the backstay . Mark the setting on the
tack le, rigging screw or hydraulic cylinder. lfit is
difficult to adjust the backstay at sea then set It
Masth.ad rig
permanently to 2/3 of max. (see also p.33 and 64). BOlh bac/cslay alld
Forestay tension on fractional rigs is most affected joreslay arrached
by rllllllillg backstay or capshrolld tension (p. 69-70). to the masthead.
is IIslIally set /0 obtaill a correct mru1 mke (page 63).
A tighter fo restay (fl atter sail) is desirable:
D In smooth waters and medium to heavy airs.
D When wishing to point high before power/speed.
A looser foresta), (more depth) is desirable:
D In choppy seas Fractional rig
D In light airs Forestay attached
D When you seek speed before high pointing. below lap of mast
(e.g. 718 11g, 31411g) .
17
 •
Adj ust draft position with halyard Draft position Miscellaneous tips Note
The genoa draft position is controlled primarily ] If it is difficult to steer correctl y because the
by halyard tension (which is more or less the same windward and leeward telltales tlutter altemately, Th e rig Irimmillg rules described are lIot
as luff tension). Tensioning the halyard moves the the genoa has too fme an entry. Ease the forestay absolltte and from time 10 lime they call be
draft forward , easing the halyard moves it aft. a little to make the entry rounder, or tension the broken 10 advantage. This is becaltse sailing
Loose Iralyard - Draft aft halyard to move the draft forward. is a complex arl Jorm lVith so mcmy variables
o Tight halyard - Draft position more forward that il callnot be }itlly described by a sel oj
o Loose halyard - Draft position further aft =:J It is not always possible to use the spreaders as immutable ntles. For example, as melltioned
a gauge for genoa sheeting angle setting (fig. 31) ill one oj the tips at left, boat speed may at
but usually some part of the standing ngging can times illcrease ",hen a "wrong gelloa llVist
Halyard tension also affects the shape of the genoa's is employed.
ellhy as does forestay tension. A tight halyard gives be used.
a round entry. This means reduced pointing ability, Rig trimmillg is at best a compromise ",here
but it will be easier to steer the boat correctly. _____ itJf ____ _____ ___ ______ _______ _ o The halyard should be tensioned until horizontal a number oJsail alld rig cOlltl'ols are adjltsled
wrinkles just disappear (see fig.79 and 80). Keep in to act ill concert. These adjltstmellts ojtell act
A round entry makes the genoa less sensitive to mind that modem Mylar sails may be over stretched differenlly all apparelllly similar boals alld
course corrections, it becomes more fOl'givillg. This Tigh, htllyard - Draft fo/ward
if the halyard is too tight. seldom call be precisely applied to a boat
is useful during variable wind conditions, choppy oj differellt design.
seas or when the helmsman is inexperienced. o Avoid tensioning a halyard when the sai l is ThereJore leam the basic rules well alldfrom
A loose halyard makes a fi ne entry. This is most sheeted hard. Ease the sheet or wait until the sheet these you may erplore altemative adjustmellts
useful when you want maximum pointing abil ity is unloaded, e.g. when tacking. to discover how 10 improve peljortnance.
in optimum sea and wind conditions (smooth water
medi um winds). .
NB! Mylar and Kevlar sails stretch less than Dacron
Al_ .B_ _ _ _
_____ _______
m ExamPle o In high winds it may be difficult to control fore-
stay sag on fractional ngged boats without running
This should be dOll e systematically alld is
mltch easier if another boat sails ",ith you
as a peljormallce reJerellce.
sails. This leaves you to control draft position mostly Stay and halyard quite tight. Draft position: ClI.40%. backstays (p.70). You cannot employ the backstay
by adjusting the forestay sag. to tension ine forestay without bending the upper
mast. When going to windward a tight mainsheet
will help keep the forestay tight. Ease the traveller
Tight halya rd (luff) :
o Gives the genoa a rounder entry. ___:r;:__________________________ _ in the gusts mstead of the sneet as is often done.
Sheeting angle
o Wider groove - Pointing lower, but easier steering Foresflly tellsion is reduced (e.g. ill choppy seas). This
adds depth 10 the sail alld makes a rOlll/der elltlY, bl/I
:J If the genoa is trimmed with correct twist, all
the sail's luff will backwind simultaneously as you
I"e dmp has moved lao JarJol1vard. turn into the wind. All windward telltales should
Loose halya rd (luff) : also tlutter simultaneously (p. IS). But it has often
been seen that boat speed mcreases if the ullper
o Gives the genoa a fin er entry. _______ :(J: _____________________ _ telltale tlutters first, suggesting too much !\vtst!
o Narrower groove - Pointing higher, but more
di fficult to steer If the halyard is eased afillle, the draft will move aft to I.'e\
tile desired 40%. 'j The sheetillg allgle is measured be!\veen the
The interaction behveen forestay and halyard tension centreline and the line from sail tack to clew. • 7-20' (mill. sfleetillg allgle)
may be diffic ult to understand . Remember that This angle should be increased as the boat bears
primarily forestay tension affects sail depth and away or as apparent wind "frees" aft (page 7).
shape of the entry while halyard tension primarily
controls draft position. A rough example of this _______ :(J: _____________________ _ The sheeting angle limits close windedness. Small
angles reqUIre a tight fo restay and head sai l sheet
interaction is shown below: Both halyard alldforestay are medillllllellsiolled. Draft tracks/l aced well inboard. Racing rigs may be
position is 40%. sheete to as little as 7' whilst very heavy crutsers
Smooth water may need to be sheeted to 20' . Shrouds etc. may
Wind Headsail shape Forestay Luff restrict sheeting options. (The minimum sheeting
Lighl
Medium
Full · relative fine cnllY
Flal
4().6O"10
Max.
Loose-
6().80% .L&__ mm m_Un___m________ __ angle is directly related to rig drag. High drag will
require more drive and therefore a Wider angle.)
Strong Flat Max. Max. The stay is /lOW lel/sioned for optimal pointing. The sail A small sheeting angle gives better pointing ability.
* Slifficlent tellslOlI 10 remove horizontal wrinkles. becomes flatter wit" ajiller ellllY but the draft has moved This is usefu l in smooth water and easy winds. In
too for aft. heavy seas and difficult winds use a wider angle
Choppy sea with reduced pointing abi lity but greater drive.
Wind Headsai l shape Forestav Luff The minimum sheeting angle can be adjusted while
Lighl Full with round cnllY 25% Loosc·· sailing if the boat is equipped with either a Bather
Medium Medium full 60% 6().80% Smaller sheetillg allgle • Poillls higher, bllt lower boat speed
halll (fig.69) or a second thwartships sheet track, ullger sheeting allgle • Poillts lower, bill higher boat speed
U
Strong Flat 80% Max.
Ease /enSIOII until horizonta/l\'rillkJes beg;" to appear althe Iliff.
By tensioning the halyard the draft is movedfol1vard to
abol/t 45%, which will be desirable ill this example. a> equipment which is more common on racers.

18 19

Stability
At this stage we will look at the boat characteristics
of stability, balance and the "feel" of the helm.
Heeling force
These have hearing on the choice and setting of sails.
As melltiolled earlier, you slroult! trim tire gelloa
for drivillgforce (//1/1 tire maillsail to obtaill correct
Irelm balallce.
This is important for masthead rigged boats where
the genoa is large compared to tne main. It is also
true for fractional rigged boats due to the "upwash"
delivered by the headsail (see p.28).
Centre of effort
Imagine the sum of all wind forces on the boat's
combined sail plan as a single large force acting at
a point near the geometrical centre of the sail area.
Thi s point is caned the "celltre of effort", CE.
Centre of lateral resistance
The underwater sideways resistance also has an
equivalent celltre of lateral resistallce, CLR at
approximately the geometrical centre of the sub-
•
TOlal wind force
Helm balance
Let us first look at the sideways acting components of
V the total wind force and the hydrodynamic resistance.
These forces act respectively at the CE (centre of
effort) and CLR (centre of lateral resistance).
Tire positioll ofCE relative to CLR Iras a sigllificallt
effect 011 tire boat's sailillg clral'llcte";st/cs.
when CE is moved. ..
Imagine the boat pivoting on a vertical axis through C B A
the point CLR. If the headsail only is set then the S CE
Fore and aft resistance
boat will bear away as the sail force twists the boat
about the CLR pivotal axis. If only the main sail is
Thwartship set then the boat wi ll luff up. The rudder must be
resistance used to keep the course. Therefore we have three
R possible situations:
Total hydrodynamic resistance e A) Lee helm: If CE is in front ofCLR the yacht's
bow will try to turn away from the wind and we
must steer mto the wind to hold course.
R
B) Balanced helm: The system is balanced with
CE aligned with the CLR. The yacht will then sail
V

t
merged hull and keel when viewed from the side. accurately on its course with on ly the sli ghtest
Similarly the underwater frontal area has a cellfre steering control.
of lrydrodYllamic resistallce, CHR.
Heeling :::: Righting momefll: C) Weather helm: IfCE is astern ofCLR the
Thwartship stability I Vxb=Oxa I yacht wi ll try to turn into the wind and we must CLR 8 ' 8 CE
steer away from the wind to maintain course.
The total wind force acts in the centre of effort CEo Wind force :::: Lateral resistance: .-:,.<7,
Its thwartship component, V, heels the boat whi le I V =R I Some weatlrel' Irelm is usually desil'llble. But ifit
its fore and aft component, F (fig.46), drives the becomes excessive we wil/lrave to employ large
boat forward. Buoyancy :::: Weight: A - Lee helm
rudder allgles to Irolt! course. Tire rudder tlrell acts R
The sideways wind force, Y, counteracts a force of I o=p I as a bl'llke ali(I reduces tire speed of tire boat.

t
equal magnitude but opposite direction, R, which
acts at the CLR. This IS the underwater combined A little weather hehn gives "feel" to the helmsman
hull & keel sideways resistance to "leeway". This
resistance which is produced mainly by the keel ,
-e
CE
• and will assist in drivmg the yacht to windward. It
can increase safety as the loss of the helmsman will
em/bles tire yaclrt to sail to willdward. cause the yacht to luff up and even stop. The crew CLR 8 CE
(if any) would be alerted.
The "couple" of forces acting on CE and CLR form a
"turning moment" which heels the boat. The weight b 3' - 5' of weatlrerlrelm is a commoll best allgle.
of the Doat and its buoyancy form a counteractmg B - Balanced helm
tuming moment. These moments will be of equal
magmtude but opposite direction when the boat o Buoyancy (deplacement) NB! CE is normally 5-15 % of the waterline length
is held at a particular heeling angle. ahead ofCLR when the boat is upright and sltll.
This is called the "lead". As the boat moves and
heels it will acquire weather helm as shown in fig. t
,
49 and 50.
CE 8 8 'cLR

CLR
C - Weather helm

20 21
 r
Weather helm produced by heel ing Main sail trim
Maillsail selling affects the boat's
When the boat is upriRht, the waterline plane will The main will be used during most wind and sea balance (llld pointing ability.
be symmetrical (tig.49J. The boat will tend to hold conditions. Nom13lly we never change the main,
a straight course. excep't duri ng ex treme wi nd cond it IOns when a
If the boat heels, the waterline plane will become trysail (i.e. a stom] main) is set instead.
asymmetrical. The boat will tend to tum . Water You reduce the mai nsa il by reefi ng and trim the
resistance will increase on one side of the bow as main according to the wind and sea conditions.
a wave builds and pushes the bow to Olle side. Test Many yachtsmen believe that it is easier to trim
this in a dinghy. the malll correctly than the headsail.
This heeling will nonnally produce weather helm. Trimming the main seems to be merely a choice
The forward component of the wind force Fdrives of correct sheet tension. It is more subtle, there are WH46
the boat forward. When the boat speed is constant secondary effe.cts. Best practice demands constant
this force will be of equal but oIJposite The boat moves attention. In practice few cruisers are sailed so
direction to the lryt!rot!Yllalll/c resistallce H. straight ahead. diligently but good sailors have the kn owledge
Hydrodynamic resistance is composed of fri ction and employ it when seeking best speed.
and wave resistance. It acts at the centre of hydro-
dynamic res istance (CHR). There are four basic adjustments to be checked and,
CE moves to leeward when the boat heels. CHR if need be, adjusted in a continuous cycle:
does the same but to a much lesser degree. Therefore
the forward component of the wind forc e F and Four basic trim operations:
the hydrodynamic resistance H together fonn a foree
couple. This tends to twist the yacht into the wind. Main sheet tellSion
1. Adjust twist with mainsheetlkicker tension. directly affects twist.
We therefore see that: 2. Adjust sail depth with mast bend and outhaul.
3. Adjust draftt position with main halyard.
Weatlrer Irelm ill creases witlr illcreaset!lreelillg, 4. Adjust helm balance with traveller position. Telltales at the leech
t!lIe to allasymmetriCtlIIlIlt!el1Vflter slrape allli a M43
....., indicate correct hvisl.
slrift of CE to leewart!.

Factors which reduce weather helm:

The mainsail has a large effect on the boat's balance.
It is therefore important to trim the main so that the
boat has a good helm balance all the time, giving
1. Move CE forw ards by: special attention to leech tension.
o Moving the mast forwards. Tightening or "c1osillg" the leech demonstrably Tighter she.el
reduces tWlsl.
o Reducing mast rake (see page 63). Symmetrical waterlille plane Asymmetrical water/ille plane G) increases the heeling forces in the aftmost parts of
the mainsail (increasing weather helm) and forces
o Reducing the area of the main (e.g. by reefing). the boat to wmdward.
o Increasi ng the size of the genoa*' The bow is
Jorcedlo Loosening or "opellillg" the leech has the opposite
windward. effect and reduces rudder drag losses by balancing Closed leech - increases weatherhelm
2. Move CLR aft by: the helm. Leech tension changes can be observed
o Moving weight aft. by looking directly up the leech from under the clew.
o Centreboard swept aft by partial lifting. Necesssmy to
/ apply r"dder.
3. Reduce heeling by:
o Moving weight to windward. Heelillgforce
o Flattening the sails and ease the mainsheet. ':::J Closed leech - Increases weather helm.
o Opening the leech of the main (adding twist). :J Open leech - Eases weather helm.
Open leech - eases weatherhel",
To obtain more weather helm, you do the 0FPosite When overdone an open leech will reduce the main-
of the above, but nonnally the prob.lem wil be too sail power and pointing abiliry. Note also that the
much weather helm - especially in strong winds. poslti oll of the traveller on the track affects the
CE shifts more to leech tension and twist of the mainsail (p.27).
·Bllr this illcre(lfeS heeling (lfU/ therefore often increases weather helm. leeward Ihall CHR
when 'he boat heels.
22 23
1. Set twist with main sheet tension
Set correct twist with sheet tension and then move
the traveller to adjust the sai l's angle to the boat's
centreline except when reaching or runninp_' Then
the kicking strap (vang) must be applied UJ.27).
The leeelr is the best indicator of the sai l's twist. A
good rule of thumb says that you should sheet in
the sail until the top batten is parallel to the boom.
(Long battens: look at the aft part - the last 20-24".)
When you ease the sheet, the top of the sail will
fa ll more and more out to leeward (fig.52). lfyou
haul in the sheet, you will gradually reduce the
twist until the upper leech wi ll close and the top
batten will r oint to windward. The upper part of
the sail wil then be stalled.
The telltale at the top batten wi ll now flutter, and
curl around the leech to the leeward side of the sail
(fig.55). lfyou ease the sheet a little, the leech wi ll
open and the telltale stream aft again (fig.56).
You have correct twist when:
o The top batten is parallel to the boom.
o The top telltale streams aft more than
50% of the time.
Exceptions:
In medium winds and smooth sea you may tighten
the sheet until the top batten points a little to wind-
ward. You will then point higher and still maintain
good boat speed. TIllS is possible with a masthead
rig where the luff of the genoa ends near the top of
the mast. The airflow is therefore helped to follow
the curvature of the main's leeward side in the upper
part of the sail and the sail avoids becoming stalled.
In light airs and/or choppy seas it may be wise to
ease the sheet until the top batten points to leeward.
This opens the leech in the top of the sail (increases
twist) and prevents sta lling.
Top batten may point a little to windward in:
o Medium winds and smooth sea (masthead rigs).
Top batten may point a little to leeward in:
o Very li ght airs (2-6 kts. = 1-3 m/s)
o Choppy seas
o Just after tacking
When correct twist is obtained, the sail's angle to the
boat's centreline must be adjusted (point 4 on' p.27).
Always remember that it is the relatiol/slrip between
the slreet tel/siol/ and the tmveller positiol/ which
detemlines the twist of the main except on a reach
or a run when the kickil/g stmp controls the twist.
24
2. Adjusting depth
Bending the mast will flatten the middle and upper
,," parts of the sail - especially desirable in smooth
,,, waters with heavy airs when you want to point high
, and don't need much power to sail through waves
: ' (conditions often found in sheltered waters). Maslbelld fillllellS
Mast bending techniques are different for different upper 1'0115 ofsail.
types of rigs. On fractional rigged boats you will
be able to bend the mast consIderably more than
on masthead rigs where it is difficult to bend the
mast to any degree by using the back stay.
If the boat has a baby-stay, you can tension it to
produce extra mast bend. If the boat has double
lower shrouds, you will have to loosen the aft ones
, ,
,
before you tighten the forward ones to obtain more
•'"j- bend. This is awkward and is rarely done .
Bending the mast moves the luff away from the leech.
This stretches the cloth more and flattens the sail.
Simultaneously the draft moves aft. The halyard
or the ClIl/l/ilIJlram (fig.62) must be tensioned to Depth in upper parts of the sail
move the dran forward to correct position again.
When the sai l is flattened and the draft has been
moved back to the correct position, the leech will
open. The sheet must therefore be tensioned a little
to maintain the same twist.
You flatten middle and upper parts of the main:
J o In heavy airs and relatively smooth sea.
"] When you want to point high more than power.
o When you have too much weather helm and
cannot (don't want to) reef.
The outhaul
The outhaul controls the depth of the lower parts
of the sail. The more you tension the outhaul, the
(Y.?---------------- XI ---------- - - --:.. . .
Tighten JIllIYiII'(/: The dm/t moves !ol1v(lrd agai1l.
Closed leech - the airflow is 1/01 able to follow fl atter the lower parts of the sail become.
the leeward side of the sail.
In strong winds and relatively smooth waters the
outhaul should be tight, flattening the lower part
of the main. This will open the leech and reduce Depth in the lower parts of the sail
weather helm. When you need more driving force
(power) ill choppy seas, ease the outhaul a little to
make the lower parts of the sail deeper.
Light airs - Loose outhaul
o Medium wind - Tighter outhaul
\ o Heavy airs - Maximum tight out haul
o Wind dominates - Tighter outhaul
, 0 Sea dominates - Ease the outhaul a little
Note tllat in extremely Iiglrt ait·s it can pay to flatten
the sail and use lots of twist. The reason for this is
that the air flow is not able to fo llow the leeward Tiglrt oll/lralll: Flatter sail. open leech
side of a deep sail in such conditions.
This is contrary to what is said on page 36 (fig.90).
But the power generated by such a flat sail may be
Open leech - Iile ai/j/owfollows Iile leell'lIrd side oflile sail. too small to move a heavy boat.
25
TIle flattellillg reef consists of a grommet (cringle)
in the leech of the main, about 10-20" (25-50 cm)
up from the foot, throuoh which a line is roven
making it possible to pufI the grommet down and
out towards the boom end.
The fl attening reef was used to fl atten the lower
parts of the sail. Modem sails are cut in a different
way so that the outhaul is suffic ient to control the
depth in the lower parts of the mainsail.
3. Adjust draft position
When youhave adjusted the depth of the main, you
have to adjust the draft position. For most sea and
wUld conditions It is set to 45-50%. Draft position
ISchanged by adjusting the halyard tension.
The more you tighten the halyard or CUlmingham
the further forwa rd the draft will move. With old
sails you must tighten a little more because the
draft moves aft when the sail s are worn .
In light winds the halyard may be eased until the
draft position is 55-65%. Ignore small wrinkles
close to the luff in these conditions, especially on
a broad reach or a run .
When the wind picks up the draft moves aft.You
then have to tension the halyard to get the draft
back III correct position.
D Draft position should nornlally be 45-50 %.
D In light ai rs the draft should be moved aft
to 55-65 %, especially on a reach or run .
The CUllllillghall/ is a line led from the sai l tack
through a grommet just above.the main's tack (see
... nmm . nnnnn6nn.n ...
fig.62) and back down to a control. The rope pul.ls
the cloth of the sail near the luff downwards. This
is more effective than tightening the. halyard which
Will stretch the luff itself In addition the upper part
of the leech will tend to close when you tighten the
halyard.
When tightening the Cunningham, the top of the
leech Will open (desirable when the wind increases).
Fmally you use less force to obtain the same shift
of draft position using a Cunningham.
A few wrinkles around the grommet and a littl e
baggy sail near the boom are a small price to pay
for a better sail shape.
D A Cunningham moves the draft more easily.
D Tightening the Cunningham opens the leech
more than tightening the halyard.
26
Flattening reef 4. Adjust helm balance with traveller position
The position of the traveller on the track controls
(together with the sheet tension) the main's angle
to the boat's centreline and to the wind.
The traveller position affects the boat's helm and The entire sail changes
can produce lee helm, weather helm or balance. allgle 10 the willd when
lhe traveller is moved.
The relationship between traveller and mainsbeet
tension may be difficult to understand. Imagine a
track that is part of a circle with its centre at the
mast, on deck. Fi rst you tension the sheet giving
the sail a certain tWISt. You may then move the
traveller on the track without changing the twist so
long as you do not change the sheet tension (fig.64). M43 j:?
Normally there is only a short, straight track. (Some
layouts neglect to provide a traveller and the sheet is • ow-··· .. _.
simply attached to a padeye on the boat's centreline.) .. . : .
Sai l control and set are affected by a combination
of sheet, traveller and, when reaching or running,
the kicking-strap (vang) as well.
Draft position
Rules of thumb:
"] Adjust twist with sheet, keeping traveller at centre.
D Beating and close reaching: Move the traveller
50%
to adjust the mainsail's angle to the wind.
D Broad reach and running: Use the ki cking
strap before easing the sheet. TIle traveller should
now be as fa r as possible to leeward .
·uIVM Strollger willd I Generally, with increasing wind the traveller should
be moved from the centreline to leeward until the
main just lu ffs slightly in the parts near the mast. Ideal bllt impractical
track. 17,e twist doesll '/
Move the traveller to windward in light airs. But not
60% Light wil1d I
so far that the boom crosses the centerline (there
are exceptions to this, especially when racing).
change \vhen traveller
is moved.
Keep an eye on the telltales, especially the one at
the top! They should stream aft and not curl around
the leech. Then the main will be stalling.
Cunningham
D Traveller to windward in light airs.
D Traveller more to leeward as the wind picks up,
. . . . Grommet without large parts of the main lu ffing.
Weatller helm is reduced when the traveller is moved
to leeward. You therefore need less rudder angle
to keep the boat on course, it is easier to steer and
boat speed increases. Remember that if you sail with
a rudder angle of more than 5', you are sailing "with
the handbrake on". Therefore move the traveller
as fa r to leeward as possible without having any
signi ficant luffi ng of the main.
The main may be allowed to backwind for a short
time if reefing is not possible or circumstances are
Draft moves fOl1vard pressing. Try to avoid "flogging" the sail. Wear is !Jthe sheet is easedfrolll J to 2 the boollllVill lift alld the
whelllighlellillg the rapid and damage may occur.
CUllningham. twist illcreases. IfYOI/ move tile traveller Ihe twist t'-\
is kepI constal11 (3) while the sheeting angle iI/creases. \;IiI
27
 Interaction between Genoa and Main
As shown on fig. 28 (upwash), the headsail greatly
affects the airflow across the main.
Heatisail {Illtilllaill lIIay therefore be vieweti as olle
elltire willg - the lIIaill 's leech beillg the trilll flap.
The overlapping area benveen genoa and main is
called the slot. lllC width of the slot depends on how
you trim the sai ls in relation to each other.
In light and medium winds you should trim the main
in such a way that when heading up Into the WInd:
The Iliff oft/Ie lIIaill backwilltls evellly frOIll foot
to top at the sallie time as the gelloa is IlIffillg (all
wirltlwarti telltales stm1 to fllltter silllllltalleollsly).
In stronger winds you may backwind the main near
the mast in order to keep the boat in balance. If1arge
parts of the sail backwiild the slot is too lIarrow,
restricting flow. To avoid reefing you may try to:
o Ease the genoa sheet a little.
o Add nvist (traveller to windward and ease sheet).
o Flatten the main
NB! When the main lu ffs , it may be caused by a
closed genoa leech feeding backwmd into the main.
If this IS the case, you may correct the probl em
by moving the draft of the genoa forward (tighten
halyard) and/or tighten the genoa sheet.
If the slot is too witie, the main will lose the extra
drive it gets from the interaction beween the sails.
You may then try to:
o Ease the mainsheet (more power and speed).
o Tighten the genoa sheet (pointing higher).
o Add depth to the main (more power and speed).
NB! You must of course compare all this to what
has been said earlier about genoa and main. It will
make it all more complicated, but generally:
o A sail is most efficient on the verge of collapsing.
o A sail is more efficient the farther out it can be
sheeted.
The witith oft/Ie slot will be at its Optillllllll i"st
when the first backwillti appears ill the 1110111.
28
The slot
/
Both sails shollld be /ul11llol1ized alld
the leech 0/ the genoa should make
a CIII1'e as para/Tel as possible 10 the
leech of the main.
The slot is roo narrow
The leech of the genoa is closed
andfeeds bad,.'wind jlllo the main.
When the leech flutters
You will sometimes see (and hear) that the leech
of your. sail is fluttering. If the sail has a leech corti
tighten it until the leech Just stops fluttenng.
A leech cord
Tightening can cause the sail leech to curl or hook is attached 10
to windward. Neither condlllOn Will senously affect Ihe leech oj
performance but the latter is less irritating and Wi ll the sail.
reduce fraying damage.
Large genoas often have foot tightening cords as
well as the common leech cords.
o Tension the leech cord until the fluttering
just stops.
The shape of the sails is analogous to an automobile
gear box. Low gearing is nsed when you need power
to accelerate or sail through waves. When you need
power more than pointing ability use full salls With The boat's "gears"
generous twist. Used by raccrs to accelerate out of
a tack. Good for choppy seas and unstable winds.
Low gear or 1st gear
o Full sails with generous wist and round entries.
o Wide groove, full power but not pointing high. 3 2
2nd gear is used when the wind increases without
the sea becoming too choppy. You Wish to IIlcrease
boat speed and at tile same time point high. The sails
are sheeted harder, fl attening the sails, but the entnes
are still round keeping the groove relatively wide.
3
Medium gear or 2nd gear
Low gear: Full sails with round entries alld draft fonvard.
o Flatter sai ls sheeted harder but maintaining High gear: Flat sails with fine entries alld draft f urther aft.
a rounded entry.
o Medium power and pointing ability.
Fine tuning
High gear is used in ideal conditions with medium By pointillg higher or lower "illthe groove" )'ou may, by using
winds and flat sea. This allows maximum pOllltmg the windward lelltales, fille tune for each of (he above gears.
ability and still maintains good boat speed. The
sails are trimmed fl at and sheeted hard for maxlillwn
pointing ability. The entry of the genoa is made finer Ma-cimu11I speed
(tight forestay) and the draft IS moved aft both on
genoa and mainsail.
Optimum pointi/lg ability and speed
High gear or 3rd gear
o Very flat sails , sheeted very hard, with fine
entnes and draft aft for maximum pomtmg
ability, but less power.
High gear is also used when the wind is very strong Ma-cimum pointing ability
and you don't want to reef. You w ist the salls more
and ease the sheets a little to de-power the sall s.
29
Reaching and running
Most of what has been said earlier also applies when
you are reaching and nmning. It is stil1lI1lportant
to maintain an attached airflow over as much of the
sail:s surface as possible. But some limitations will
be Introduced when apparent wind shi fts aft to a
reach or a run.
The Genoa
When apparent wind shi fts aft from a beat to a reach
(over 35' apparent wind), you will enter a sector
where it is more difficult to keep the genoa fill ed.
The sheeting point (traveller) should now ideally
be located outboard as shown on fi g.69.
The genoa usually twists too much as you ease the
sheet to adapt the sail to the new wind direction.
Moving the traveller forwa rd to reduce the twist
unfortunately produces too much curvature in the
lower parts of the genoa. A "Barber !rallier" (not
often used on cruisers) can be employed to move the
sheet lead forward and out to the gunnel or toe rail.
If you don't have a Barber haul, it is impossible to
stabilize all windward telltales. In these situations
concentrate on good setting of the middle of the
sail and ignore the upper and lower parts. Watch
the middle telltales to get as much drive force as
possible from the sail (fi g 70).
When the wind shi fts further aft, you arri ve at a
point where you can't keep the genoa fill ed at all
since it will be covered by the main. You may then
set the genoa to windward with a pole (fig. 12 & 13).
NB ! When apparent wind shi fts aft of the beam, it
may be time to consider the use of special down-
wind sails, e.g. gennakers and spinnakers, which
are described later.
When the wind shifts aft:
D Move the sheeting point forward and
as far out to the rai l as possible.
D Trim the middle part correctly, over trim the
lower part and let the top twist too much
or try a Barber hauler.
The wind on the quarter :
D Use a pole if necessary and try the genoa
to winaward. Bear away if possible.
D Finally set a spinnaker or gennaker.
30
Genoa sheeting point The Main The kicker (boom vangy
Always keep an eye on the top mainsai l telltales
when bearing away onto a reach . Try to keep all
te lltales streaming aft as smoothly as possible. , Too milch Mist. 77,e
lop oJlhe sllil Jails
to leeward. The lOp
The main sheet lelllale j1l1l1el's.
On a reach and when nmning the main sheet will
not be able to control the sail's twist well. This is
because the vertical pull of the sheet reduces as it Correct twist.
is "payed out" (fig.04). On a reach or run the main- All lelllales
stream aft .
sheet primarily controls the main's sheeting angle
0" a belli: Optimum sheeting poillt inboard (A)
to the boat's centreline. Alwaxs ease the sheet until
the forward sections of the saIL start to luff and then
take in slightly on the sheet aga in.
-
Retlchiflg: Optimum sheeting point ollthoard (B). Many yachtsmen attach extra telltales in the middle
of the sail 25-35" (60-90 cm) from the mast. When
these telltales flutter on the leeward side, the sail is
stalled. You must then ease the sheet until they Kicker/Jlollg 100 loose,
boom lifts alld creates
stream aft again. 100 /lfllch twist.
When apparent wind shifts from the beam to the
A Barber hllul call quarter then the telltales will flutter and curl all the
move the sheeting lime! The main is as far out as possibl e and will
point f0 11vard alia normally be stalled most of the time.
oullo the rail.
The" Kicker" (Kicking strap or boom vang)
The kicker will control twist on a reach or run. Set ./
twist by tightening the kicker before you let out
the main. Check that the telltales (especIally the top \ COn"eel kicker
one) stream aft more than 50% of the time. If tillS (vallg) tension.
is not the case, re-adjust kicker tension. (You may
have to reduce strain by first hauling in the main.)
In light airs you should be careful not to tighten the
kicker too much. Often the weight of the boom can
be too much. When the wind pIcks up, you should
li ghten the kicker until the top b.. atten is approx.
parallel to the boom (fig.5 4). Th is is a good rule
of thumb which should correspond (theoretically)
wIth all the telltales streammg aft most of the time.
Sail depth
Ease the outhaul to set deep drafted sails on a reach
or run. This will add fullness especially in the lower
parts of the sail. Ease the backstay to straighten the
upper mast and add fullness to the upper parts of
the sail. Finally ease the halyard or Cun111ngham
to move the draft aft.
o Adjust twist with the kicker (boom vang).
D Check tbat the telltale at the top batten streams
aft more than 50% of the time.
D Add depth to the sail by easing the outhaul and Telllales localed ill Ihe middle parI
straighten the mast. o/the sail indicate stalling. Leeward
telltales willlhell jllltter.
31
 Marking
It makes sense to record adjustments and settings.
It will then be easier and faster to duplicate these
settings when necessary.
Many cru ising yacht skippers mark very little on
board their boats. They rely on experience and
that they remember how the sai ls are to be set in
various conditions. This may be possible, but in
many situations it is obviously an advantage to
have a good coding system on the boat.
The boat's balance is the most important indicator
of correct sail settina . But even if the hehn is neutral,
it is no guarantee t'hat the sails are set correctly.
If the /"IIdder allgle lIecessmy to keep the boat 0 11
course is larger thall It', you call be quite sure that
sail or rig tUllillg could be improved.
It is therefore important that you are able to know
the status of the boat's balance precisely. If your
boat has a tiller, you will be able to see the rudder
angle directly. It IS still sensible to mark tiller angles
as shown in fi g.73. It is more difficult if your boat
has got wheel steering. Then you need marks that
show the rudder angle.
Fig.73 illustrates a method of marking the wheel.
It is often easier to mark accurately when the boat is
out of the water. Have someone turn the rudder to
calcul ated positions and mark the actual rudder
angles on the wheel. If you know the max imum
rudder angle, you may mark the wheel while the
boat is afloat. Count the number of turns of the
wheel to move the rudder from one extreme to the
other. Then it is fairly easy to calculate the rudder
movement in degrees for a certain turning of the
wheel (the spokes are suitable as marks).
NB! !fyou try to eliminate as much slack as possible
in the steering system before you start, the marking
will be more exact.
Marking halyards
By marking halyards where they ex it the lower
part of the mast, you will be able to determine how
tight they are. A mark that shows how high the sail
may be hoisted before the halyard shackle touches
the sheave at the top of the mast, wiH give you the
max imum halyard/luff tension - unless you use a
Cunningham. NB! It is also wise to mark the main
halyard for each reef cringle position so that the
correct halyard length is found quickly.
Note the numbered scales on the figures. These are
normally used by racing yachtsmen, while cruising
yachtsmen often settle for simple marks.
The genoa lead positions for the various headsails
may be marked as shown in fi g.74. Simply mark
I, 2 and 3 next to the hole for the actual genoa.
Using a numbered scale gives you poss ibilit ies
for a more subtle tuning.
32
Marking up the rudder angle Marking sheets Sheets and outhaul
It is a bit probl emati c to mark the Genoa sheets,
specially when they are attached to the sail by new
Example: bowlines every time the beadsail is changed. It may
be easier to mark the main sheet, but most yachts- i
x=3" d= 5.2 cm men find it Ulmecessary to mark the sheets. ,i
x=6" d= I0.4 cm The method of indicating the number of fists be-
tween the sailcloth and the tip of the spreader as a
x=9" d=15.6 cm common measure of genoa sheet tension works TapeiPai/ll marks 2" (5 em)
apart will help ),ou judge
!
only if the sail has an overlap.
if!,ollr I is e.g. 80
/Il llsi mUltip7y d by U.8. You may also use the distance to rigging screws
or shrouds. Paint or tape marks on the spreaders 2"
how hard a Iloll-Ol'erlappillg
genoa is sheeted. II
(5 cm) apart may make it easier to judge how hard
a non-overlapping genoa is sheeted.
Markin g the Outhaul Use e.g. the cringle
ppsitiol1s relative 10
The outhaul can be marked as shown on fig.75 . the marks or to the
Most cruising yachtsmen only mark the max. out- IIlImbered scale.
haul tension, but more detailed marking is advisable,
11121314151617181
Marking Backstay tension
This is an important marking. The backstay directly
controls forestay tension on a masthead rigged
I I I
boat. See page 17 and page 64 for descriptions of
maximum backstay tensioning for masthead rigs.
NB! A fractional rig is a litt le more compl icated
depending on how the rig is set up. Backstay tensioners
Many cruising yachts have fractional rigs with aft
swepl spreaders. This is a simple rig where nllUlers Indicator arrow fixed
,'
are unnecessary. The forestay is here pemlanently e.g. 0 1/ pllshp;1
tensioned by the cap shroud tension and not by
tensioning the backstay. This is used primarily to
bend the mast to flatten the main, but to some degree
it works as on a masthead rig. See also page 69-70
for more details on headstay tension.
As an indicator of the backstay tension you may
quite simply stick a piece of tape on the rigging
Mark the halyards screw or the backstay tensioner. Figure 76 shows
and lise marks 0 11 exampl es of various backstay tensIOners.
the mast or IIlImbered Tensiometers attached directly to the stay are also
scales as references.
! on the market.
,. Mark maximum
• backstay tellSioll
,• Marking the boat's tuning settings will make your 0 11 boulescrew or
work easier. You will be able to duplicate earlier tel/siol/er.
settings quickly for the same wind and sea con-
ditions, and use these to start fin e tuning.
The gel/oa lead This is very valuable especially when night sailing,
posit/Oil may be in difficult conditions and when changing crew.
mdicated 0 11 a scale Sail identity markings are important. Use indelible
'- or j llsi marked as
gel/oa No. 1, 2. 3... ink. Tack, clew and head and even reef cringles
may also be marked to avoid misunderstanding in
critical situations.
33
 Sail cloth Main halyard too tight Main halyard too loose
• •

Woven cloth stretches most when

loaded diagonally alld COli tracts
across the 70ad direction. l

The c/oth ill the halldkerchief is tensioned diagonally

alld contracts across the load direction. The typical
The cloth is often wovell of variolls fibres, but folds appear where the stress is greatest.
may also be a laminate a/film with reinforcing
threads laid in lhe directions ofstress.

Telylelle (Dacron) is the most common sailcloth, but
fi lms like Myla/' and fibres like Kevla/' become more
and more common. Old cotton sails are sti ll used
by quite a few sailors. Note that the cloth stretches
dIfferently depending on load direction. Traditionally
woven cloth stretches most when loaded diagonally.
Sails are normall), composed of various panels in order
to cope better wIth the tension. When the wovell cloth
is tensioned diagonally, it will contract across the load
direction, e.g. along the sail's luff when you tension the
halyard. The cloth and thus the draft moves forwards.
Modem sails are becoming more and more /o/'II/ stable!
Tension the main halyard (or Cunningham) to move
the draft forwards and at the same time flatten the
aft part of the main. Do this in heavy airs in order to
reduce heeling and weather helm. If you tension the
halyard (or the Cunningham) too much, long folds
wi ll be created along the luff of the main.
In light and medium winds the halyard should be
tensioned until the front part of the main just remains
smooth without wrinkles. In very light airs you should
ease the halyard (or Cunningham) until small, horizontal
wrinkles appear along the luff. The draft will move aft.
If you ease off too much, larger wrinkles will appear.

Genoa halyard too tight Genoa halyard too loose I • Over bent mast Folds induced by the outhaul

Folds radiate
from the boom
elid to the Iliff A fight ollthaul will create dislict fo lds along the boom.

When you tension the genoa halyard the draft is moved
forwards. This gives the sail a rounder entry making
the boat easier to steer correctly, even if you lose
some pointing ability (page 42-44). If you tension the
halyard too much, long creases will form along the
luff. NB! Be careful when tensioning the halyard on
modern sails. Follow the sail maker's instructions!
34
Easing the genoa halyard makes the entry finer and You bend the mast in order to flatten the upper half Tensioning the outhaul flattens the lower part of
you may pomt higher, but it becomes more difficult of the main in increasing winds. On masthead rigged the main. You do this when the wind picks up and
to steer correctly. If you ease the halyard too much, boats it is difficult to bend the mast to any degree. If you need to reduce drive force and heeling force.
wrinkles perpendicular to the luff will show. This is you bend your mast too much, folds (wnnkles) will A tight outhaul will create distinct folds along the
only desirable in very light airs with choppy seas. radiate from the boom end towards the luff. In fact, boom. This is quite normal and will not harm the
it is possible to invert the sail if the mast is over bent! sail's efficiency.
3S
 Choppy seas demand more
Trim examples (on a beat) ROllnd. full sails
that "breath e"
Relalively flat sails wilh
fin e entries el1sure good
Medium winds drive }orce alld wider grool'e Medium winds
pointing ability and speed for easv steerillg • that means
NB! All values are only examples to Giveyoll an idea a/h ow 6-1 0 m/s more depth ill sail alld roullder 6-1 0 m/s
sails are trimm ed in various conditions, and of course you ;11 smooth waler.
Smooth water Smooth water ellll1es thllll ill smooth water. Choppy seas
d(Jn 't need to know the depth in YOllr sails in percentage!

III light airs YOIl lI eed all the drive yO I/ call get fo iI/crease
boat speed which ill film will increase apparelll wind speet/.
L _ ___ _ 45 %
-----------' - 40 %
Pointing high is lIot imporlanll1ow. Therefore your sails • Eased to 7()"8()4/v 10 oblllin more de Ih and raunder enlrv.
should be full with round entries with /0 1S of rw iSl lO (Ivoid F A T. 9O"Aj Ii hI to obtain a reflllil't! al suilwitll me enln·.
Ti h,· Ora I silioll should be l/ rox. 45%. Relatit'elv ti lit· Dm t sitioll sholfld be a 40"/0.
stalling ill the top. YOli should also poillt lower thaI/normal. H
Ti Illell ulltil .failc/olll near/I' touches s reader ti . SIted: Sail/-2 ISiS rom Ii or more de Ihalll/ mOl'edl'll'e orce.
Ease the genoa sheet ul/til the sailc/oth ;s well free of the SII"':
spreader (at leasl nvo fisls). Backslay alld nlllllers (iffilled)
should be eased off to illcrease!orestay sag and 11,ils the
genoa depth ll ncftmtry roun dness. Th e s,ell oa halyard
should j ust be ligh, enough to mQl'e the drop to abow 40%.
Straightell tlte mast and ease the ollt·lwul to increase depth

-
ill tlte main. Pull the tra veller to windward IIlItil llte boom
is 011 the centreline. M Olle weight (crew) to leeward to increase 45 %
heel. Theil the sails will more easily filld tlteir correct shape • Ease 10 70-8(f'/o. Illt·/WISt's depth ill suil and I !liS dril'eforce.
by their OWl/ weight. Th e hydrody namic water resistance Total ,loose. Strai III mast ull.:reclSes de I ill I : A t . 90"/0. More lI/lJStheno I/wkes /I l' halo sail oller.
uti: Tig Ilelled a little rmtil 11m I sitioll i.f ap ro.l', 45%.
will llormally decrease w1,ell the boat is heeled slightly and H ani: wose small wrinkles. Ora a tlO 55-65%. Ird: Ti ht - DroP silion sJwulcl be ii' l'O.t . 50"/0.
is trimmed slightly head dou1fI.
Allow tI, e boat Unle to gath er speed. Each """ ecessarr
.......,Wose.
To windwcml. The 000111 on the centreline.
• ()..OCli, (Jattlo\\'I'arou '
Oil ce1lfrelille a lillie to leeward i exces.fil't! weather helm .
. : Eased 10 70-80% illcreasi" de II in 10ll'er 1'10 maifl.
tiwweIer: MOI'e to leewarcl Ihe boom 5-lfr rOIll centrelille .
SIted: Ti Izt. Ad'ltSlllmil all telltales Siream a t.
clllmge in.creases th e probability of early sepilfatitm {llld S.....: Moderalel , loose (1IIlIch twist . Ti hI. Ad'ust IIlIlil 1I1l telltales Slrealll u t.
.'Ital/ea salls.
N Bf LeI the boat find its own pace without
much changes and use of rutEder.

Relalil'ely fit/I sails wilh Light airs Choppy seas demand more
Light airs Flat sails withfll1e entries Strong winds Strong winds
fille entries create good drive }orce and wider groove ensure sufficient d,1\1(! force
poiming ability (lI1(rboat for easy steering - that means l\.';I11 less neeling. Above 10 m/s Above 10 m/s
speed /II smooth water. 3-4 m/s sails with a little more depth 3-4 m/s
Smoot h water (lnd rounder entries than ill
smooth waler.
Choppy sea
<
Chopp), seas
12 < .......Chopp), seas

It is l1('{/riV alll'(l1's qllile choppy when the wind 10 klS (/0 mls).
YOII thell' art! abollt to force 6 (slrong bree;e). 011(1 ),ollll'ill
ofienlulI'e problems lI'ith excessil't! lI'e(l{her helm.

___________ __________ L ___________ :/: ____ u________'-

flatten fhe saifJ (lIId IIIOI'e the fl'{l\'eller lI'elllO Iflills l!oes
1/01 he/I'. \'OIIIIIIISt challge 10 (I .WUlller headsml or reef Ihe lilli/II 10
gel \'0111' bom hack ill ba/ollce.
%
Ifti,is sliff doesl/'l help. or YOII/OI' aile reasoll or lI'il/ !/OI
45 % redllce .1'0111' suil plall. sll.-erlhe botll (lccordlllg 10 lIs IJee/mg:
45 % 40 %
" Firsl .1'011 point higher II!CIII I/ormaf. boat \l'iIIlhell heelless ull1
4()..5()4/v ti httoob/a;lIarelatit't! 1/1 enOl/wilha lIU!elll. '. 0ftIby: 30-40% Ii II/ or more de th all rounder 1.'1111 tile w;IIdl\'(/rd lellrale.5 III lite genoll \\,,(Ij1I1I1et' (lJI(J .the Slid
HII ani: Relative loose. brlt so ri ht tlult dm irioll is l'. 45% H .rd: Ti lite" IIIl1il the £Ira t sitioll is a /'Ox. 40% . lI'iIItlljJslighlly.. Th is doesn 't matter il/ lhese
Sliftt: So ti lit that the sailclot I touches the s reader Ii , eet: e atil'e y oose sai c at I olle tSl rolll lIe s rea er Ii how .flllplllJ dm'e force. "'"ell ymilltmk tllal the bOliliS 10.0 IIplIghl
lIlUl/osing speed. Ihell bellI' 0\\'(/.1' agoinlll/tilihe .fpeed
alld YOIllwl'e to he(l(/lip illto Ihe wind agoill to relluce Ille heelmg.
Practise stet.'''IIg the boal I\'ilh de.fil'ed angleo/ltet'l. I/omul/ly 10-25".
This is a techlliqlll' often employed by racing Yllchl.flllell when lhey

OL h___ h_ h___ 50 %
_ 45 %
O f ---------------_
li
50 %
----------,
dOl/'t (or CllI/'l) reef
Allolher technique 10 ClI'oid r('efillg i.f 10 mOl'e Ihe wil/d-
ward alU/ ease Ihe /IIail/sheel more. The lOP o/tlte /110111 11'111 IiiI'll
twist more. retlucillg both drit'e (II/(/ Iteelillg!orce.f. The Slime ClllI
be dOlle with Ihe headwtil by IIIOl'illg the lem/fill1herllflthall lIol111al
1_ : 4()..50"/O light. More mast heml flarrellS IlOoer lralf ofmain. BKksta: 4()..jO% ri ht. Moremast bendmakes r/wl sail tter. • /rxr/o (Mil. Max. mast belli, flultt'/lS WII.,.,· hal -ofmai" //lin. 011£1 IIIIIS increasing Ille (Wist oftlte s(lll
I_ani: Tighten ulltil draft DOsirioll is anoro.timatel), 50"/0. H Ti hten IIIrril dru t sition is a rox. 45%. Tir!ht. Dra i DOsilion should be a rox. 45%.
0.....1: jO"/O lighl for medium deDih in lower rt 0 the main. o.tM.l: 40% ti hi. A little more de th ill Ihe lower rt 0 the sail. 100% lif!'" to aI/eli/ower uri 0 maill max. NB! II is al ..·u)'.. befler 10 redllce lite suil plan ul Ollce if),olllilink
T......., l,reretf. a bit to lI'inmmrd to obtain ri III aJllOIUlt 0 wtIL 'U!/nL TnwIIr: MOI'e il u lillIe 10 leeward. To I.(,elmrd relluces IIl'Ulilel' lIelm . Ihut lite he/IVy airs ..'ill Always relllember tllUl )'(1 l1r boal
Sileer: nghtell llllTit top telltale illSl 10 curl aroll/It/ lo leeward. Sbett: Ease sheet (flilfie IIlItil alllelliales stream a I. Acljllslllllld all tellllltes stream lift· speed will be nearly as lrig,ll lI'itll less sail OplllllUIII, bllt
IIIII eit lo",('r ",i,h more SOIl (l re(/ Ilwl/ optlllllllll _

36 ] 37
 Reefing the main Problem Proposed solutions
I[you have made all necessary adjustments and
the heeling angle still exceeds 25" or weather helm Th e problelll is ... The Cllllse IIIl1y be ... Wlrat lIIay be done...
exceeds 8 "J then reduce sail area.
When YOll reef, YOli I1I11s1 think "balance" all the time. Slab reefing which is described here, is the IIIOS/ common BEATING
No/mally you 10 a smaller genoa before YOII sle/11 reefing today's yachts. Some boats reef their Too much
to reef the mm1/. BlIt on masthead rigged boats it may malll by jllrlmg It arol/nd the boom. The shape of the sail weather helm
pay to take a reef ill the main before changing to a smaller becomes guile baggy by this method. Modem in-mast or Sails arc too full Flatten main (and genoa) by tensioning backstay and out-haul. •
genoa. YOLI will then keep the more efficient drive force ill-boom more Gild more common) Rudder allgles
larger thall 8" The leech of the main is closed Increase twist by easing the main sheet.
of the headsail to push the boar throllgh the waves. can reefthe SaIls wllllsl mamtal1ll1lg an adequate sail shape. are IIecessary to Move the traveller more to leeward.
The main is sheeted too tight
keep tir e boat Change to a larger genoa or reef the main.
0 11 Cllllrse. The
Headsail too small relative to the main
hoat i.\' lteaI'Y 0 11 Sail plan too large (excessive heeling) Change to a smaller genoa or reef the main.
tltelre/nt. Too much mast rakelMast too far aft Reduce rake or move entire mast forward if possible (see p. 63).
Too much
Icc helm
The sails are too flat hx:rease depth ofmain (and genoa) by easing backstay and out-haul.'
The bout bears Reduce twist by easing the backstay and tighten main sheet.
away all tire time The leech of the main too open
WId mllsl he steered The main sheeted too far out Sheet in or move traveller to windward to maintain same twist.
up into tir e wi"d The main too small relative to the headsail Change to a smaller genoa or take out a reef in the main,
to keep ;1,\' course.
Mast too far forwardffoo little mast rake Move entire mast aft and/or increase mast rake (see page 63).
Bad pointing
ability
© YOII are 'lOt ahle
to pn;lIt as ',iglr
Headstay too loose - Genoa entry too round Tighten backstay. Fractional rig: Tighten cap shrouds/runners.
Smooth water: Ease genoa halyard to move draft more aft.
(IS other boats 0/ Genoa sheeted too fa r out Take in on sheet. Move genoa lead inwards with Barber hauler.
r r tlte ,mme type. The leech of main too open (too much twist)
The main sheeted too far out
Take in on the main sheet (Light wind: Tension leech chord a bit).
Sheet in or move traveller to windward to maintain same twist.
Mainsail too full Tension backstay and outhaul to flatten the sail.
Too little mast rake Lncrease mast rake (see page 63).
6 Low boat speed

r® r Poi"t (IS /righ ami

II ormal weatlr er
'relm, bllt /es,\' boat
Genoa too fl at with too fine entry
Main too flat
Ease sheet and backstay. Ease halyard to move draft further aft.'
Ease backstay and outhaul to increase depth in the sail.
Move traveller to leeward until the main luffs slightly in front.
spen l tlrall ollter
Main sheeted too much in
bouts 0/same type.

ReachinglRunning
Too much
weatherhelm
Genoa sheeted too hard The genoa feeds backwind into main which is oversheeted.
Tire bout hus all
ex tremely hea,'y Ease sheet (Move genoa lead outward with Barber hauler).
weather Irelm. You The main sheeted too far in Ease sheet or move traveller to leeward to maintain same twist.
are losing control. Ease kicker (boom vang) and/or main sheet to increase twist.
Main has got too little twist

I Ease kicker (boom alld sheet (13) alld tellsioll the topping lift (C) to keep the boom ill place. Low boat speed
Main has incorrect twist Adjust kicker (boom vang) to correct twist.
boat
2 Ease halyard (D) IIl1til the reef crillgle (E) may be attached 10 Ihe Ihe masl. tlran other bOills Main too fl at Ease backstay (runners) and outhaul to increase depth.
3 Tightell halyard agaill. The halyard shollid b<?!JlIile tight becallse the wind will be fairly Sh'Ollg 1I0W. (if the same type.
4 Tlghlen the reejlilleCG) unlillhe aft reef is almosl down 10 Ihe boom. Ensure Ihallh e boom The genoa will
may lift ji-eelyso the leech will 1I0t be ripped aparl Jslteel and kicker must be eased ofll not stay filled
Use a pole to obtain a more efficient sheeting point.
S Ease Ihe lopplllg lift (ifYOllforgel this the sail will acquire 100 much /lVisl). Willd/rom ((baft Correct sheeting point impossible
the beam n/llkes it Genoa covered by main Spread genoa to windward with pole. Bear away if necessary.
6 Tighlen kicker O!!!.om vang)--""d sheel. YOlllllay now sail on wilh reduced sail plan. diffiCIIlt to keep tire
genoa filled. * Fractional rigged boats have 10 use runnerS or cap' shrol/d
7 Ti'!3P s"'plus sailc/olh on the boolll wilh reef!E!t£ards CH) led through small grommets inlhe sail. lellsion to adJllstJorestay tension (genoa depth alld enIIY)·

38
39
Summing up
HolV do YOIl begill to t,.im tire sails?
One simple method is to start sheeting the main where
you think it should be for the apparent wind direction.
(When sailing to windward the main is sheeted much
closer to the centreline than on a reach or a run with
the wind more aft.)
Do the same with the genoa. ow check and adjust
the twist of the sail (lead position) and sheeting angle
using the telltales as shown on page 15-16. Then
adjust depth and draft position as shown on p.17-18.
Now ttlm back to the main and start fine ttming the
sheeting angle, sail depth, draft position and twIst as
shown on page 24-26.
Check the balance oftbe boat. Too much weather
helm? This will often be the case. Try first to adjust
the sails to get the boat in balance (see p. 21 and 27).
You must gIve the leech of the main special attention.
Still too much weather helm? Maybe you are carry-
ing too much sail (a correctly tuned rig is assumed)?
If so, change headsail ,or reef.
Get back to the genoa and restart the process. Repeat
until you have optimized the sail settings.
A cm isillg yaclrtsmallmay lIo,.mally Ollly give tire
sails a tolembly co,.,.ect t,.im, bllt will be/lejit/rom
kllowillg lrow to get tire most Ollt of tire sails,
One common fault is to sail with too much weather
helm. This is equivalent to sailing "with the handbrake
on" and the boat becomes difficult to steer, especially
when the wind picks up. A little weather helm is
desirable. (A rudder angle of 3' is considered ideal).
Tire aim of tire trimmillg is to ill crease d,.ivillg
fo,.ce, ,.edllce Ireelillgfo,.ce I/Il d at tire same time
billa lice all tire fo ,.ces actillg IIpOIl tire ,.ig alld
Irllll (especially tire IIl11le,.wllte,. hllll),
The genoa is trimmed to give the max. driving force,
and then the main must be adjusted and ada.pted to the
headsail in such a way that the optimum mteraction
between the sails is achieved. Headsail and main may
be considered as one entire wing profile from the luff
of the headsail to the leech oftne main. We may say
as a generalisation that we trim the headsail ell fly
and the mainsail's leech.
Trimming the Genoa
Concentrate primarily on the sail's entry near the luff.
Use telltales to check if the genoa has got:
o Correct sheeting angle
o Correct lead position
o Correct twist
Sail depth and draft position are primarily adjusted with
halyard tension and to some degree with sheet tension.
40
Own notes:
Trimming the mai n
o Ease the sheet until the sailj'ust starts to backwind
close to the mast. 11le slot wi I then be most efficient.
o Check and adjust the twist with the sheet and
traveller until the top batten is parallel to the boom.
o Check and adjust sail depth with outhaul and
mast bend.
o Check and adjust draft position with halyard or
Curlllingham.
Tire leech is what you should focus on now. (In contrast
to the genoa where the entry is the most important).
A closed leec h (tight leech) leads to:
o Large heeling force
o More weather he lm
o Better pointing ability, but less boat speed
An open leech (loose leech) leads to:
o Less heeling force
o Less weather helm
o Higher boat speed, but lower pointing
The boat's balance will tell you if the leech is open
or closed. If there is too much weather helm, you must
either flatten the sail more, move the draft forwards,
or increase the twist. Try to get the telltales in the
leech to stream aft more than 50% of the time. If you
don't have telltales in the leech, the top batten parallel
to the boom will be a good indicator of correct twist.
A little weatller helm is, as mentioned before, desirable.
Note that most often it is better to sail with too much
twist than too little. The traveller should therefore
nearly always be moved to windward in light and
medium winds, even ifmany cruising yachtsmen
prefer to have it on the centreline.
When the wind freshens, the traveller must be moved
to leeward. One exception is in strong wind when you
can't or you don't wish to reef. 11len It may pay to pull
the traveller to windward and ease the sheet more.
11le main will then twist more than nomlal and reduce
the heeling force.
YOII /rave now been ;Il/rotillcetl to a IJllmber ofmles (iftllllmb
011 /row to trim YOllr sails, but so ""my mrillbfes affect the suils
j
and ,lte bolli's petformallce that YOII often "m'e to compromise.
Your OWII experiences (and others having tire slime type of
boat) will show YO Il how best to hoim yo"r craft. It is therefiJre
worth while to mark till(/ record the settill!;s lllld compare the
effect. III this way YOIi will more easily discover what makes
yotlr b(}at ba/allce well tllld sail!tlster.
41
Own notes
Downwind sails

Spinnaker & Gennaker

When the apparent \Vind comes abaft the beam
it is very difficult to keep the genoa filled without
having to spread it to windward \Vilh a pole, as
it will be covered by the mainsail. Then the special
downwind sails like the spinnaker or the gennaker will
be more efficient headsails, especially in light airs.

J Jf .,2

-
The spinnaker is a sail Jar which it is particularly difficult to give exact trimming instructions.
ThereJore you will find that in this book we Ity to introduce you to more practical rules oJthumb.

42 43

Types of spinnakers
CrOsHut spinnakers were the first of the modem types
of symmetncal spinnakers. Because wind forces at the
top of the sail caused a diagonal load, there was a
significant stretch in the cloth. This resulted in some
defomlations of the sail shape as the wind freshened.
This type of spinnaker could be used effectively on
a mn, but it was less suited for reaching.
Radial head spinnakers have vertical panels at the
top which reduce the stretch of the cloth m heavy airs.
Thi s type was a significant improvement from the
cross-cut spinnaker, but the radial head spinnaker's
properties when reaching are still not the best.
Tri-radial spinnakers have panels placed in the three
main directions of stretch. This sail is therefore more
capable of maintaining its shape and is a good all round
splllnaker for most yach,ts.
Modem sailmakers may use compllter aided desigll
when shaping and cutting the panels. The sailmaker
will then be able to create panels with optimum shape,
strength and material orientation.
Materials
Spinnakers (and gennakers) are made ofthin nylon clOtll
in order to function in very light airs. Nylon is chosen
because it has a high strength/weight ratio and elastic
shock damping to resist the loads imposed by gusts.
In direct contrast mainsails and genoas are made from
materials with as little elasticity as possible in order
to maintain their shapes in the gusts.
Nylon will decay when exposed to sunlight over a
long period of time. Spinnakers and gennakers should
therefore be stored in their sailbags when not muse.
The sails must be dry when they are put in their bags.
Thorough cleansing with fresh water at least once a
year will prolong sail li fe.
Model'll spinnaker
44
head
Equipment and Terms
Sheet and Guy
The spinnaker is controlled by two "sheets", but the
sheet which is led via the spinnaker pole is called
the glly (or aft guy) and is attached to the windward
clew of the spinnaker. The slreet IS attached to the
leeward clew. The sheet becomes the guy and vice
versa when the spinnaker is gybed.
Tire spillllilker pole is attached to the spinnaker via leech leech
Cross-cut the guy. Th'lo0le must be with both an
and oWlllrall1to e pole honzonta!'
ote that the downhaul must eal With much greater
forces than the uphaul because the spinnaker has a
significant vertical driving force component.
Both sheet and guy are led through blocks on the
clew clew
aft deck and on to the winches, often dedicated
spinnaker winches somewhat smaller than the
0
genoa winches. .'
The jockey pole is used, espeCially on bigger boats,
to get a better pull for the guy and to keep the
guy away from the s rouds. . .
Tire prevellter stops the main boom from whippmg boom end jilting
Radial head across the cockpit in an /illcolltrol/ed gybe. This IS
one of the most dangerous incidents that can haphen
when sailing. Nonnally the preventer IS attac ed
to the boom at nearl1c the same homt as the maIn
sheet. It is then led orward to t e stem to obtaIn
a good pull angle to the boom and a more elastiC
system, through a block.or around a cleat and back
to the cockpit where It IS cleated.
NB! A qllick release metlrod is esselltial fo r aI/
prevellter types, Also lise a prevellter wlrell 011 or
Ileal' a dead ,.,111 wlrell IIsillg tire gelloa as Ireadsail, "1;
,
Alternatively the sheet may be moved to the rail as
shown on the figure. But a dedicated rreventer is
advisable even if it does not lead al the way to
"" 0
the stem back. Always ensure that it can be
released quickly, preferably from the COCkpit.
The BtII'ber lralller is a line with a snatch block
runnin on the sheet, routed via a deck block in the
toe rai yjust abaft the shrouds. The Barber hauler
adjusts the sheet lead m the fore and aft directIOn
(see also page 30 - fig.69).
If you attach a snatchblock to the toe rail, you will
obtain an extra smgle sheetmg pomt further forward.
Leeward side is always the side of the boat where
the boom is located excekt when gybmg when the
boom might be hel bac from swmgmg over to
the other side by a preventer).
To broaclr means that steering control is over-
powered by an imbalance of the sail forces. This The maj" sheet moved
Imbalance is self amplified by the mcreased heel to the loe mil 10 act as
a prevellter.
angle.
0 45

Preparation to set the spinnaker
o Tie the sail bag to the guard rail on the foredeck on the leeward side (I).
o Lead the sheet (2) to run outside and beneath the guard rails and
through the lead block on the aft deck and on to the winch.
o Lead the sheet forwards outside the shrouds (3) and the genoa
sheet and attach it to the spinnaker clew (4).
o The guy is led in the same way, but in addition through the pole
end fitlIng (5), in front of the forestay and to the windwafd clew (6).
o Attach the halyard to the head of the sail (7). NB! Check that the
halyard is running freely in front of the forestay.
46
•
Hoisting the spinnaker
Hoisting the spinnaker on a run
Halll ill the guy limit /lie clew
__ It is safest to hoist and take down the spinnaker in ;s close to the pole end.
the lee of the genoa. If you don't want to do this,
you must remember to pull the windward clew (A)
close to the pole end before hoisting the spinnaker.
C Set pole to correct height and tighten downhaul.
[ Hoist the spinnaker quickly and make fast halyard.
o Tighten guy until the pole is in the correct position
WIth the windward clew close to the pole end.
o Pull in the sheet until the spinnaker fills.
o Take down the genoa. NB! With the wind more
on the beam, the spinnaker will often not fill until
the genoa has been taken down.
Hoisting with the wind on the beam
o Set the pole 15° to the centreline and a little lower
than on a run. Tighten downhaul. Cont. as above.
Spinnaker setting in general
The top' ofthe sail ;s moved away
o Be very thorough when packing the spinnaker. fro m the mast and th e 11Ia;" ;IIio
afreer airflow ifyoll iet alit 8-30"
Hold the head and fold the leeches (normally oJ the halyard, aepelldelll 0" the
marked with red and green tapes) until you reach Size of the boat. i) c'{t\
the clews. Put the spmnaker into the bag while
holding the head and the clews. It may be wise
to let two crew members do this task. Spinnakers
on bigger boats are packed in special ways.
o Tie the spinnaker bag securely to the guard rail.
••
o Double check that sheet and guy are correctly laid.
o Set the spinnaker pole to correct height and angle.
C Take in the slack on the guy until the clew is close
to the pole. NB! This is not absolutely necessary
if the spinnaker is hoisted in the lee of the genoa.
o Check that the downhaul is tight so that the pole
will not lift and point skywardS when the sail fills.
Keep the pole pe'pelldiclliar
o Always lay sheet, guy and halyard with one tum will tli en
to tll e mast. YOLI
move the sphmaker!ltrthes[
around the winch for safety. You then have the 90' away fro m the other sails.
ability to control the spinnaker if it fills suddenly.
o On a run, except in very light and heavy airs, it
pays to let out a little of the halyard in order to
move the spinnaker away from the mainsail.
47
 The pole's angle to the wind Spinnaker depth
Depth in upper parts of the sail
Apparent wind angle greater Ihall 120 0 : The pole 90 0 10 Ihe wind The depth of the spinnaker is primarily set by the
sa!lmaker who shaped the panels of the sail. But
the depth In the upper parts of the spinnaker is also
affected by the height of the clews. When these are
ti fted, the leech and luff will open and the shoulders
(the upper parts of the leeches) will spread apart.
This will flattel/ the upper parts of the sail, contrary
to what many people believe. If clews are lowered
the leeches will stretch and approach each other, thus:
o Pole higher: Flattens upper parts of spinnaker
o Pole lower: More depth in upper parts of sai l
Depth in the lower parts of the spinnaker
Apparenl lVind 120 -I 80 0 The depth inthe lower parts of the spinnaker is
controlled pnmarily by the position of the sheet
o lead In nearly the same way as the genoa. Normally
the lead IS located aft (deck block), but by using a
Barber hauler attached Just aft of the shrouds, the
When the apparent wind angle is 120 - 180", as a rule of thumb, set the pole at 90" to the wind. When apparent sheet lead may be moved forwards .
wind comes more from ahead (reach/tight reach) you should "overtrim" the spinnaker pole in order to opel/ With the sheet lead well aft, the sail will be flatter
the leeward leech and flatten the sail (see fig. I 8). You must then tighten the guy to move the pole further aft, and the leeward leech will opel/. This reduces the
so the angle between the pole and apparent wind becomes less than 90' . heeling force due to the air flow leaving the sail with
less bending. The sail will also be further away from
the mam whIch makes a more favo urable air flow
The height of the pole along both sails. In contrast the depth of the sail will
increase and leeward leech will close when the lead
is moved farther forwards - due to the pull from the
sheet now being directed more downwards.Thus:
o Sheet lead aft: Flatter in lower parts - leech opens
o Sheet lead forward: More depth - leech closes

Pole 100 low Pole al correct height Pole loa high

One way to decide the correct height for the pole is to
look at the windward leech (the luff) . It trembles
as the spinnaker is luffed. Adjust the height of the
pole until most of tire leeelr breaks at tire same time
when the spinnaker luffs. If the top breaks first, you
must lift the pole. If the leech breaks first in the lower
part, you must lower the pole.
48
Another, simpler rule of thumb is that the leeward
and windwara clews should have the same height
above deck on a run. NB! It is important to check
this on a run when the wind is faihng and the sheet
clew drops. Then the pole must be lowered! On a reach
the draft position win be more important so the Wind- I Sheet lead forward
ward clew will often be lower than the sheet clew.
49
Draft positon
The draft position is controlled by the relative height
of the clews. TIle rule of thumb stating that the clews
should be at equal height is not always valid.
With the wind abeam or more forward, the draft
will move forward s if you lower the pole. If you
lift the pole, the draft position will move aft.
On a cruising yacht the spilUlaker should be trimmed
with the clews at the same height or with the wind-
ward clew a little lower than the leeward clew.
With a strong wind on the beam it is especially
important to lower the pole to move the draft for-
wards and thus avoid broaching.
(When in danger of broachi ng, ease the mainsheet
and kicking strap to depower the top of the sai l.)
Rules of thumb
o [t is wise to hoist (and take down) the spinnaker
in the lee of the gen·oa. Fig 6 and Fig 27.
o Set the pole 90" to the apparent wind when broad
reaching/running (app. wind 120-180'). Fig.9.
o The pole should be set forward a little when the
apparent wind comes forward of 120' . Fig 18.
o The pole should always be set perpendicular to
the mast. Fig 8.
o Set the pole lower in decreasi ng winds. Fig.1 O.
o Move the sheet lead forwards on a run in strong
winds, normally by a Barber hauler. Fig 16.
o Leeward and windward clews should be at equal
heights above deck when running. Fig 10.
NB! These general rules are not always valid. In
very heavy airs with danger of broachillg it is more
important to stabilize the spinnaker and thus the
boat before setting sails for speed. You lower the
pole height in strong winds (instead of raising it) to
flatten the top of the spinnaker which normally is
desirable in heavy airs.
III ortlerlo Irimlhe spillllaker op'timally you musl
cOlltillually ease lire slreelulltli willtlwartlleeclr
(luff) foMs, alltllhell lake ill juSI ellough so Ihal
Ihe folt1 tlisappears. This is tlolle 10 ellsure Ihallhe
sail is lIever oversheeletllo become less eff icienl.
NB! Cruising yachtsmen will almost never trim the
spinnaker continually in this way, but will instead
overtrim the sheet a little to get a more relaxed tnp.
50
Draft position
Pole lower: Pole higher:
Draft forwards · Draft mo\'es aft - the pole. This means that the pole is set with a larger
the 7eech opens the leech closes
! !
Keep the vertical mid-seam parallel to the mast.
[f the seam bends out to leeward at the top of the
sail, you should ease the guy. [fthe seam bends
out to windward you should haul in the guy.
[t almost never pays to be on a dead run. In light
and medium wmds it will be better to head up a
little to increase the boat speed and thus obtam a
better air flow across the sails.
[n stronger winds heading up wi ll ensure a more
stable progress and reduce the risk of rolling and
broaching to leeward (see page 53).
Running with a spinnaker Light and medium winds
Set the pole 90' to the apparent wind - lower The pole (Jimmet! 9(f 10 the Iril/d
Ihe pole as the wind lightens. Ensure the clews
Wi"d
are at the same height above deck. ....
] The sheet lead should be all the way aft .
[n light airs and choppy seas you may "undertrim"
angle than 90" to apparent wind. You can then ease
the sheet more so the spinnaker will pull well ahead
of the stem. The depth will increase in the lower part
of the sail increasmg the drive force through the
waves. (lfyou move the sheet lead forwards with
the Barber hauler, the spinnaker will be more stable
in the choppy sea.)
Running in heavy airs
The boat becomes more difficult to handle. It is most
important to prevelll rollillg to avoitl a broach.
Strong winds
Broatl reachillg (wind on the quarter):
Overtrim the spinnaker pole and set it lower to
stabilize the luff of the spinnaker.
Move the sheet lead forwards by tightening the '\find on tbe quarter:
Barber hauler and in addition overtnm the sheet
, Overtrim Ihe pole
a little. This will spread out the spinnaker, which
wi II prevent it from swinging from side to side
initiating roll ing, especially m big waves.
011 II tlelltl /'llll (to be avoided):
o As above, but ease the guy a little (undertrim
the pole) to ensure that the spi llllaker does not Dead run:
pull too much to windward (the boat would then Undertrim the pole
heel to windward wh ich may initiate rolling).
Stability on a run
To avoid rolling when the wind starts to freshen, it is
important that the spinnaker pulls as straight ahead
Stability on a run
as possible. You may see the direction of pull if you
look l!P at the halyard block (or sheave) on the mast
(fig. 17). [fthe pull direction deviates too much from
straight ahead, you have trimmed your spinnaker
incorrectly. But it is difficult and awkward to stare
at a block up in the mast. Therefore:
If the boat starts roll ing to willtlwllrtl, you haul in
the sheet a little. lf the boat starts rolling to leewartl,
you ease the sheet. The helmsman must watch the
movements of the boat and head up a little when
the boat heels to windward, and bear off a little
when the boat heels to leeward. Rule of thumb:
Sleer lhe boallilltier the mllsl! (see page 54)
It is also important that the boat is kept as upright as
possible. The crew should be located aft to prevent
\
Here the spimUlkerplIlIs a little to windward althe same time
the bow burying in the water and to ensure that the as the mllm pulls 10 leeward. The lotal forcejiVI1I the sails willtr'i.
rudder grips With maximum efficiency. Iherefore be approx. slraighl ahead holding Ihe boal slable. \II'
51

Close reaching
D Overtrim the pole and keep the spinnaker filled.
D Move the sheet lead aft.
NB! The principles pertaining to the wind abeam
are also valid for all wind directions from 50 to 120'.
When the apparent wind angle is less than 120', you
may overtrim the spinnaker pole to open the leeward
leech and move the spinnaker away from the main,
so long as you can keep the spinnaker filled. This
will also tum the sail force more ahead thus reducing
heeling. NB! Never Ie the pole rest on the forestay.
How high can YOII , oint with a spinnaker?
This depends on ho I the sail has been made, but
generaUy you may ' j that when the direction of pull
45' 17, you should change to a genoa.
t , first ,ase the sheet and haul in a little on
v to if. lYe sai l set.
yuultsmen often own spinnakers that
.. when the'wind is abeam or fllrther
J",ward It is then better to take down the spinnaker
and set the genoa instead!
Close rcaching in strong winds
D With the wind abeam in strong winds, you should
set the ROle as described above, but a little lower
to stabIlize the windward leech. The draft then
moves forwards - helping to prevent a broach.
D The sheet lead should be moved aft to open the
leeward leech more. This in tum wi ll reduce
the heel (and thus the weather helm).
Ifthere are problems with heeling or steering, bear
away to a broad reach or take down the spinnaker!
Trimming the main when sailing witb a spim.aker
The spinnaker bends the airflow much m, than
the genoa does. You wi ll find that the r ' must
be sheeted more in to compensate. In otheie•espects
treat the main normally i.e. increase depth by easing
the outhaul and straighten the mast. The halyard
should also be eased. On a close reach the main may
need to be fl attened in order to reduce heeling.
On a run in strong winds the twist in the main must
be reduced to cure the tendency to roll. The top parts
of the sai l may try to push the boat to windward.
Tighten the kicker but be sure that both kicker and
preventer can be released quickly.
In bght airs, however, you may have to use the
topping lift or a telescopic kicker to lift the boom
a little, to provide the necessary twist in the sai l.
52
Light and medium winds
Overtrim the pole so long
10 keep the spml1akerjillea. This will <!pen
'h e leech and reduce the heelillgjorce.
Irtlte pole is sel 9(f 10 the wind, leeward
leech will close more (red dolted line).
Twist ill the maill creates a force
component to windward in tile top
of tfie sail when naming ;11 heavy
airs. Tighten the kicker!
Loose kicker
Broach Forces leading to broaching
If the boat is sailed upright in heavy airs, the sail
The sail forces from
manage
forces from a correctly trimmed spinnaker and main spinnaker and main
will balance each other. The boat may be held on oa/ance each other.
course with small , quick helm corrections.
A gust or a wave causing the boat to heel may easily .$ turning point
make the boat unstable. Sail forces from spmnaker
and main will then act on the same side of the
turning point, and will both try to tum the boat to
windward. The rudder may not be able to counteract
these forces and the helm may lose control.
Further heeling action increases weather helm which
then contributes to an irresistible tum into the wind
and the momentum of boat, mast, rig and sai ls will
heel the boat even more. The boat will twist violently The sail forces from
Sheet lead well aft 10
into the wind, dip its boom into the sea and trip into spinllaker alld main
open leeward leech.
a knock down. The boat has broached to windward! will both 11)' to 111m
the boat to ....,J1(/word.
I!P\
W
Broach to leeward
Strong winds A broach to leeward followed by a gybe can occur. Broach
This can become dangerous if the preventer has been
set or the main sheet is attached to the rail. The boom
will lift to point skywards. Wind fills the back of the
main and heels the boat violently. The boat may
then fill with water through an open hatch.
Avoiding a broach:
Avoid any rolling by preventing the spinnaker from
swinging side to side (see page 51) and bear off a
little III the gusts. Sail with the wind further aft the
more it blows, but try to avoid being on a dead run
in heavy airs I
What to do when a broach to windward has started:
Ease the main sheet (does not help much on a run).
-- - Ease the kicker to depower the main.
Ease off the spinnaker sheet if necessary.
The main
What to do when a broach to leeward has started:
Shout "HEADS DOWN!". Keep the crew away'
fr om the lIIaili sheet and tracli. rh e boom W ill
suddenly alld violently swing across tire cockpit
(
ijllO preventer has been set or the preventer breaks.
D Release or cut the preventer to let the boom
swing over to the new leeward side.
D Ease off the kicker to take wind out of the main.
If necessary loose the guy (on the new leeward
side!). NBI If the downhaul is eased off quickly
during the broach, both spinnaker and pole may
be saved from immersion and destruction.
e
53
Steering downwind
in heavy airs
Steer the boat under the mast!
When nmning downwind in heavy airs rollillg can
produce serious problems and should be avoided.
It helps to "tame" the spinnaker with the Barber
hauler and trim the sheet and guy as shown on p.5l.
Stop any tendency to roll by steering correctly.
Iftlle boat starts to roll to leeward - bear away a tittle.
When the roll starts to willliward - head up a little.
TIlis is what is meant by steering the boat III/del' the
IlIllst. Many yachtsmen have developed a tendency
to do exactly the opposi te thing, which results in
worsenmg the problem.
Of course you should never bear off when the boat
is close to gybing. Therefore it is wise to always sail
a little closer to the wind and avoid a dead run. This
allows the option of bearing offa little without any
risk of gybing.
But if you have rigged a good preventer, you will
be able to employ the above technique with a large
degree of security. You will see when the maID starts
to backwind, ana be able to correct course while the
preventer stops the boom from initiating the gybe.
Alway try to anticipate the boat's movements. The
sooner you react the better will be your control.
Note that a windward broach is less dangerous than
a leeward broach. A leeward broach usually creates
a gybe, some damage, risk to life and !1mb and
considerable chaos.
54
Gybing the spinnaker One-pole gybe
There are three main ways to gybe a spinnaker.
Big boats and racing yachts nomlally use an extra
set of guys and sheets called lazy gllysllazy sheets.
These are not shown in the illustrations. Generally
a spinnaker is gybed in the following way:
o Bear off to a dead run.
o Stabilize the spinnaker.
o Lead the pole to leeward and clip on the sheet.
o Gybe the main, head up and trim the spinnaker
on its new course.
Racing crews normally gybe the main and spinnaker
simultanously but many cruisers choose to gybe the
The boat heads lip s/oll'ly.
The spinllaker is trimmed
@ main after (or before) the spinnaker, especially with 011 its /lew COllrse.
a short and/or inexperienced crew. The problem is
that whenever the spinnaker is on the same side as
the main there is a danger of turbulence twisting
and tangling the spinnaker. On stable boats you may
sheet the main anlidship to keep the spinnaker filled
while it is being gybed. ®
The pole is released from
the mast alld llttached 10
file sheet. II is the" released
End to end gybe (best suited for boats wlder 30 feet) .from the guv alld anacheti 10
file mast. The main is gl1Jed.
This is the simplest method of the three and the one
which demands least extra equipment.
But it may be difficult to execute in heavy airs and
choppy seas, especially if the boat is over 30 feet
long. This is because the spinnaker pole will be
totally free from the mast during the period of the
pole movement.
Bear off to a dead run and hold a steady course.
Roll to leeward: Roll 10 windward: o Ease the sheet and haul in the guy until the pole is
Bear off a little Head lip a little positioned athwartships with the spinnaker filled.
D Ease downhaul a little before the crew, nornlally
looking aft, releases the pole from the mast and
attaches the free pole end to the sheet on leeward
side. (The main should be gybed at this moment,
but it might be wise to secure the pole first).
o TIle crew tllen releases the guy, attaches the pole Bearoff/o a deOlI 11111 alld
end to the mast and re-tensions the downhaul. /lim the spinnaker wilh the
o Now gybe the main, head up and trim the pole 9{), /0 the celltreline.
spinnaker on the new course.
\ The crew may find it easier to grab the sheet to attach
it to the pole if a Barber hauler is tightened. Some
helmsmen grab the sheet and try to lead it inwards
onto the deck. Accurate steering is critical however
to avoid chaos and an llDcontrolled gybe of the main.
With a short crew or in heavy airs, an alternative to
gybing the spinnaker may be to take it down, gybe
the main and hoist the spInnaker on the new course.
55
Two-pole gybe
If the boat is equipped with two poles but only one
set of sheets and guys you may gybe as follows:
o Bear away to a dead run and set the pole 45' *.
o Attach the other pole to the mast, rig an uphaul
and attach the other pole end to the sheet. **
o Rig a downhaul and adjust/secure pole height
with up and downhaul. Set the new pole 45' *.
o Gybe the main and take down the first pole.
o Head up slowly and trim the spinnaker on its
new course.
* to the boat's centreline
** It may, dependent of boat size, be difficult to
attach the free pole end to the sheet with the pole
attached to the mast. It may be necessary to first
attach the pole to the sheet and then to the mast.
The boat has got lazy sheet and lazy guy
If an extra set of sheets and guys are fitted you may
attach the second pole to the lazy sheet, tighten It
and use it as the new guy. Before gybing ensure
the up and downhauls have the second pole under
control. You are then ready to gybe the main.
When the main has been gybed, adjust the new
sheet (the ex-lazy guy) and ease off the old guy so
that the cre\.v can pun the pole inboard WIth the
downhaul and release the old guy. You then head
up slowly and trim the spinnaker on its new course.
56
Two pole gybe
Head lip slowly 0 11
'he new course while
trimming the spinnaker.
®
Whell bolh poles are sel
45"to (he cellfreline wilh
light lip alld dOlVlI/UIII/S
,Ile maill is gybed.
,
"
Bear offto a dead 11m
alld set the olher pole
45/1 10 the centreline.
Dip pole gybe (with one set of sheets and guys) Dip pole gybe
(Remove any baby-stay/inner stay prior to gybing.)
Bear off to a dead run and stabilize spinnaker.
Avoid rolling.
[J Ease the uphaul and release the pole from guy.
o Ease the downhaul and dip the pole under the
forestay (rai se th e mast end of the pole if
necessary) and attach it to the sheet on the
leeward side.
Tighten uphaul and down haul.
[ Gybe the main. Head up slowly on the new
course while trimming the spinnaker.
The main should in fact be gybed at the same time Head lip slowly all
as the pole is led over to the leeward side, but with the "ew course while
trimming the spinnaker.
a small and/or inexperienced crew it may be safer
to do as described above.
Dip pole gybe (with double set of sheets and guys)
o Bear off to a dead run and stabilize spinnaker.
Avoid rolling.
I
] Raise the mast end of the pole so that the pole
may be led past the forestay to the other side.
I
Ease the uphaul and release the guy.
I Dip the pole end down and past the forestay
-
and attach it to the lazy sheet (the new guy).
I
o The main may be gybed at the same time.
LJ Reposition the mast end of the pole and tighten
the uphaul and the new guy.
] Head up slowly on the new course and trim
the spinnaker.
This method is very efficient, but demands a well
. ,.,,"(!L" '''',,: '
ahead of llie boal. Ihe \
relellseaji'Olll lhe glly. led IIl1der \l
"
theforestay alld attached 10 the
co-ordinated crew. One crew member may SIt In sheet (the new The moill
the pulpit facing aft. When the pole is dipped past may be gybed at the same time.
the forestay the crew should quickly attach the
lazy guy to the pole end.
It is important that the helmsman steers the boat
so that the spinnaker is stable and ahead of the Bear away 10 a dead rlln
boat. When the pole is released from the guy, the alld stabilize the spinnaker.
spinnaker is contro. lled only by two "sheets' . The
helmsman must now keep the spinnaker filled
until the pole is attached to the new guy and the
CD
main is gybed.
NBI If you sheet the main to the centreline, you /
may keep the spinnaker fill ed during the gybe,
even if you first gybe the main after the pore has
been led over ana attached to the new guy.
57
Taking down the spinnaker
Many yachtsmen think that it is di ffi cult to take
down the spinnaker. But if you take it down in the
lee of the genoa and follow the method described
below you should not have problems:
o Hoist genoa to leeward and bear off to a dead run.
o Ease the guy until the pole is at the headstay.
o Haul in the sheet. Check that downhaul is tight.
o Release the spinnaker from the guy. [f necessary
lower the pole to reach the snap shackle or the
tripping li ne (A).
o Take in all slack on the sheet as soon as the
spinnaker is released - streaming out to leeward
hke a large pennant. Make fast the sheet.
o Ease off the halyard in a quick and controlled
way. Simultaneously pull in the spinnaker, under
the main boom and down the hatch. Prepare
(stow) the spinnaker for the next hoist.
NB! Grasp the sheet as'close as poss ible to the
spinnaker and pull with long hauls along the leech.
When you approach the top of the sail, you may
grasp the cloth closer to the middle of the sa il.
Never elise the halyard before the spillllaker is
released[rom the guy alld a crewmember is ready
to pull it over the side.
There are other ways to take down a spinnaker but
this is the sa fest method for cruising yachtsmen.
This method may also work with the wind abeam.
NB! [fthe spumaker is fill ed when you release tbe
guy be wamed that the pole may suddenly recoil.
This happens as a result of tbe elasti city of the
heavily tensioned guy. Kevlar minimises thiSeffect.
Always stalld to leeward ofor below the spillllaker
pole wheJI the guy is relellsed!
If everything should fail and the spull1aker ends up
in the water, you just have to completely release the
halyard. Remember to cut the stop knot and let the
halyard run completely out from the mast and boat.
The spinnaker will then trai l after the boat, like a
dead fish, only attached by the sheet. Pull everythulg
on board. To do this you may need to slow the boat
by heading up into the wind.
Ease tile boom close to the {orestay. Take ill all slack
01/ the sheet alld release the spillllakerfrol1l 'he glly.
It willnolV stream to fef!lt1ard like a pel/nail!.
58
® o Haul in the sheet unti l the gennaker fill s.
Ease ofT the halyard alld plIII the
spinnaker as q//lckly as possible ill
under the boom alld downlhe hatch.
The Gennaker Gennaker
A gel1llllker (also called an asymmetric spuillaker)
is a practical alternative to the spinnaker. Its tack is
attached to the foredeck and it is trimmed like a
genoa when the wind is forward of the beam. When
running with the wind it can be set like a spinnaker
with pole, sheet and guy etc. [t can also be poled
out to windward as a genoa.
TIle gennaker is larger than a genoa, but smaller than
a spilUlaker. It is a high clewed sail that sets well
with the wind from forwards to aft of the beam
unti l it is necessary to use a pole.
NB! [f set ruMing as a spinnaker the geMaker may
set more satisfactorily with tack to the pole and clew
to the sheet.
Tack
Setting the genn aker
o Tie the sai l bag on the foredeck.
o Attach the tack to the stem bead with a 0.5 m line.
o Hoist sail as quickly as possible with sheet eased.
Tei/tales located approx.
/8"(45 em) kom the Iliff.
Dinghies: 9"(23 em).
Gybing the gennaker
o Bear off to a dead run .
o Ease the sheet off until tile gennaker collapses.
o Lead the sheet around in front of the forestay Two sheets can pe most
helpful. Be S/lre to keep
and back to the block and wUlch on the other side. 'he sheet out ofrhe 1I"(llerl
o Haul the sheet unti l the sail fill s.
I{yoll lise two sheets, the windward sheet mllsl
Taking down the gennaker (when not using a pole) be led arol/lld theJorestay ahead oj tile sail.
o Release the tack on the foredeck.
o Make fast the gennaker sheet.
o Bear away to a dead run. Sheet the main in a little.
o Release the halyard in a quick and controlled is (/flached Wifh a line
way. Simultaneously pull in the gennaker under .," ....... ,. block (If rhe (ol"eslay
the main boom and down the hatch. Prepare 'ack's heighr above
at/jl/sled.
(stow) the gennaker for the next hoist.
NB! Use the same technique as you do when taking
down a spinnaker. Grasp the sheet as close as possible
to the sail and pull with long hauls along the leech.
When you approach the top of the sail, you may
grasp the cloth closer to the middle of the gClmaker.
Keep the tack of the gelillaker relatively close to the
deck when reaching. When running set the sail like
a Blooper or Bigboy. Ease tile tack control line and
the halyard a little so that the sail moves into clear
wind as far away from the main as possible.
59
 •
Own notes

Rig Tuning
o
If ;s imp011ant to have a c01Teclly
fUlled rig. Boats which have badly
lUlled rigs are slower, point
heel more, make more leeway and
may ill addition be more difficult
to steel'. ..
These changes can be dramatic
011any class o/boat. They reduce
crew fatigue, widen the skipper's
options Gild improve reputation.
Boat value is enhanced and things
will be safer ill extreme situations.

60 61
Rig types Fore and aft tuning Mast rake
Adjusting the mast rake
The Berllllldall ril( is the most widely used rig in Masthead rig
The Illast is usually set with a slight aft tilt, the
the world. It may De split into two main groups: alldJares/ay
are both attached at so-called lIIasl rake, which improves the boat's up-
The lIIaslhead I'lg and the fracliollal rig: the masthead. wind perfonnance. Mast rake is usually between
The masthead rig 1_3' . Adjust mast rake as follows:
D Stable, relatively easy to tune.
D Less "tuneable" than a fractional rig. D Trim the boat upright.
D Larger and more headsails, relatively small main. D Measure the b-value as shown in fig. 3.
D Adjust the fore- and back stay rigging screws
The fractional rig for setting the desired rake.
D More "tuneable" tban tbe masthead rig. Fractional ri g
p
D Large main, smaller and fewer headsails. TheJorestay is NB! Fractional rig: Better to use a rUlming back- Matilllllm lel/glh of
attached some stay instead of the backstay when adjusting rake. tile maillsaillujJ.
D More demanding to tune and maintain the state distance below
of tune. the masthead.
Typical settings (higher values for racing yachts):
Consider three aspects of rig tuning:
D Trimming the rig sideways Masthead rio 0.5-1 ' 0.9 -1.75 emllll
D Trimming the rig fore and aft Fractional rig I 2-3' 3.5 -5.25 e",/m I
D Final tuning under sail b
Example: Fractional rig where P=]2m. We then get:

Straighten the mast sideways o em. YOII may also filld h

ji"om th e diag ram.
em)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ."
.,
D Adjust the cap shrouds until mast is upright. \.
D Hand tighten cap shrouds equally on both sides. The cap shrouds

Ensure the boat is upright and the wind is light.

Set up the mast on the boat and ligbtly tension the
The maSI where the cap shrouds
are tll/aclled should be eenfred
above the boat's cell/relille.
18 t P (m)
o
cap shrouds, back stay and forestay until the mast 17
is standing fairly upright. NB! If it ISa keel stepped
mast, the chocks should not be inserted in the mast
ring yet. See fig. 10-12 for closer details.
16
f
IS
If the boom is mounted, let it rest on deck to release
the topping lift. The lower shrouds and inner fore- 14
stay (baby-stay) sbould be loose at this moment.
Find two fixed points on e.g. the toe rails or gunnels Attach a heavy object (e.g. a
symmetrically located athwartships. Check that
these points are equally distant from the mast at 12 r-----
012 m
shackle or a wrench) to the
main halyard to measure h.
deck level. Then start measuring with the halyard. A bucket of water will dampen
II
Ifthe distances are unequal, tighten the rigging screw b (em) fh e oscillatiolls.

on the side with tlle largest length. When the lengths

on both sides are equal tbe mast is uprigbt.
10 !- : 63 em L)
d ili d 111 I 11I 1111 11' 1 11 1111 1 111 11 111 11 111 11 1111 1
Many yachtsmen do this check by eyesight. It may 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
be good enough, but requires an upright boat. The
halyard check is better Ifthe boat is symmetrical. Distance b as a function of P for various rakes:
Finally hand tighten the cap shrouds with eqllal
numbers of turns on each rigging screw and do the NB! Foreslay lellglh delerlllines Ihe lIIasl /'{Ike.
halyard measurement again. Backstay tension has only a small effect on mast
rake. On a masthead rig backstay tension mainly
Measure distance with controls the forestay sag. On a fractional rig the
The cap shrouds are also called upper shrout/s. IIIaill halyard to running backstays (runners) do tbe same.
e.g. 011 the loe I'm .
The forestay is also called the headsllIY. On a fractional rig without runners the tension
A running backstay is also called a fllllller . of the cap shrouds mainly detennines the sag.
NB! More masl /'{Ike leads 10 lIIore wealher hellll! o
62 63
 Backstay tensioners Tensioning wire and rod Measuring wire tension
Backstay tension
What is the maximum aUowable backstay tension?
The boat designer often chooses 30-40% of the
stay's breaking load as maximum allowable tension.
You then have a reasonable safety factor against
shock loads.
max.
213 of max . A Mark 2/3 alld maximum
backstay lellSioll 011 riggillg
screw or back'ilay lensioner.
If you want to trim your rig correctly you should
have some idea of the tension in shrouds and stays
either by rules of thumb or a more exact method
such as the one described below. Here you measure
the elongation of the wire as a percentage and then
measuring tape

nshroud
estab li sh tensIOn as a percentage of the wi re's or
Having adjusted mast rake, you must hand tighten rod's breakil/g load.
the backstay. Then use the method described on You either measure the elongation of all the wire ""
il
the next page to tension the backstay to 30% of the
breaking load (corresponds to 1=6 mm elongation).
or a part of It, e.g. 2 m. Accuracy will improve with
the sample length. Begm with a mInimum tension !"
II
This will now be maximum backstay tellsioll. Mark in the wire. Example (cap shrouds): l;
this on the rigging screw or the backstay tensioner. "
:1
Ease the backstay until F4mm. The tension of the D Mark off a 2 metre length of the cap shroud on "
II
backstay will then be 2/3 max. Check the mast rake one Side of the boat uSlOg the shroud terminal "
again. Alter the rigging screw tensions on the fore for reference. ""
II
and backstay in opposite directions until you have the D Measure the elastic extension (I) of the measured I,
desired mast rake with a backstay tension 213 of max.
Remember that on fractional rigs with runners you
length as the rigging screws are alternately
tightened, little by little. Stop when f = 3mm.
(4mm on fractional rigs with aft swept spreaders).
I!i;
01
have to tension the runners instead of the backstay
when you check and adj ust the mast rake. Note that an elongation of f = Imm over a sample :"":
of 2m of the wire corresponds to 5% of breaklllg I'"
On fractiona l rigs, using a back stay and with aft load il/depel/del/t of tire wire diameter. t!
swept spreaders, the maximum backstay tension is • "l1
limited by maximum mast bend. MaXimum bend :I
NB! For rod, an f = Imm elongalion over ,,
is dependent on mainsail shape (see page 69).
If your boat does not have an adjustable backstay
2m corresponds 10 7.5% of breaking load. .,""".,
tensioner or you do not wish to adjust the backstay
when sailing, then tension the stay to 213 max after
Use a similar method to establish backstay tension. 'i
Remember that a different sample length will have
completing rig tuning in harbour. You may then a different elongation for the same load.
leave the backstay permanently tensioned.
It is always best to release rig tension when a boat I m wire sample:
is moored. Most well built hulls, however, will
withstand the loads from a tensioned rig for quite
a long time.
0.5 mm elongation means 5% of breaking load.
1.0 mm elongation means 10% of breaking load
1.5 mm elongation means 15% of breaking load:
rigging screw
D
If you cOllstalltly have to tightell the rig to maill- 2 m wire sample:
taill the desired state of tUlle, thell the hull may 1.0 mm elongation means 5% of breaking load.
be ullder load_ If this is likely, release 2.0 mm elongation means 10% of breaking load.
3.0 mm elongation means 15% of breaking load.
all rig tellSlO1I alld cOllsult professiollals.
Another way to find maximum back stay tension is made of a strnight, single strand.
is to sail upwind with your largest genoa in a breeze Wire nggmg IS made of many twisted strands.
Normally rod rigging is 20% stronger than
that heels the boat 20-25'. wire of the same diameter.
Stand on the foredeck facing aft and look up along
the forestay. Notice that sag increases as your crew Wire the advantage of an early warning
first loosens the backstay to ensure that you start of fatigue when a strand breaks. Fatigue in
rod progresses without any warning at all.
with a loose stay. Then start tightening the backstay It can be sudden and catastrophic.
until tightening no longer reduces the sag. This will Hydraulic tensioners
indicate maximum backstay tension. This method have pressure gauges
is less accurate, but much simpler, than the first one. where tellsion may be 2m rod sample:
read directly.
1.0 mm elongation means 7.5% of breaking load.
2.0 mm elongabon means 15% of breaking load.

Remember that the elongation is always measured

from "wld tiglrt wire/roa (minimum tension).
o
64 6S
Tensioning the cap shrouds Cap shrouds Pre-bending the mast Masthead rig
By adjusting fore and aft mast bend when sailing NBf The pre-bend iIIustratiolls
When you have straightened the mast sideways and are e.xaggerated for clarity.
adjusted the rake, it is time to look at the cap shrouds. it is possible to tune the mainsail for various wind
Tighten the cap shrouds to approx. 15% of breakillg strengths and directions. The mast is often pre-bent
load. This corresponds to an elongation (f) on mrn to Jlrevent the mast from bending forwards, make it
over a length of 200 cm as indicated on the previous easIer to bend the mast further and make it possible
page. to shift the range of tuneable bending.
Mast bend is used, as mentioned earlier, to flatten
On a tractional rig with aft swept spreaders the cap the upper half of the main when the wind picks up Hand tight
and must be adjusted so as to match the designed backstay
shrouds should be tensioned to 20% of the breaking
load. This corresponds to an elongation of f =4 rum. shape of the mainsail.
This rig, without runners, requires a high cap shroud 15- Omm
tension to keep the fore stay tensioned (page 70). Masthead rig
To avoid excessive forestay sag upwina, the cap Pre-bend of keel stepped masts can be induced by
shrouds should be relatively highly tensioned. moving the mast heel and/or by use of wedges (fig. :
If 20% cap shroud tension is not sufficient to keep
at an acceptable level, increase the tension to
10- 12). If you don't want to do thi s you can, after
the wedges have been inserted, tighten the baby-stay
\','0'-
,, ="-
-a
25 Yo of breaking load. Do not exceed this tension. orfonvard lower shrollds to obtam desired pre-bend. , -
Slack riggillg will prodllce shock loads that call Tighten until mast bend is 15-20 mm. Use the main :, 9;;
calise rigfaillire alld may evell brillg the mast dowlI. halyard to estimate the bend. NB! If you tighten the Use the main halyard to , "'-
-:

forward lower shrouds, you must check that the estimate the pre-belld. • =
Note that YOIl willllot be able to overtighten a wire
mast is still straight sideways. The aft lower shrouds ·\ "s..
with "Dl,d tools of abollt 40-50 cmlength (jig. 8). ·
should be loose at this stage.
(NB! This may not be true for smaller boats e.g.
dinghies where a certain caution must be exercised.) Fractional rig
There are two main types of this rig: Rigs with aft
The lower shrouds and intemlediate shrouds should swept without runners and rigs with ill-
be quite loose at this stage. If the mast has distinct line spreaders which must use rllll/lillg backstays
bends you should try to straighten them by sighting (runners) to support the mast.
and hand tensioning. Fractional rig
Many yachtsmen illtllitively tensioll their stallding Fractional rig with aft swept spreaders without
rigging and adjllst it itlter when sailing has beglill . runners
This may lead to acceptable results but the methods
described above, while taking some time, are more
certain and reliable (see p. 78 about pre-tensioning).
0 3 - When the cap shrouds are tensioned to 20% of
breaking load (see page 70), the mast will be forced
forward at the spreaders. The lower shrouds should
then be adjusted until you have the desired pre-bend.
max. 30"

Hand light JO.50nm

backs/ayor
rUllners.

3 mm 800 Fractional rig with in-line spreaders using runners

4mm 1400 The pre-bend should be adjusted in the same way
5mm 2200 as for the masthead rig. The ruooers should be kept
6mm 3200 hand tIght dUrIng the pre-bend adjustments.
4400
•
7 mm Use /he lIIaill halyard /0
8 mm 5700 I estimate 'he pre-bend.
9 mm 7200
10mm 9000
II mm 10900 It is difJiclllt to give exact vailles for the pre-bend
12mm 13000 becallse it is totally dependellt 011 the maillsai/,s
shape. Only approximate vailies are given. COllslllt
I Kg = 2.205 Lb (=9.8 1 N) YOllr sail maker or boat desigller. Adjust pre-bend with the lower shrouds. o
66 67
Keel stepped masts Approx. 30"(0 ojthe mast Maximum mast bend Backstay lel/sioned
10 ma.:nl1lll1ll mar k.
_..r-- ...... clrCll1n!erence
All the wedges (chocks) in the partllers (through Checking mast bend on masthead rigs
deck mast nng) should be removed until the mast o Tension the backstay to the maximum mark .
is vertical sideways and correct rake has been set.
You may now force a slight bend in the mast (pre- -
10 ,he winch _ _ d
The mast bend can be 50"10 of the mast's
fore and aft diameter (U) but must lIever exceed
belld) by either moving the mast step aft or inserting 2% of H (total mast height above deck).
a thicker wedge in the mast ring, aft of the mast. Or NB' Many cruising yachtsmen choose to trim their
you may employ a combination of the two methods.
The wedges are necessary to prevent movement
of the mast in the partners. Use wooden wedges
i\
pal1llers (mast 'lng) nlbbe,. wedge wilh
masthead rigs as straight as possible but some
mast bend is often beneficial. ' /
for wooden masts and to protect against dentmg, Shore hardlless oj Checking mast bend on fractional rigs with aft
use rubber wedges for aluminium masts. 40-50
swept spreaders without runners.
Always insert the aft wedge first. Then rig a rope o Tension back stay unti l mast bend is approx.
20 - 24" (50 - 60cm) above deck level to the sheet 1.5 x D and mark this as max. on the tensloner. D ¢:l
winches (fig. I0) to compress the aft wedge so the NB! Mast bend should never exceed 2% of I
forward weoge can be inserted. A lubricant such as (distance from deck to forestay fitting). 1.5 x D
washing up lIquid will make the job easier.
• deck
The mast should be tuned so that it leans lightly Checking mast bend on fractional rigs with
forwards below deck in order to obtain an even nlbber wedge: 25% thicker thall in-line spreaders using runners.
the sial it ;s 10 be inserted ill.
curve all the way to the masthead. An angle of 10
will be suitable.
o Tension the runner to maximum. A mast bend Backsta Y/ntlllfilig
of approx. 1.5 x D can be suitable, but it must backstav tensiollea
The heel of the mast must be located aft of a li ne never exceed 2% of I. fa mark.
from the forestay fitting in the mast to the centre
of the partners when the back stay is at maximum It is difficllit to give exact vollies for maxim11m
tension.The distance (a) should be approx.15 mm/m mastbell d; r:lt e desigll ofYOllr maill alld tlt e
height from mast heel to the partners Q1). Maximum cltaractenstlcs ofYOll r rig are overridillg. It is
mast bend (b) must lIever exceed 2 Yo of H or I. best to seek adVIce [rom tlte boat desigller sail
maker or a professlOllal rigger. '
Tlte class associatioll may also be Itelpflli. Note
H,I tltat tlte above givell vollies are ollly typical vollies Fractional rig I
tltat may 1I0t be sllitable fo r YOllr hoot!

The Fractional rig

The traditional fractional rig, normally with ill-lille
spreaders must use running backstays (runners) to
stabilize the rig. Clteckstays are mostly used on
racll1g yachts to control mast bend in tne midd le
and lower parts of the mast.
The runners have the same function as the back-
stay on a masthead rig. Forestay sag will decrease
and the mast Wi ll bend to flatten the main when
h
you tighten the runner. The permanent
An adjustment log on such a fractIOnal ng IS pnmarily an insurance
It is very useful to mark and note down agaInst ng failure when gybing.
all the adjustments you make. You will
then make fewer mi stakes and it will
save time next year. It will enable you
1·1
to experiment Without losing the settmgs
you have achieved and you will be able h
to accumulate understanding of how
changes affect your particular boat.

(tl
69
68
The fractional rig II
Aft swept syreaders without running
backstays (runners) and checkstays.
TheJorestay (green) COllntera cts theforce
ji"01ll 'he cap s/,rollds (red). Cap shrolld
tellsionforces the spreaders fOl1vards. The
lower shrouds (bille) Iwld hack and limit
th e mast's pre-bend. Total mast bend is
controlled by backstay tellsion (orange).
Cap- olltllower shrouds
are al/achell aft ofmast
at deck le\·el.
This is a very simple and popular rig. There is no
need for runners because the spreaders are swept aft.
When the cap shrouds are tightened, the spreaders
wi ll be pushed forwards to produce a fore and aft
mast bend. Thi s pre-bend can be limited by the
lower shrouds which also give sideways support.
The more you tension the lowers, the straighter the
mast becomes. The forestay will also be tightened
when you tighten the upper shrouds.
When the cap shrouds are tensioned, the forestay
mast fitting is moved more away from the deck
fitting thus increasing the forestay tension . We
then have a pre-tensioned unit consisting of cap
shrouds, forestay and lowers. There is no need for
runners and the backstay (if fitted} is used to control
the mast bend and as a mast support when running.
70
"/Il
, ..
The problem with this type of fractional rig is that
the forestay tension is difficult to control in varying
wind strengths. The forestay tension tends to become
relatively row when the wmd picks up, which leads
to increased sag. Upwind properties wi ll suffer.
In order to compensate for this, the cap shrouds may
be tensioned more than on other rig types. It may
be advisable to pre-tension the cap shrouds to 20%
of breaking load. (The term cap shroud is not quite
appropriate for a fractio nal rig. Uppel' shl'oud or
lop shl'oud would be more correct.)
The fra cliollal I'ig wilh aft swepl spl'eadel's is a I'ig
thai, due 10 Ih e above melltiolled I'eaSOllS, call be
dijJi.cult to tUlle pe//eetly. This simple alld populoI'
ng is ideal fol' small, light boats, bUI less sllltable
fol' boats ovel' 35 feet.
Tuning under sail Checking cap shroud tension
Preparations
The mast should be centred sideways, have a correct
mast rake and bend with a correct tension in the
cap shrouds.
The lowel's should only be handtight at this stage.
NB! With two sets oflower shrouds their relatIve
tension will affect mast bend. The forward lowers
should be tigbter than the aft lowers, which
should be quite loose before sai l setting.
Cap shrouds are too loose.
Handtight any intermediate shrouds to be tighter nle masthead {ails off to lee-
than the lowers, but less tight than cap shrouds. ward alld rhe {eelvOrd shroud
curves to leeward.
rJ Tighten the backstay to 2/3 of max. tension.
o Lock the rigging screws temporarily with tape
before starting to tune under sa il.
The followillg tUllillg musl II0W be ullde/takell ill
willd Sh'ellgtirS that will heel the boal 20-25'. This
III1/s1all be dOlle befol'e the seas build up!
First check the cap shroud tension by looking
at leeward cap shroud. It should be handtight
- not slopping around (see fig.16).
o Then adjust the lower shrouds so that the mast
is straight sideways from deck to masthead.
o If the rig has double lower shrouds, you must
adjust aft and forward lowers in such a way that
the pre-bend is not changed, but the mast is kept
straIght sideways. The fOlward lower will enforce
mast bend and should be tighter than the aft one,
which will prevent too much mast bend in heavy
airs and should be relatively loose at the dockside.
Checking the spreaders
J Adjustments of any intermediate shrouds should
be done subsequent to adjusting the lowers.
Checking cap shroud tension
It is assumed tbat the cap shrouds are tensioned
equall y on both sides. Check the tension in the
fa
leeward cap shroud. It should now be hand tight b
and not slopping around.
If it is too slack, tighten one or max. two turns on
the rigging screw. Then tack and tighten exactly a b
the same amount of turns on the rigging screw on
the opposite side (which is now the leeward side). NB! It is velY importam 10 enslire thallhe spreaders
Repeat these adjustments until you are sati sfied. bisect the angle of the cap shrolld. This is vel }' often
Leewal'd cap shl'oud should 1101 be totally loose, but neglected and has heel/lhe calise oja IIl1mber 0(11Ia51
fa ilures. Correctly positioned spreaders sholl(d have
tightelled ulltil it 110 10llgel' cUI'ves 10 leewal'd. their tips vel }' securely locked ;1/ place.
NB! Th e cap shl'ouds al'e 1I0W filially adjusted.
[lIsel't the splil pillS alld tape ovel' them. (II
71

Straighten the mast sideways Later adjustments
Place your eye close to the the mast track for the
main luff on the windward side. Sight up along
the track from the boom to the masthead and check
if the mast is straight sideways all the way up.
If it is not, the lowers and illtermediates must be
adjusted. These adjustments are described on the
next pages.
NB! Always adjust the shrouds on the leeward side
because they will not be under load. If you want
to adjust a windward shroud, then tack and do
the adjustment with one or maximum two turns.
Then tack again to check your adjustment.
72
Sighillp alollg
the mast fraCK
10 check if Ihe
mast ;s straight
sideways.
If the boat has too much weather helm after tuning the
rig, you may decrease the mast rake by tightening the
forestay. On a masthead rig you must then ease the
backstay correspondi ngly. You also have to change
the max imum back stay tension mark.
The rig will stretch as time passes and must therefore be
re-checked regularly. A new rig should be re-checked
after a few hours of sail ing since it wi ll stretch quite
a lot in the initial stages.
You may at any time restart the rig tuning from scratch,
i.e. from the adjustments at the dockside. If so, then
ease off all stays and shrouds, remove the wedges from
the mast ring and start the whole process from fi g. 2.
Windward lower shroud is
100 loose.The midsection of
Ihe maslJalls OfflOleewaid.
Tightenlhe lower.
When you begin adj usting the lowers, they will be
qui te loose. While sailing the windward lower(s)
will always be under load. If you ease a windward
shroud, the middle of the mast will fall off to leeward.
lfyou tighten it, the middle of the mast will be forced
to windward. The aim is to maintain the mast straight
sideways even when the boat heels 20-25' .
Tightell the riggillg screw 0 11 the leewurd lower
olle tllm alld thell tack. Sight lip the mast alld
check if it is straight Repeat the procedllre Ill1til the
mast is straight both 0 11 starboard alld port tack.
Adjusting the lower shrouds
Windward lower is too light.
The midsection of the lIIost
;s pulled 10 windward. Ease
the lower.
Correctly adjusted lowers will be much looser than
the cap shrouds when the boat is at the dockside.
Double lower shrouds
[fthe rig has got double lowers, you should adjust
them relative to each other in such a way that the
mast bend is not changed, as mentioned on page 71.
The procedure is the same as for rigs with one set
oflowers, but tighten (or loosen) on both leeward
lowers before you tack and check the mast. The
forward lowers should be tighter than the aft ones.
73

lower is
loose .
.........., 0 3
03
Some experts state that after having tensioned the
cap shrouds, you should adjust the lowers and then
continue upwards with the intermediate shrouds,
which is the most IIslIa( way. Others assert that you
should start from the top and continue downwards.
Anyway, using sound reason will help you set up
the mast correctly. On the boat in the left half of
the figure it is clear tbat the windward lower is too
loose and must be adjusted. On the boat in the right
half the windward lower is too tight and has to be
eased gradually until the mast becomes straight.
74
Rigs with multiple spreaders
Always adjust the leeward screw one tum
(max. two) at a time. TIlen tacK ana check the result.
Never try to adjust the windward Jigging screw which
is under load. It is very easy to damage the threads
of a loaded rigging screw.
Either YOII tlllle the (owe,.s alld the illte,.mediates
/rom deck alld IIpwa,.ds o,./rom above alld dowlI-
wa,.ds, do IIOt adjllst the cap sh,.ollds agaill.
Othe,.wise YOII will have to do the whole process
of tllllillg the ,.ig ollce mo,.e! This applies howeve,.
mallY sets of sp,.eade,.s the boat has got.
.,.,., 03
0 3
Here you see clearly that the upper part of the mast
is curved while the lower part IS qUite straight. You
therefore have to adjust the intemlediates to get the
mast straight. On the boat on the left side the upper
part of the mast falls off to leeward. The windward
Intermediate is too loose and has to be tightened
gradually to straighten the mast.
On the boat on the right side the windward inter-
mediate is too tight because the upper part of the
mast is pulled to windward. This may fool you into
thinking that the cap shrouds are too loose as it looks
Windward
;lItel1l1ediate
;s tOt) tight.
3
0
like the top of the mast is falling off to leeward. But
at this time you have checked and perfomled the final
adjusnnents of the cap shrouds, so the problem must
be elsewhere. You should therefore ease the wmd-
ward intermediate gradually until the mast is straight.
Some intennediates continue all the way down to
the deck where they may be adjusted. These are
named cOlltillllOlIS IIltermedlates. Another type of
intermediates are called discOlltillllOlIS. These are
rigged diagonally from spreader to spreader and are
adjusted at the lowermost spreaders (A).
75
 Tuning diagram
(Page references in parentheses)
Masthead rig
I. Handtighten cap shrouds until mast is vertical. (62)
2. Adjust mast rake with forestay and backstay. (63)
3. Tension cap shrouds to 15% of break. load. (66)
4. Set the mast pre-bend.
5. Check and adjust maximum mast bend.
6. Check and adjust the cap shrouds under sai l. (7 1)
7. Straighten the mast sideways under sail. (72-75)
NB! This rig has either!ol1l'llrd lower shrouds or a baby-stay.
Fractional rig I (usi ng running backstay)
I. Handtighten cap shrouds until mast is vertical. (62)
2. Adjust mast rake with forestay and runner. (63)
3. Tension cap shrouds to 15% of break. load. (66)
4. Set the mast pre-bend.
5. Check and adjust maximum mast bend.
6. Check and adjust the cap shrouds under sail. (7 1)
7. Straighten the mast sideways under sai l. (72-75)
Fractional rig II (aft swept spreaders, no runners)
I. Handtighten cap shrouds until mast is vertical. (62)
2. Adjust mast rake with forestay and backstay. (63)
3. Tension cap shrouds to 20% of break. load. (66)
4. Set the mast pre-bend.
5. Check and adjust maximum mast bend.
6. Check and adjust the cap shrouds under sai I. (7 1)
7. Straighten the mast sideways under sail. (72-75)
76
Masthead rig
Miscellaneous Mounting of the rigging screw
Always mount the rigging screws with the right
threaded part down. It Will then be easy to remember
which way they should be turned to tighten or loosen
stays or shrouds. Just imagine that the rigging screw
is a normal right threaded bolt that you screw down
into the deck (the nut) when you want to tenston a lillks
stay or shroud.
The rigbolts should be mounted and split pins in-
(67) serted as shown on fi gure 23. Split ptnS or rings
are also used to lock the rigging screws after thetr
(69) fi nal adjustment. It is wise to tape over these, or
put a protective cover over the whole rigging screw.
This will also the headsail and sheets from
getting stuck 1t1 the split pins. Simple but smart
clamps for locking rigging screws are ava il able,
these may replace spltt pins and make it easier to
open and lock the rigging screws for adjustments. right threaded
Fractional rig I In addition they are shaped to fit smoothly around
the rigging screw so that sails, sheets or clothes are
not easily caught by them.
M Olllltthe rigging screws with
split pin (clevis pin) the righ, threadea pari down.
(67) 1.5xd ! t +-__
d
split pin
rig bolt
(69) patent clevis pin safety ring (clevis pin ring)
""--- ca. 25'
Sideways mast bend (lateral mast bend)
When the masthead on a masthead rig falls off to
leeward, the angle between the cap shroud and the
mast will decrease. The cap shroud tension will
increase as this angle become smaller. If the shroud Fractional rig Masthead rig
tension becomes high enough, the shroud may be
Fractional rig II ripped off the mast fitting or the spreader may break.
A mast fa ilure will then be the result. This is the
main reason for why it is so important to correctly
pre-tension cap shrouds.
As mentioned earlier forestay tension will decrease
when the masthead falls off to leeward. The pull
of the backstay will in addition pull the masthead Min. II]'
even more to leeward when the wind picks up.
(67) The sag and the depth of the genoa wi ll increase
just when you need fl atter sails.
(69) On f ractiollal rigs the angle between cap shroud
and mast does not change to the same degree when
the masthead falls off to leeward. On the contrary
the masthead will now act as a shock absorber tn
the gusts, flattening the main and opening the leech,
when the top of the mast falls to leeward and the
midsection IS forced to windward.
77
 -.-
Own notes
Why pre-tension the cap shrouds?
Windward Windward shroud Wind force (kg) Leeward shroud Leeward
rigging screw rigging screw

I!l

,
Pre-tension: 1SO kg Pre-tension: 1SO kg

:2 \ \
® II
. T1
150+ I00 = 250 kg 150-100 = 50 kg

150+150 = 300 kg 150-150 = 0 kg

150+200 = 350 kg 150-150 = Okg

I kg= 2.205 Ib (=9.8 1 N)

The simplified illustration shows the interaction
between the cap shrouds and the masthead. The cap
shrouds are in this example prestressed to 150 kg.
The rig is first exposed to a sideways wind force of
200 kg. Without pre-tension the windward shroud
would have taken the whole load and the leeward
shroud would be totally slack. But as the leeward
shroud is prestressed to 150 kg it will be shortened
just as much as !he windward one will be elongated when
the masthead is moved sideways by the wind force.
The windward shroud tension will now increase just
as much as the Iwrd. shroud tension decreases which
is 100 kg. The masthead therefore is only moved
half of the distance to Iwrd. !hat it would have moved
wit/lOllt pre-stressing. The windward shroud tension
will be the pre-tensIOn pillS half of the wind force,
namely 150 kg +IOOkg =250kg. The leeward shroud
tension will then be the pre-tension millllS half of
the wind force tension i.e. 150kg-IOOkg=50kg.
78
If the wind force increases to 300 kg (3), we'll see
that the leeward shroud tension becomes 0 kg.
All the pre-tension has been "used", but so far the
masthead has only moved half the distance to lee-
ward that it would have done without pre-tension.
If the wind force increases even more, e.g. to 350 kg
(4), the windward shroud must then take the whole
load increase of 50 kg alone. The windward shroud
tension now increases from 300kg to 350kg, while
the leeward shroud has no load and remains slack.
This causes a movement of the masthead twice as
far to leeward that it would if the shrouds had been
pre-tensioned with 175kg or more: 175 - 350/2=0
It is therefore most imp0/1allt that the cap shrollds
are pre-tellsiolled so that the leeward cap shrolld
tellsioll ollly becomes zero whell the highest wil,d
forces are experiellced. Pre-tellsioll acts as a shock
absorber ill variable willd strellgths alld the mast-
head is kept IIl1der better cOlltrol.
t 79