Varma

what is o.s?
-> it is a collection of softwares, working together.
ex: windows,unix,linux
Types of o.s:
-> o.s are classified into 4 types
1. CUI (Character User Interface):
ex: MS-DOS, UNIX
2. GUI(Graphical User Interface):
ex: windows family, linux
3. Single User O.S:
-> this o.s can support only single user.
ex: Windows 93,95
4. multi user o.s:
-> this o.s can supports multiple users.
ex: windows xp, 2000 server, vista,linux,unix
Generations:
1946-55 -> Ist generation computers
-> machine level languages(0,1)
1956-65
-> assembly level language(middle level language)
-> in this language program consists neumonic codes
store a 10
add a b; a=a+b;
assembler(compiler) : it converts middle level language program into

machine understandable language.
1966-75 -> 3rd generation
-> High level language(user friendly language)
a=10;
c=a+b;
compilers:
1. compiler -> it converts entire program at a time .
2. interpreter -> it convets step by step
ex: C,C++,COBOL,BASIC,PASCAL,FORTRAN
1976-85 -> IVth Generation
-> non-procedural languages
ex: SQL
1986-Vth generation computers
-> platform independent languages are developed.
ex: JAVA, ORACLE
File :
-> IT IS COLLETION OF INFORMATION STORED IN BYTES/CHARACTERS.

-> IT IS MANAGED BY FILE SYSTEM.
DIS ADVANTAGES :
-> IT DOESN'T SUPPORT DATATYPE.

10 AAAA 10000
20 BBBB 20000
.
10000
-> IT DOESN'T SUUPPORT EXCEPTIONS
-> DATA RETRIEVAL AND MANIPULATION IS VERY SLOW.
DBMS:
-> IT IS A COLLECTION OF RELATED AND MEANING INFORMATION STORED AT

CENTRALLY ONE LOCATION(SERVER).
-> IT IS MANAGED BY DBMS
-> IT HAS 3 MODELS
1. H.M:
-> IN THIS MODEL DATA STORED IN INVERTED TREE FORMAT.

-> DATA RETRIEVAL AND MANIPULATION IS VERY FAST.
DIS ADV. :
-> DATA REDUNDANCY(DUPLICATION OF DATA)
\
P
M1 M2 M3
T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 T4
T5
2. PHYSICAL/NETWORK MODEL:
-> IN THIS MODEL DATA STORES THROUGH PHYSICAL LINK.
-> DATA RETRIEVAL AND MANIPULATION IS VERY FAST.
P
M1 M2 M3
T1 T2------------ T3 T4--------------- T5 T6 T7
3. RDBMS :
-> IN THIS MODEL DATA STORED IN ROWS AND COLUMNS FORMAT.
-> INTERSECTION OF ROW AND COLUMN GIVES A SINGLE VALUE.
-> IT SUPPORTS DATATYPES.
-> IT SUPPORTS EXCEPTION HANDLING
-> IT SUPPORTS INTEGRITY RULES.
-> NO DATA REDUNDANCY LIKE HDBMS
-> NO PHYSICAL LINK LIKE NDBMS.
-> RELATIONS ARE MAINTAINED LOGICALLLY.
-> IT SUPPORTS MUL-TIPLE USERS AND MULTIPLE PLOTFORMS
-> TO SHARE DATA BETWEEN USERS AND DIFFERENT APPLICATION S/W TOOLS.
-> DATA RETRIEVAL AND MANIPULATIONS IS VERY FAST(10 -9) NANO SEC.
EX: ORACLE, SQL-SERVER,SYBASE,DB2,TERADATA,etc.,
WHATS THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DBMS AND RDBMS :
DBMS:
-> IT IS DESKTOP(STANALONE) APLICATION
-> IT DOESN'T SUPPORTS MULTIPLE USERS AND MULTIPLE PLATFORMS.
-> IT PROVIDES POOR SECURITY.
EX: DBASE,FOXPRO,MS-ACCESS,ORACLE 6.0
RDBMS:
-> QUITE OPPOSITE OF DBMS RULES.
CLIENT/SERVER ARCHITECTURE:
FRONTEND
CLIENT
COMMUNICATION CHANNEL
SERVER
BACKEND
SQL :
-> IT IS 4TH GENERATION LANGUAGE.
-> IT IS DEVELOPED BY USING 90%(C LANGUAGE) & 10%( LOW LEVEL)
-> IT IS DEVELOPED BY E.F CODD, HE IS AN IBM EMPLOYEE.
-> IT IS COMMON LANGUAGE FOR EVERY RDBMS PACKAGE.
-> IT SUPPORTS IN-LINE COMMANDS.

E.F CODD
SQL
ORACLE SQL-SERVER SYBASE
SQL *PLUS TRANSACT SQL
SQL PL/SQL
(NP) (PL)
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCES BETWEN ORACLE AND SQL SERVER
ORACLE SQL SERVER
1. IT IS CUI BASED 1. IT IS GUI BASED

2. IT PROVIDES HIGH SECURITY 2. IT PROVIDES POOR SECURITY
3. IT IS PLATFORM INDEPENDENT 3. IT IS PLATFORM DEPENDENT
4. IT SUPPORTS DIFFERENT APPLICATION
S/W TOOLS
EX: JAVA,.NET 4. IT SUPPORTS ONLY MICROSOFT PRODUCTS
EX: VB,.NET
ORACLE VERSIONS:
ORACLE 6.0 : -> IT SUPPORTS DBMS FEATURES.

IT DOESN'T SUPPORT CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE
ORACLE 7.X-> SUPPORTS CLIENT-SEVER ARCHITECTURE.
ORACLE 8.0 -> IT SUPPORTS OORDBMS
ORACLE 8I -> IT SUPPORTS WEB APPLICATIONS
ORACLE 9I -> IT SUPPORTS XML

IT SUPPORTS NEW FEATURES COLUMN RENAME,
ORACLE 10G -> IT SUPPORTS REGULAR EXPRESSIONS.
ORACLE 11i -> it is ERP TOOL
ORACLE DATATYPES:
DATATYPE :
-> IT IS A TYPE OF INFORMATION STORED IN MEMORY.
2 TYPES :
1. SIMPLE DATATYPE - SQL SUPPORTS
2. COMPOUND DATATYPE(USER DEFINED DATATYPES) - PL/SQL CAN SUPPORT COMPOSITE

DATATYPE
1. SIMPLE DATATYPES :
1. NUMBER(P,S): -> PRECISION , S->SCALE

-> IT ACCEPTS NUMARIC VALUES.
-> MAXIMUM RANGE :
32 DIGITS(7.X)
38 DIGITS(8.0)
EX: EMPNO NUMBER(2); 12,78, 99

SAL NUMBER(5,2); 999.99
2. CHAR(SIZE):
-> IT IS FIXED LENGTH DATATYPE.
-> IT ACCEPTS ALPHABETS,ALPHANUMARICS
-> MAXIMUM LIMIT

256 BYTES(7.X)
2000 BYTES(8.0)
EX: ENAME CHAR(10); 'RAM'
3. VARCHAR2(SIZE):
-> IT SUPPORTS DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION.
-> IT ACCEPTS ALPHABETS,ALPHANUMARICS
-> MAXIMUM LIMIT

2000 BYTES(7.X)
4000 BYTES(8.0)
EX: ENAME VARCHAR2(10); 'RAM'
4. DATE :
-> IT SUPPORTS DATE VALUES

-> IT IS FIXED LENGTH DATATYPE.
-> IT OCCUPIES 7 BYTES(FIXED)
DEFAULT DATE FORMAT IS 'DD-MON-YY'
EX: DOJ DATE; '12-AUG-09'
5. LONG
-> IT SUPPORTS NUMBERS AND CHARACTERS

-> MAXIMUM LIMIT 2GB
EX: REMARKS LONG;
6. RAW/LONG RAW :
-> THIS DATATYPE STORES IMAGES.
-> MAXIMUM LIMIT 2GB(LONG RAW), RAW(2000 BYTES)
EX: PHOTO LONG RAW;

SQL :
SQL IS DEVIDED INTO 5 SUB LANGUAGES
1. DDL(Data Definition Language)
2. DML(Data Manipulation Language)
3. DRL(Data Retreival Language)
4. DCL(Data Control Lanauge)
5. TCL(Transaction Control Language)
1. DDL:
1. CREATE 2. ALTER 3. RENAME 4. TRUNCATE

5. DROP
1. CREATE :
-> IT IS USED TO CREATE NEW DB OBJECT.
DB OBJECT : A COMPONENT AUTOMATICALLY REGISTRED IN SYSTEM SOFTWARE

IS CALLED DB OBJECT.
EX: TABLE,VIEWS,INDEXES, SYNONYMS, SEQUENCES
HOW TO CREATE A TABLE :
TABLE : IT IS A COLLECTION OF INFORMATION STORED IN ROWS AND COLUMNS FORMAT.

IT IS COMMON DB OBJECT FOR EVERY RDBMS PACKAGE.
MAXIMUM 1000 COLUMNS ARE ALLWED AND UNLIMITED PER A TABLE.
SYNTAX:
CREATE TABLE <TABLE_NAME> ( COLUMN1 DATATYPE(SIZE), COLUMN2
DATATYPE(SIZE),....);
EX: CREATE TABLE EMP(EMPNO NUMBER(2),ENAME VARCHAR2(10),SAL NUMBER(6,2));

-> TABLE ALLOWS MAXIMUM 1000 COLUMNS
UNLIMITED ROWS.
DESC :
-> IT SHOWS STRUCTURE OF THE TABLE.
SYNTAX:
DESC <TABLE_NAME>;
EX: DESC EMP;
2. ALTER :
-> IT IS USED TO CHANGE EXISTING STRUCTURE OF THE TABLE.
-> IT HAS 4 OPTIONS
1. ADD 2. MODIFY 3. RENAME 4. DROP

1. ADD:
-> IT ADDS A NEW COLUMN INTO EXISITING TABLE.
EX: ALTER TABLE EMP456 ADD DEPTNO NUMBER(2);
2. MODIFY :
-> IT IS USED TO INCRE/DECRE SIZE OF COLUMN OR TO CHANGE DATATYPE OF

COLUMN
EX: ALTER TABLE EMP MODIFY EMPNO NUMBER(4);
TO CHANGE DATATYPE OF COLUMN:
ALTER TABLE EMP MODIFY EMPNO VARCHAR2(4);
NOTE : EMPNO COLUMN MUST BE EMPTY.
3. RENAME(COLUMN RENAME) :
->IT IS USED TO RENAME COLUMN NAME
EX: ALTER TABLE EMP RENAME COLUMN SAL TO BASIC;
4. DROP(COLUMN) :
->IT IS USED TO DROP COLUMN NAME PERMANENTLY
EX: ALTER TABLE EMP DROP COLUMN DEPTNO;
3. RENAME(TABLE RENAME) :
EX: RENAME EMP TO EMP123;
4. TRUNCATE:
-> IT DELETES THE ROWS PERMANENTLY, BUT STRUCUTURE IS PRESENT.
EX: TRUNCATE TABLE EMP123;
5. DROP :
-> IT DELETES THE ROWS AND STRUCTURE PERMANENTLY.
EX: DROP TABLE EMP123;
2. DML:
-> USED TO MANIPULATE EXISTING DATA.
1. INSERT 2. UPDATE 3. DELETE

1. INSERT :
-> IT IS USED TO INSERTING NEW ROWS INTO TABLE.
-> IT HAS TWO SYNTAXES:
1. INSERTING VALUES INTO ALL COLUMNS
2. INSERTING VALUES INTO REQUIRED COLUMNS
1. SYNTAX:
INSERT INTO <TABLE_NAME> VALUES(VALUE1,VALUE2,.......);
EX: INSERT INTO EMP123 VALUES (1,'AAAA',6000);
INSERT INTO EMP123 VALUES(&EMPNO,'&ENAME',&SAL);
Enter value for empno: 2

Enter value for ename: BBBB
Enter value for sal: 5000
old 1: INSERT INTO EMP123 VALUES(&EMPNO,'&ENAME',&SAL)
new 1: INSERT INTO EMP123 VALUES(2,'BBBB',5000)
1 row created.
INSERTING MULTIPLE RECORDS INTO EMPLOYEE TABLE
INSERT INTO EMP009 VALUES(&EMPNO,'&ENAME',&BASIC,&DEPTNO,'&JOB');
2. SYNTAX:
INSERT INTO <TABLE_NAME>(COLUMN_LIST) VALUES(DATA LIST);
INSERT INTO EMP123(EMPNO,ENAME) VALUES(&EMPNO,'&ENAME');
2. UPDATE :
-> IT IS USED TO MODIFY EXISTING DATA.
SYNTAX:
UPDATE <TABLE_NAME> SET <COLUMN_NAME1>=<VALUE1>,[..... WHERE

<CONDITION>];
UPDATE EMP123 SET =SAL+SAL*10/100;
UPDATE EMP123 SET SAL=3500 WHERE EMPNO=5;
3. DELETE :
-> IT DELETE THE ROWS TEMPORARILY, STRUCTURE IS PRESENT.
SYNTAX:
DELETE FROM <TABLE_NAME> [ WHERE <CONDITION>];
EX: DELETE FROM EMP123;
DELETE FROM EMP123 WHERE EMPNO=6;
3. DRL :
-> USED TO RETRIEVE DATA FROM TALE
SELECT
SELECT */COLUMN_LIST from <table_name> [ where <condition>/

group by/
having <condition>/
order by clause];
SELECT * FROM EMP;
ORACLE O.P:
1. Arthametic o.p: +,-,*,/

2. Relationl o.p: >,<,>=,<=,=,!=or <>
3. Logical O.P: AND, OR, NOT
4. SPECIAL O.P: IN, NOT IN, BETWEEN, NOT BETWEEN, LIKE, NOT LIKE,
IS NULL, IS NOT NULL
* KEYwords are not allowd to declare column names
AND TRUTH TABLE:
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
OR TRUTH TABLE:
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
NOT TRUTH TABLE
T F
F T
1. to display employee details

select * from emp;
2. to display who are working in 10th department
select * from emp where deptno=10;
3. to display who are working in 10th and 20th department
select * from emp where deptno=10 or deptno=20;
4. write a query to display who are join in 1981 year.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE HIREDATE>='01-JAN-1981' AND HIREDATE<='31-
DEC-1981'
5. to display who working in 20 and 30th departments and their jobs matched with
'CLERK'
select * from emp where (deptno=20 or deptno=30) and job='CLERK';
6. to display who are not working in 10th department.

select * from emp where deptno!=10;
7. to display whose employee numbers matched with 7902,7788,7521,7566
IN:
-> it compares given list of values.
-> it is valid for any datatype.
-> it improves the performance while retrieving data.
select * from emp where empno in(7902,7788,7521,7566);
Not in :
-> it displays other than the given list of values.
select * from emp where empno not in(7902,7788,7521,7566);
Between :
-> it compare values within the range.

-> it is valid for number and date dataypes.
list the employees who are getting salaries morethan 1000 and lessthan 4000;
select * from emp where sal between 1000 and 4000;

or
select * from emp where sal>=1000 and sal<=4000;
Not between:
-> it compres values within the range and it displays the data out of the given
range.
select * from emp where sal not between 1000 and 4000;
Like:
-> this operator compares given pattern.

-> it is valid for only character values.
'%', '*' '_' ARE WILD CHARACTERS.
list the employees whose names start with 's' characters.

select * from emp where ename like 'S%';
list the employees whose names end with 's' characters.
select * from emp where ename like '%S';
list the employee whose names second character start with 'D';
select * from emp where ename like '_D%';
list the employees whose names having 'll'
select * from emp where ename like '%LL%'
LIST THE employees whose names having 5 characters
select * from emp where ename like '_____'
Not like:
-> reverse of like operator.
select * from emp where ename not like 'S%';

Is null:
-> it compares null vlaues.

-> it is valid for any dataype.
list the employees who are not getting commission.
select * from emp where comm is null;
Is not null:
-> reverse of is null o.p

list the employee who are getting commission
select * from emp where comm is not null;
NULL:
-> it is an uncomparable and undefined value.
-> it occupies 0 bytes memory.
-> it is valid for any datatype.
-> it is common for any rdbms package.
Built-in Functions:
basically built-in functions are classified into 4 types
1. Column Level Functions
a. Number Functions
b. Character Functions
c. Date Functions
-> these functions are applicable for columns
2. Group Functions
3. Conversion Functions
4. General Functions
1. Column Level Functions:
a. Number Functions:
-> these functions are applicable for numaric values.
1. abs()
-> it converts -ve values to +ve values
select abs(-10) from dual;
2. sqrt()
-> it finds sqrt.
select sqrt(25) from dual;
dual:
-> it predefined table
-> it contains one column and one row.
3. power()
-> it gives power value

select power(2,3) from dual;
4. sign()
-> if given input value is -ve it returns -1

-> if given input value is +ve it returns 1
-> if given input value is 0 it returns 0
select sign(-98) from dual;
5. round()
-> it rounds nearest value
select round(15.6) from dual;
6. trunc()
-> it truncates decimal digits
select trunc(15.64) from dual;
7. sin():
-> select sin(90) from dual;
select round(sin(90)) from dual;
8.cos()
9.tan()
10. log()
select log(10,2) from dual;
2. Character Functions:
-> these functions are applicable for character values.
1. lower():
-> it converts upper case to lower case
select lower('RAMA') from dual;
2. upper():
select upper('rama') from dual;

3. initcap():
-> it displays initial capital letter for the given data.
select initcap('rama krishna') from dual;
4. length():
-> it displays sizeof the given data.
select length('rama') from dual;
5. substr() : (substring)
-> it displays the part of the given string
select substr('rama krishna',6) from dual;
select substr('rama krishna',6,4) from dual;
select job,substr(job,1,3) from emp;
6. concat():
-> it appends given two strings.
select concat('rama','krishna') from dual;
select concat(concat('rama',' krishna'),' raju') from dual;
select initcap(concat(concat('rama',' krishna'),' raju')) from dual;
|| -> concatenation operator:

-> it concats multiple strings at a time.
select 'rama '||'krishna '||'raju '||',hyd' from dual;

select ename|| ' is a '||substr(job,1,3)||' eater' from emp where
job='MANAGER';
INSTR :
-> IT displays searching string position.
SQL> SELECT INSTR('ORACLE CORPORATION','OR',3,2) FROM DUAL;
INSTR('ORACLECORPORATION','OR',3,2)
-----------------------------------
12
3. Date Functions:
select sysdate from dual;
sysdate: it displays current system date and time.
1. add_months() :
-> it add months to given date
select add_months(sysdate,2) from dual;
select add_months(sysdate,-2) from dual;
2. months_between():
-> it displays months between given two months.
select months_between('02-dec-09',sysdate) from dual;
3. last_day():
-> it display last day of the month.
select last_day(sysdate) from dual;
4. next_day():
-> it displays coming week of the date.
select next_day(sysdate,'fri') from dual;
group functions:
-> these functions compares all rows and gives one row output.
select max(sal) from emp;

select min(sal) from emp;
select sum(sal) from emp;
select avg(sal) from emp;
select count(empno) from emp;
-> this function counts no.of empno records in table.

-> this function ignores nulls.
select count(comm) from emp;
select variance(sal) from emp;
select stddev(sal) from emp;
3. Conversion Functions:
1. to_char()
2. to_date()
3.to_number()
1. to_char() :
--> this function converts date or number values into character format.
ex:
date formats:
select to_char(sysdate,'d') from dual;
d-> week of the day

dd-> day of the month.
select to_char(sysdate,'dd') from dual;
ddd-> day of the year.
select to_char(sysdate,'ddd') from dual;
dy -> first three characters of the day.
select to_char(sysdate,'dy') from dual;
day-> fullform of the day
select to_char(sysdate,'day') from dual;
w-> week of the month.
select to_char(sysdate,'w') from dual;
ww-> week of the year
select to_char(sysdate,'ww') from dual;
mm-> it displays month in numaric format
select to_char(sysdate,'mm') from dual;
mon-> first three character of the month
select to_char(sysdate,'mon') from dual;
month-> fullform of the month
select to_char(sysdate,'month') from dual;
yy-> last two digits of the year
select to_char(sysdate,'yy') from dual;
yyyy-> four digts of the year
select to_char(sysdate,'yyyy') from dual;
year-> year in character format
select to_char(sysdate,'year') from dual;
q-> quarter of the year
select to_char(sysdate,'q') from dual;
cc-> displays current century
select to_char(sysdate,'cc') from dual;
hh-> displays hours(default 12 hours base)
hh24->
select to_char(sysdate,'hh12') from dual;
mi -> minutes
ss-> seconds
select to_char(sysdate,'hh24:mi:ss') from dual;
a.m. ->
select to_char(sysdate,'hh:mi:ss a.m.') from dual;
2. to_date() :
-> converts character values into default date format('dd-mon-yy').
05/09/09
select to_date('05/09/09','dd/mm/yy') from dual;
select to_char(to_date('13-feb-1981','dd-mon-yyyy'),'day') from dual;
3. to_number() :
-> it converts character vlaues into number format.
select to_number('123')+456 from dual;
4. GENERAL FUNCTIONS:
-> these functions are applicable any type of data
select greatest(34,67,12,34,76) from dual;

select least('d','cd','bcd','abcd') from dual;
select user from dual;

-> it diplays present connected user
nvl():
-> used to perform arthmatic expressions using null values.

-> this functions supports all datatypes.
select empno,ename,sal,nvl(comm,0),sal+nvl(comm,0) from emp;
group by clause:
-> it is used to group the rows on specified column

-> whenever an ordinary column retrieved along with group function, then
all ordinary columns must be placed on after by group by cluase.
to display departmentwise maximum salaries
select deptno,max(sal) from emp group by deptno;
select deptno,max(sal),min(sal),sum(sal),avg(sal),count(deptno) from emp

group by deptno;
having clause:
-> it checks grouped results.

-> it is valid for after group by clause.
-> to display morethan 4 employees working in each deparment.
select deptno,max(sal),min(sal),sum(sal),avg(sal),count(deptno) from

emp
group by deptno having count(deptno)>4
order by :
-> it display data in either ascending/decending order

-> by default ascending order
-> it is valid in select statement.
select * from emp order by empno asc;

select * from emp order by empno desc;
select * from emp order by deptno,ename;
JOINS:
-> to retrieve data from morethan one table.
Join Query: to retrieve data from morethan one table in a single query is called
join query.
5 types of joins:
1. Equi join/inner join/simple join

2. Non-equi Join
3. Cartesian Join
4. Outer Join
5. Self Join
1. Equi Join:
-> to retrieve data from morethan one table in a single query using eQuality
condition.
-> if N tables are joined N-1 conditions are required.
-> Join condition is placed on where cluase of select,update,delete
statements.
-> tables must have atleast one similar column name and
corresponding datatypes should be matched.
to display employee information and corresponding department information.
SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,HIREDATE,SAL,EMP.DEPTNO,DNAME,LOC FROM EMP, DEPT

WHERE EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO
2. Non-Equi Join:
-> to join the tables without using equality condition
to display employee information alongwith grades
select empno,ename,job,hiredate,sal,deptno,grade from emp,salgrade

where sal between losal and hisal;
3. Cartesian Join or Cross Join:
-> to join the tables without using any condition
select empno,ename,hiredate,sal,emp.deptno,dname,loc from emp, dept;
4. Outer Join:
-> this jion displays matched rows from both table1 and table2 and unmatched
rows from table2.
1.Right Outer Join:

select empno,ename,sal,dept.deptno,dname,loc from emp , dept
where emp.deptno(+)=dept.deptno;
2.Left Outer Join:
select empno,ename,sal,dept.deptno,dname,loc from emp , dept

where emp.deptno=dept.deptno(+);
5. Self Join:
-> to join the table it self
Select m.ename manager, e.enane employee from emp e, emp m

where m.empno=e.mgr;
********
SUB-QUERIES:
-> Query within a query.

-> sub-query is placed on where clause of select,UPDATE,DELETE STATEMENTS.
-> maximum 32 queries can be nested.
-> to improve the performance while retrieving data
types of sub-queries:
1. simple Sub-query
2. multi-row sub-query
3. multi-column sub-query
4. co-related sub-query
5. Scalar Query
1. simple subquery:
-> in this query first inner query is executed, depends upon output of inner
query the outer query will be executed.
- to display smith's employee coleagues.

select * from emp where deptno=(select deptno from emp where
ename='SMITH');
- to display maximum salary employee details
select * from emp where sal=(select max(sal) from emp);
- to display who are working in 'ACCOUNTING' department.
select * from emp where deptno=(select deptno from dept where
dname='ACCOUNTING');
2. Multi row subquery :
-> inner query returns morethan one row
NOTE : = OPERATOR COMPARES ONLY SINGLE VALUES.
ORACLE DEFAULT TABLES : EMP, DEPT,SALGRADE,BONUS & DUAL;
SPECIAL O.P:
IN, ANY, ALL,EXISTS
- to display who are working in 'ACCOUNTING' and 'RESEARCH' depatment.
select * from emp where deptno IN(select deptno from dept where
dname='ACCOUNTING'
or dname='RESEARCH');
- to display who are getting salaries morethan 30th deparment.
select * from emp where sal >all(select sal from emp where deptno=30);
examples:
select * from emp where sal >any(select sal from emp where deptno=30);
select * from emp where sal <all(select sal from emp where deptno=30);
select * from emp where sal <any(select sal from emp where deptno=30);
- to display who are getting morethan increments.

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO IN(SELECT EMPNO FROM INCR GROUP BY EMPNO
HAVING COUNT(EMPNO)>1);
exists:
select * from emp where exists(select empno from emp where
ename='SMITH');
3. Multi-column Subquery :
-> subquery returnS multiple columns
- to display only managers(bosses)

select ename from emp where (empno,deptno) in (select mgr,deptno from
emp);
4. Co-related Subquery:
-> in this query first outer query is executed, depends upon output of
outerquery,
the inner query will be executed.
-> if outer query executed N times, inner query is also executed N times.
-> the outer query column is placed on inner query where condition, that column
treated as co-related column.
- to display who are getting morethan increments.

SELECT * FROM EMP E WHERE 1<(SELECT COUNT(I.EMPNO) FROM INCR I
WHERE I.EMPNO=E.EMPNO);
5. SCALAR QUERY
-> INNNER QUERY IS PLACED COLUMN_LIST OF OUTER QUERY.
EX: select deptno,dname,loc,(select sum(sal) from emp where deptno=d.deptno)

from dept d;
CONSTRAINTS:
-> Constraint is a predefined rule, applied on columns at a time of table

creation or after it.
-> Constraits are activated when ever DML(Insert,Update,Delete) operarions are

performed.
-> also activated when tables are manipulated by others users or other
application s/w tools
constraint types:
1. NOT NULL
2. UNIQUE
3. CHECK
4. DEFAULT
5. PRIMARY KEY
6. FOREIGN KEY(References)
1. NOT NULL:
-> It doesn't accept null values.

-> it is column level constraint
ex:
create table EMP007(empno number(2) NOT NULL,
ename varchar2(10),
sal number(8,2));
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(&EMPNO,'&ENAME',&SAL);
Enter value for ename: AAAA
new 1: INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(1,'AAAA',6000)
1 row created.
SQL> /
1 row created.
Enter value for empno: NULL

Enter value for ename: CCCC
new 1: INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(NULL,'CCCC',7000)
INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(NULL,'CCCC',7000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01400: cannot insert NULL into ("SCOTT"."EMP007"."EMPNO")
2. UNIQUE :
-> It should not accept duplicates

-> It accepts more no.of nulls.
create table EMP007(empno number(2) UNIQUE,

ename varchar2(10),
sal number(8,2));

1 row created.
SQL> /
1 row created.
SQL> /
new 1: INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(2,'CCCC',7000)
INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(2,'CCCC',7000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SCOTT.SYS_C007507) violated
** All constraint_names are stored in 'USER_CONSTRAINTS' System table
to see the constraint_name on particular table
select constraint_name,constraint_type from user_constraints

where table_name='EMP007'
Explicitely give the constraint names:
create table EMP007(empno number(2) Constraint emp007_empno_un UNIQUE,

ename varchar2(10), sal number(8,2));
select constraint_name,constraint_type from user_constraints

where table_name='EMP007';
3. CHECK :
-> if condition is true row is inserted, otherwise it shows constraint

voilated error.
ex:
Create table Emp007(Empno Number(2) constraint emp007_empno_nn not

null,
Ename Varchar2(10),
Sal Number(8,2) constraint
emp007_sal_chk check (sal>=3000),
Deptno Number(2));
SQL> insert into emp007 values(&empno,'&ename',&sal,&deptno);

Enter value for deptno: 10
old 1: insert into emp007 values(&empno,'&ename',&sal,&deptno)
new 1: insert into emp007 values(1,'AAAA',4500,10)
1 row created.
SQL> /
old 1: insert into emp007 values(&empno,'&ename',&sal,&deptno)
new 1: insert into emp007 values(2,'BBBB',2900,20)
insert into emp007 values(2,'BBBB',2900,20)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02290: check constraint (SCOTT.EMP007_SAL_CHK) violated
Acc_type varchar2(1) check acc_type in('S','C')

Age number(3) check age between 21 and 35
4. Default:
-> it stores default values.

ex:
Create table Emp007(Empno Number(2),

Ename Varchar2(10),
Sal Number(8,2),
Doj Date Default Sysdate,
Deptno Number(2));
SQL> Insert into Emp007(empno,ename,sal,deptno)

values(&empno,'&ename',&sal,&deptno);
Enter value for ename: aaaa
old 1: Insert into Emp007(empno,ename,sal,deptno)
values(&empno,'&ename',&sal,&deptno)
new 1: Insert into Emp007(empno,ename,sal,deptno) values(1,'aaaa',7000,10)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for ename: bbbb
old 1: Insert into Emp007(empno,ename,sal,deptno)
values(&empno,'&ename',&sal,&deptno)
new 1: Insert into Emp007(empno,ename,sal,deptno) values(2,'bbbb',8000,20)
1 row created.
SQL> select * from emp007;
EMPNO ENAME SAL DOJ DEPTNO

---------- ---------- ---------- --------- ----------
1 aaaa 7000 05-SEP-09 10
2 bbbb 8000 05-SEP-09 20
5. Primary key: ( Not Null + Unique + Index ):
-> it doesn't accept Nulls

-> it avoids duplicates
-> it improves the performance while retrieving data.
-> only one primary key constraint can be added in column level.
-> if table contains primary keys that table treated as Master Table/Parent
Table/
Independent Table
ex:
Create table Dept007(Deptno Number(2) Constraint dept007_detpno_pk Primary

Key,
Dname Varchar2(10),
Loc Varchar2(10));
6. Foreign Key(References):
-> it is used to establish relationship between two tables.

-> this constraint can be added to the primary key constraint or unique
constraint column of other table.
-> if table contains foreign keys that table treated as Detailed
Table/Transaction Table/ child table/dependent table.
ex:
Create table Emp007 (Empno Number(2),Ename Varchar2(10),
Sal Number(8,2),
Deptno Number(2) Constraint empoo7_deptno_fk
references dept007(deptno));
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(&EMPNO,'&ENAME',&SAL,&DEPTNO);

Enter value for ename: AAA
old 1: INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(&EMPNO,'&ENAME',&SAL,&DEPTNO)
new 1: INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(1,'AAA',6000,10)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for ename: BBB
new 1: INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(2,'BBB',4500,30)
1 row created.
SQL> /
new 1: INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(3,'CCCC',7000,10)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for ename: DDDD
new 1: INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(4,'DDDD',9000,50)
INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(4,'DDDD',9000,50)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02291: integrity constraint (SCOTT.EMPOO7_DEPTNO_FK) violated - parent key not
found
SQL> DELETE FROM DEPT007 WHERE DEPTNO=30;

DELETE FROM DEPT007 WHERE DEPTNO=30
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02292: integrity constraint (SCOTT.EMPOO7_DEPTNO_FK) violated - child record
found
SQL> DELETE FROM DEPT007 WHERE DEPTNO=40;
1 row deleted.
1. On Delete Cascade:
-> it deletes parent record and also deleted corresponding childs.
How to Drop a Contraint:
Alter table emp007 drop constraint emp007_deptno_fk;
How to Add Foreign Key constraint at Table Level:
Alter Table emp007 add Constraint Emp007_deptno_fk Foreign Key(deptno)

References Dept007(deptno) on delete
cascade;
SQL> select * from dept007;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ----------
10 ACC HYD
20 RES SEC
30 SALES CHENNAI
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 AAA 6000 10
2 BBB 4500 30
3 CCCC 7000 10
4 DDD 3000 10
5 EEE 5500 20
SQL> Delete from dept007 where deptno=30;
1 row deleted.
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ----------
10 ACC HYD
20 RES SEC

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 AAA 6000 10
3 CCCC 7000 10
4 DDD 3000 10
5 EEE 5500 20
2. On Delete Set Null:
-> it deletes parent records and corresponding child records set to null
values.
Alter table emp007 drop constraint emp007_deptno_fk;
Alter Table emp007 add Constraint Emp007_deptno_fk Foreign Key(deptno)

References Dept007(deptno) on delete set
null;
SQL> Alter table emp007 drop constraint emp007_deptno_fk;
Table altered.
SQL> Alter Table emp007 add Constraint Emp007_deptno_fk Foreign Key(deptno)

2 References Dept007(deptno) on
delete set null;
Table altered.

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 AAA 6000 10
3 CCCC 7000 10
4 DDD 3000 10
5 EEE 5500 20
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ----------
10 ACC HYD
20 RES SEC
SQL> delete from dept007 where deptno=10;
1 row deleted.
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ----------
20 RES SEC

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 AAA 6000
3 CCCC 7000
4 DDD 3000
5 EEE 5500 20
SQL>
Adding contraints are two types :
1. column level constraint : constraints are added next to column name
2. table level constraint : contraints are added after declaring all columns at
the time
table creation
or
after table creation(using ALTER command).
Composite Primary key:
-> we can add more than one primary key(at table level)
ex:
CREATE TABLE PRODUCT(PRODID NUMBER(2),

ITEMID NUMBER(2),
PNAME VARCHAR2(10),
INAME VARCHAR2(10),
PRICE NUMBER(8,2),
PRIMARY KEY(PRODID,ITEMID));
* MAXIMUM 32 COLUMNS CAN BE ADDED.
OR
SQL> ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD CONSTRAINT PROD_PID_IID_PK PRIMARY KEY(ITEMID,PRODID);
how to enable/disable constraints :
Alter table emp007 disable constraint emp007_deptno_fk;
Alter table emp007 enable constraint emp007_deptno_fk;
HOW TO ADD CONSTRAINTS IN TABLE LEVEL(after creating of table) :
CREATE TABLE EMP123(EMPNO NUMBER(2),

ENAME VARCHAR2(10),
SAL NUMBER(8,2),
DEPTNO NUMBER(2));
table created.
ALTER TABLE EMP123 ADD CONSTRAINT EMP123_EMPNO_UN UNIQUE(EMPNO);
ALTER TABLE EMP123 MODIFY ENAME CONSTRAINT EMP123_ENAME_NN NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE EMP123 ADD CONSTRAINT EMP123_SAL_CHK CHECK(SAL>=3000);
HOW TO RENAME A CONSTRAINT :
ALTER TABLE EMP123 RENAME CONSTRAINT EMP123_SAL_CHK TO EMP321_SAL_CHK;

SET OPERATORS:
-> It is used to join outputs of select statments.

-> select statements must have equal no.of columns and similar datatypes.
-> maximum 32 statements can be nested.
types of set operators:
1. UNION ALL
2. UNION
3. INTERSECT
4. MINUS
1. UNION ALL :
Outputs of Q1+ Outpus of Q2
select job from emp where deptno=10

union all
select job from emp where deptno=20;
2. Union :
Common Rows from Q1 & Q2 and Unmatched rows from Q1 & Q2

union
3. Intersect:
Common Rows from Q1 & Q2

Intersect
4. Minus :
Displays unmatched rows from Q1(Q1-Q2)

Minus
DCL(Data Control Language) :
-> to control data between users.
1. Grant
2. Revoke
How to Create a New user?
login to :
username: System
Password : Manager
syntax:
Create user <user_name> identified by <password>;
ex: Create user Chandu identified by tiger;
Grant Connect, Resource to Chandu;
To change password:
Alter user <user_name> identified by <newpassword>;
1. Grant :
-> it gives permissions on tables to other users.
2 types of privileges
1. system privileges
ex: connect,resource
2. object privileges
ex: select,insert,update,delete,etc.,
Scott: Grant select on emp to Chandu;
Chandu: Select *from Scott.emp;
Chandu: insert into scott.emp(empno,ename,sal,deptno) values(1,'aaa',6000,10);

insuffiecient privilegs
Scott: Grant insert on emp to chandu;
Chandu: above insert command successfully executed.
Scott: Grant all on emp to Chandu;
2. Revoke :
-> to getback permissions from users;
ex:
Scott : Revoke select on emp from Chandu;
Chandu: select * from scott.emp

insufficient privileges
to see the given permissions :
select * from user_tab_privs_made;
to see the received permissions:
select * from user_tab_privs_recd;
5. TCL(Transaction Control Language) :
-> used to control dml operations performed by user.

1. commit 2. savepiont 3. rollback
1. commit :
-> it saves data into database permanently
2. Savepoint:
-> it creates a bookmark
3. Rollback:
-> to undo dml operations
SQL> DELETE FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO=1;
1 row deleted.
SQL> SAVEPOINT S1;
Savepoint created.
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP(EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO) VALUES(2,'BBBB',7000,10);
1 row created.
SQL> SAVEPOINT S2;
Savepoint created.
SQL> DELETE FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=20;
5 rows deleted.
SQL> SAVEPOINT S3;
Savepoint created.
SQL> UPDATE EMP SET SAL=SAL+SAL*10/100;
10 rows updated.
SQL> SAVEPOINT S4;
Savepoint created.
1 row deleted.
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP;
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM

DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ----------
----------
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1760 300
30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1375 500
30
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1375 1400
30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 3135
30
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2695
10
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5500
10
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1650 0
30
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 1045
30
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1430
10
9 rows selected.
SQL> ROLLBACK TO S3;
Rollback complete.

DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ----------
----------
2 BBBB 7000
10
30
30
30
30
10
10
30
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950
30
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300
10
10 rows selected.
SQL> ROLLBACK TO S1;
Rollback complete.

DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ----------
----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800
20
30
30
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975
20
30
30
10
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 09-DEC-82 3000
20
10
30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 12-JAN-83 1100
20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950
30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000
20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300
10
14 rows selected.
SQL>
SQL> COMMIT;
Commit complete.
DB Objects:
ex: table, view,index,synonym,sequences,roles
table:
-> it is a collection of information stored in rows and columns

-> it is common db object for every RDBMS package
-> maximum 1000 columns are allowed and Unlimited rows per a table.
2. view :
-> it is stored select statement.

-> it is created by using base table
-> it provides high security
-> it allows dml,select, desc commands
-> it shares data between users.
-> views doesn't hold any data.
-> if u perform any dml operation on views that are reflected on base table.
-> views are stored in 'user_views' system table
syntax:
Create or Replace View <view_name> as <Select statement>;
types of views :
basically 2 types of views:
1. Simple View -> these views are created without using group functions/join
condition/arthametic expr
2. Complex View : these views are created using group functions/join

condition/arthametic expr
1. simple views:
Create or Replace View my_view as Select empno,ename,sal,deptno from emp;
insert into my_view values(1000,'KIRAN',5000,10);
Select * from my_view;

Select * from emp;
Create or Replace view dept_10 as select * from emp where deptno=10;
insert into dept_10 values(1000,'KIRAN',5000,10);
insert into dept_10 values(1001,'Kishore',4000,20);
with check option:
Create or Replace view dept_007 as select * from emp where deptno=10 with check
option;
insert into dept_007(empno,ename,sal,deptno) values(2,'yyy',7000,20);
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01402: view WITH CHECK OPTION where-clause violation
read only views:
-> these views are for only reading purpose
-> only select statement is valid
ex: create or replace view Read_View as select * from emp with read only;
SQL> insert into read_view (empno,ename,sal) values(3,'xxx',7000);

insert into read_view (empno,ename,sal) values(3,'xxx',7000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01733: virtual column not allowed here
2. Complex Views:
-> dml operations are not allowed.
-> only select and desc statements are valid

ex: create or replace view Comp_view as select
empno,ename,job,hiredate,sal,emp.deptno,dname,loc
from emp, dept where emp.deptno=dept.deptno;
ex1: create or replace view comp_view1 as select deptno,max(sal)

maxsal,min(sal)minsal,sum(sal) sumsal
from emp group by deptno;
how to share views:
Grant select on <view_name> to <user_name>;
eX: Grant select on my_view to chandu;
FORCE VIEWS :
-> THESE VIEWS ARE CREATED WITHOUT USING BASE TABLE.
EX: CREATE FORCE VIEW MY_FVIEW AS SELECT * FROM XYZ123;
dropping Views:
syntax:
Drop View <view_name>;
ex:
Drop View my_view;
3. index:
-> to improve the performance while retrieving data.
-> indexes are activated whenever indexed column placed on where clause.
-> indexes are stored in 'user_indexes' system table.
syntax:
Create Index <Index_Name> on <table_name>(<Column1>,[<column2>,..]);
ex: Create Index my_ind on emp(empno);
select * from emp where empno=7839;
Functional based Indexes:
-> these indexes are created by using built-in functions
ex: Create index Fun_ind on emp(upper(job));
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE JOB='MANAGER'
dropping indexes:
Drop Index <index_name>;

ex: drop index fun_ind;
4. Synonyms:
-> synonyms created to whole table.

-> synonyms provides high security.
-> synonyms are two types
1. private synonym(default) -> it is created by user
-> with using grant permission we can use private synonyms
2. public synonym - > it is created by dba
syntax:
Create synonym <synonym_name> for <table_name>;
ex: Create synonym my_syn for emp;
2. public synonym :
-> with using ONE grant permission all users can access.
logon with :
username : System
Password: Manager
Create Public synonym public_syn for scott.emp;
grant all on public_syn to public;
connect : scott/tiger@server
sql> select * from public_syn;
connect : chandu/tiger@server
sql> select * from public_syn;
dropping synonyms:
syntax:
drop synonym <synonym_name>;
ex:
drop public synonym public_syn;
5. sequences :
-> to generate sequence of numbers automatically

-> it is not related to ONE table.
-> it has two pseudo columns
1. currval -> it show current sequence value
2. nextval -> it shows comming sequence value
->sequences are stored in 'user_sequences' system table
syntax:
create sequence <sequence_name>

start with <value>
minvalue <value>
increment by <value>
maxvalue <value>
cycle/nocycle;
ex:
create sequence my_seq1
start with 1
minvalue 1
increment by 1
maxvalue 5
nocycle;
SQL>
Table created.
SQL> insert into xyz values(my_seq.nextval);
1 row created.
SQL> /
1 row created.
SQL> /
1 row created.
SQL> select * from xyz;
EMPNO
----------
1
2
3
SQL> create table mno(sno number(2));
Table created.
SQL> insert into mno values(my_seq.nextval);
1 row created.
SQL> select * from mno;
SNO
----------
4
SQL> select my_seq.currval from user_sequences where sequence_name='MY_SEQ';
CURRVAL
----------
4
1 row created.

insert into mno values(my_seq.nextval)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-08004: sequence MY_SEQ.NEXTVAL exceeds MAXVALUE and cannot be instantiated
SQL> ALTER SEQUENCE MY_SEQ MAXVALUE 10

2 /
Sequence altered.
1 row created.
SQL> SELECT * FROM MNO;
SNO
----------
4
5
6
SQL> insert into mno values('KVB'||MY_SEQ.NEXTVAL);
6. ROLES :
-> IT IS a collection of different object priveliges on different tables.

-> it is created by dba
logon to : dba
username : system
password : manager
syntax:
create role <role_name>;
SQL> create role my_role1

2 /
Role created.
SQL> grant select,insert on scott.emp to my_role1;
Grant succeeded.
SQL> grant insert,update on scott.dept to my_role1;
Grant succeeded.
SQL> grant update,select on scott.salgrade to my_role1;
Grant succeeded.
SQL> grant delete on scott.incr to my_role1;
Grant succeeded.
SQL> grant my_role1 to chandu;
Grant succeeded.
removing permissions from role:
SQL> revoke select on scott.emp from my_role1
Revoke succeeded.
SQL Editor commands:
ed -> editor
save -> it saves QUERY into file
save <file_name>;
SQL> select * from emp where deptno=10;
SQL> save q1;
Get <file_name> : it shows contents of the file
sql > get q1;

select * from emp where deptno=10;
sql > select * from emp
where deptno=10;
SQL> L
1 SELECT * FROM EMP
2* WHERE DEPTNO=10
SQL> L1
1* SELECT * FROM EMP
SQL> L2
2* WHERE DEPTNO=10

SQL> I WHERE DEPTNO=30;
SQL> L
1 SELECT * FROM EMP
2* WHERE DEPTNO=30
SQL> SELECT *FROM E

SQL> A MP WHERE DEPTNO=20;
1* SELECT *FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=20
SQL>
SET COMMANDS:
SET HEADING OFF(DEFAULT ON)

SQL> SET HEADING OFF
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800

20
30
30
AUTOCOMMIT ON(DEFAULT OFF)
SQL> SET AUTOCOMMIT ON
VERIFY OFF(DEFAULT ON) :
-> IT DOESN'T SHOW BUFFER DATA
SQL>SET VERIFY OFF

SQL> SET PAUSE ON
-> It displays rows in pagewise.
SQL> SET FEEDBACK OFF;
SQL> SET FEEDBACK ON;
SQL> SET VERIFY OFF;
SQL> SET PAUSE ON;
REPORTING COMMANDS:
TTITLE :
-> It displays top title
SQL >BTITLE 'END OF RECORDS' -> IT DISPLAYS BOTTOM TITLE

SQL>TTITLE 'EMPLOYEE INFORMATION'
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP;
SQL> BTITLE OFF

SQL> TTITLE OFF
SQL> COLUMN EMPNO HEADING 'EMPLOYEE NUMBER'

SQL> COLUMN SAL HEADING 'BASIC SALARY'
SQL> COLUMN ENAME FORMAT A6;

SQL> COLUMN JOB FORMAT A10
SQL> COLUMN MGR FORMAT 9999
SQL> COLUMN SAL FORMAT $9,999.99
SQL> BREAK ON DEPTNO;
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY DEPTNO;
SQL> COMPUTE SUM OF SAL ON DEPTNO;
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO FROM EMP ORDER BY DEPTNO;
SQL> SPOOL <FILE_NAME>;
SQL> SPOOL OFF;
Hierarchical Queries :
� These are queries that are executed upon tables that contain
hierarchical data.
� To execute the hierarchical queries, we need the following queries
START WITH : It specifies the root rows of the hierarchy
� It identifies the row(s) to be used as the Root(s) of a hierarchical Query.

� IT specifies a condition that the roots must specify.
� If START WITH is omitted, oracle used all rows in the table as ROOT rows.
CONNECT BY : It is used to specify the relationship between parent

rows and child rows of the hierarchy
� Within the condition, some part of the condition must use the PRIOR operator,
which refers to the parent row.
The form of PRIOR operator is
� PRIOR Expr Comparision � Operator

� Expr Comparison � Operator Expr.
� It cannot contain sub query
WHERE : It is used to restrict the rows returned by the

Query
without affecting other rows of the hierarchy.
EX: Select empno,ename,sal,deptno from emp

Start with ename=�KING�
CONNECT BY PRIOR EMPNO=MGR
Object Technology :
* it supports Object Oriented Programming features.
* Object is an collection of elements of different datatype stored in centrally

at
one memory location(permanently stored).
* It can have methods(functions) defined in it.
* It will not hold data, represent only structure.
* It supports �Inheritance� features of OOPS.
* It is an re-usable component.
* It stored permanently in �user_types� system table
* It can be shared with other users.
Composite Data Type :
� objects (C Structure)
Syntax :
Create type <object_name> as object

( Element1 <datatype>,
element2 <datatype>,
��.,elementN <datatype>);
ex: Create Type Add_type as object (Hno Varchar2(10),Street Varchar2(10),

City varchar2(10),pin number(10));
Desc addr_type;
->it displays structure of the object
Using object :
Create table Stud(Roll Number(2), Name varchar2(10),

ddress addr_type, course Varchar2(10), Fee Number(8,2));
Desc student;
Insert into stu

values(101,�kiran�,add_type(�201�,�Ameerpet�,�Hyderabad�,500035),
�oracle 9i�, 2500);
Select * from stud;
Select Roll, Name, S.Address.city, s.address.pin, course,fee from stud S;
Update stud s set s.address.city=�secundrabad� where roll=101;
Delete from stud s where s.address.city=�secunderabad�;
Pseudo Columns:
Pseudo Column is a column not related to any table. It is created by system
1. ROWID
2. ROWNUM
3. LEVEL
4. NEXTVAL
5. CURRVAL
ROWID :
� It is an Unique Value
� It is automatically assigned to every record inserted
� It is an 18bit Hexadecimal Value
� It Comprises of object id, file id, block id, & record id
� It is stored permanently in database.
* RowId gives Position of Record.
� Select Rowid, deptno, dname from dept;

� Select Rowid, Empno,Ename,Sal from emp;
Removing Duplicate Rows:
Sql> Delete from Emp Where Rowid Not in (Select Min(Rowid) from Emp Group by
Empno);
Row Num :
� It is an Unique Value
� It is Automatically generated by Select Statement output(dynamic value)
� It is not stored in Database
Select Rownum,dname,loc from dept;
Select rownum,empno,ename,sal from emp;
Query for Top 5 Salary Details
Select Rownum, Empno,Ename,Sal,Job from(Select

Rownum,Empno,Ename,Sal,Job from
Emp Order by Sal Desc) where Rownum<=5;
** Inline View
** Inline View : Select statement provided in place of Table Name is

known as �Inline View�
Query for Nth Maximum Salary:
Select Rownum,Empno,Ename,Job,Sal from (select Rownum,Empno,Ename,

Job,Sal from Emp order by Sal desc)
Group by Rownum,Empno,Ename,Job,Sal having Rownum=&N;
Query for to Display Alternate Records
Select Rownum,Empno,Ename,Job,Sal from Emp group by Rownum,

Empno,Ename,Job,Sal
Having Mod(Rownum,2)=0
LEVEL :
� It gives the position of Row in Hierarchal Tree Structure

� It will arrange the select statement output in Inverted tree format
� It returns Number
Select Level, empno,ename,mgr from emp

Connect by prior empno=mgr start with Mgr is Null;
PL/SQL :
-> It executes a block of statements as a unit.

-> it supports control strucutes and iteration control statements.
(if,if..else,nested if..else,if..else lader,case,simple loop,while loop,for
loop,etc)
-> it supports exception handling
-> it supports automatic execution of code through database triggers
-> it supports subprograms(functions,procedures,packages)
-> pl/sql supports to share programs to other users and other application software
tools.
Block:
-> a set of SQL and NON-SQL statements.
2 types blocks
1. Anonymous block -> Nameless block
2. Named block -> ex: procedures,functions,packages,triggers
pl/sql block structure:
[ Declare
<variable declaration>; ]
Begin
<exec-statements>;
[ exception block
<exec-statements>; ]
end;
simple block:
Begin
<exec-statements>;
end;
Variable declaration:
Empno number(2);
sno number(4);
i number(2):=1;
ename varchar2(10);
doj date;
pl/sql supports all sql datatypes and it supports BOOLEAN
BOOLEAN : This datatype stored either TRUE or FALSE
EX:
Flag Boolean:=TRUE/FALSE;
:= ASSIGNMENT OPERATOR
PL/SQL supports:
DML,DRL,TCL Commands
PL/SQL Not supports:
DDL,DCL
comments :
-- -> SINGLE line comment
ex: -- pl/sql block for to add two numbers
/*
*/ -> Multiline Comment

Select..into :
-> it is used to store dabase values into pl/sql variables.

-> no.of database columns must be matched with no.of pl/sql variables and
corresponding datatypes.
syntax:
select column_list into pl/sql variable_list from <table_name> where
<condition>;
select empno,ename,sal,deptno into tempno,tename,tsal,tdeptno FROM EMP

where empno=7788;
dbms_output.put_line(ARG1):
-> it is used to print output.

-> it accepts only one argument.
dbms_output : package
put_line(argument1) : procedure
ex: dbms_output.put_line('welcome to pl/sql');
set serveroutput on :
-> this command displays output to output screen.
write a pl/sql block to print welcome message
SQL> SET SERVEROUTPUT ON

SQL> Begin
2 dbms_output.put_line('welcome to pl/sql');
3 end;
4 /
welcome to pl/sql
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Write a pl/sql block to add two numbers;
SQL> DECLARE
2 A NUMBER(2):=&A;
3 B NUMBER(2):=&B;
4 C NUMBER(4);
5 BEGIN
6 C:=A+B;
7 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('ADD OF TWO NUMBERS = '||C);
8 END;
9 /
Enter value for a: 10
Enter value for b: 20
ADD OF TWO NUMBERS = 30
Write a pl/sql block to print employee details for a given employee number;
1 DECLARE
2 TEMPNO NUMBER(4):=&TEMPNO;
3 TENAME VARCHAR2(10);
4 TSAL NUMBER(8,2);
5 TDEPTNO NUMBER(2);
6 BEGIN
7 SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO INTO TEMPNO,TENAME,TSAL,TDEPTNO FROM EMP
8 WHERE EMPNO=TEMPNO;
9 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(TEMPNO||' '||TENAME||' '||TSAL||' '||TDEPTNO);
10* END;
SQL> /
Enter value for tempno: 7788
7788 SCOTT 3000 20
ATTRIBUTES:
-> it is used to declare variables dynamically
2 types
1. column type attribute
2. table type attribute
1. colmn type attribute:

-> it is used to declare variable dynamically according to table of column
structure.
syntax:
<variable_name> <table_name>.<column_name>%type;
ex:
tempno emp.empno%type;
tename emp.ename%type;
1 DECLARE
2 TEMPNO EMP.EMPNO%TYPE:=&TEMPNO;
3 TENAME EMP.ENAME%TYPE;
4 TSAL EMP.SAL%TYPE;
5 TDEPTNO EMP.DEPTNO%TYPE;
6 BEGIN
7 SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO INTO TEMPNO,TENAME,TSAL,TDEPTNO FROM EMP
8 WHERE EMPNO=TEMPNO;
10* END;
SQL> /
7788 SCOTT 3000 20
2. rowtype attribute:
-> It is used to declare variable dynamically according to specified table

structure.
Syntax:
<variable_name> <table_name>%rowtype;
ex:
E Emp%rowtype;
above 'E' variable holds only one row at a time.
1 DECLARE
2 E EMP%ROWTYPE;
3 BEGIN
4 SELECT * INTO E FROM EMP
5 WHERE EMPNO=&TEMPNO;7902
6 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(E.EMPNO||' '||E.ENAME||' '||E.HIREDATE||' '||E.SAL||'
'||E.DEPTNO);
7* END;
SQL> /
7788 SCOTT 09-DEC-82 3000 20
Control Structures:
1. Simple if
2. If..else
3. Nested if..else
4. If..else ladder
1. Simple If:
syntax:
if <condition> then
<exec-statements>; -- TRUE BLOCK
end if;
EXAMPLE :
SQL> DECLARE
2 FLAG BOOLEAN:=&FLAG;
3 BEGIN
4 IF FLAG=TRUE THEN
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('WE R IN TRUE BLOCK');
6 END IF;
7 END;
8 /
Enter value for flag: TRUE
old 2: FLAG BOOLEAN:=&FLAG;
new 2: FLAG BOOLEAN:=TRUE;
WE R IN TRUE BLOCK
write a pl/sql block to find biggest of two numbers
SQL> Declare
2 A Number(2):=&a;
3 B Number(2):=&b;
4 Begin
5 If A>B then
6 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('A IS BIG');
7 END IF;
8 END;
9 /
A IS BIG
2. IF..ELSE
syntax:
if <condition> then
<exec-statements>; -- TRUE BLOCK
else
<exec-statements>; -- FALSE BLOCK
end if;
ex:
1 Declare
2 A Number(2):=&a;
3 B Number(2):=&b;
4 Begin
5 If A>B then
6 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('A IS BIG');
7 else
8 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('B IS BIG');
9 END IF;
10* END;
11 /
B IS BIG
SQL> DECLARE
2 NUM NUMBER(2):=&NUM;
3 BEGIN
4 IF MOD(NUM,2)=0 THEN
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('GIVEN NUMBER IS EVEN');
6 ELSE
7 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('GIVEN NUMBER IS ODD');
8 END IF;
9 END;
10 /
Enter value for num: 5
GIVEN NUMBER IS ODD
3. NESTED IF..ELSE
syntax:
if <condition> then
if <condition> then
<exec-statements>;
else
<exec-statements>;
end if;
else
if<condition> then
<exec-statements>;
else
<exec-statements>;
end if;
end if;
ex:
Declare
A Number(2):=&a;
B Number(2):=&b;
C Number(2):=&c;
Begin
If A>B then
if A>C then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('A IS BIG');
else
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('C IS BIG');
End if;
else
if B>C then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('B IS BIG');
else
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('C IS BIG');
End if;
End if;
END;

Enter value for c: 30
C IS BIG
SQL> /
A IS BIG
SQL> /
B IS BIG
4. IF..ELSE Ladder
syntax:
if <condition> then
<exec-statements>;
elsif <condition> then
<exec-statements>;
<exec-statements>;
<exec-statements>;
else
<exec-statements>;
end if;
ex:
1 Declare
2 tavg number(5,2):=&tavg;
3 Begin
4 if tavg>=70 then
5 dbms_output.put_line('Grade A');
6 elsif tavg>=60 then
7 dbms_output.put_line('Grade B');
9 dbms_output.put_line('Grade C');
11 dbms_output.put_line('Grade D');
12 else
13 dbms_output.put_line('Grade F');
14 end if;
15* end;
16 /
Enter value for tavg: 89
Grade A
SQL> /
Grade F
SQL> /
Grade D
Branching Control Statements:
1. case
syntax
Case <variable/expression>
when <constant> then
<exec-statements>;
<exec-statements>;
<exec-statements>;
<exec-statements>;
else
<exec-statements>;
end case;
ex :
SQL> Declare
2 Color Varchar2(1):='&Color';
3 Begin
4 Case Color
5 When 'R' then
6 Dbms_output.put_line('U r Selected Red');
7 When 'B' then
8 Dbms_output.put_line('U r Selected Blue');
9 When 'Y' then
10 Dbms_output.put_line('U r Selected Yellow');
11 else
12 Dbms_output.put_line('U r Selection is Wrong plz.. Trai Again!!!!!');
13 end case;
14 end;
15 /
Enter value for color: Y
U r Selected Yellow
SQL> /
Enter value for color: R
U r Selected Red
SQL> /
Enter value for color: B
U r Selected Blue
SQL> /
Enter value for color: X
U r Selection is Wrong plz.. Trai Again!!!!!
Iteration Control Statements:
1. Simple Loop
2. While Loop
3. For Loop
4. For cursor
1. Simple Loop :
-> it is an infinite loop
syntax:
Loop
<exec-statements>;
End loop;
ex:
Begin
Loop
dbms_output.put_line('Welcome');
End loop;
end;
How to break simple loop:
2 ways :
1. if <condition> then
exit;
end if;
ex:
Declare
I number(2):=1;
Begin
Loop
if i>10 then
exit;
end if;
i:=i+1;
End loop;
end;
/
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
2. Exit when <condition>;
ex:
Declare
i number(2):=1;
Begin
Loop
Exit when i>10;
i:=i+1;
End loop;
end;
/
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
2. While Loop
syntax:
While <condition>
loop
<exec-statements>;
incre/decre;
end loop;
ex:
SQL> Declare
2 i Number(2):=1;
3 Begin
4 While(i<=10)
5 Loop
6 dbms_output.put_line(i);
7 i:=i+1;
8 End loop;
9 End;
10 /
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
write a pl/sql block for to print multiplication table.
SQL> Declare
2 N number(2):=&n;
3 i Number(2):=1;
4 Begin
5 while(i<=10)
6 Loop
7 dbms_output.put_line(N||'*'||i||'='||(N*i));
8 i:=i+1;
9 End loop;
10 End;
11 /
Enter value for n: 5
5*1=5
5*2=10
5*3=15
5*4=20
5*5=25
5*6=30
5*7=35
5*8=40
5*9=45
5*10=50
NESTED WHILE LOOP:
DECLARE
I NUMBER(2):=1;
J NUMBER(2);
RESULT VARCHAR2(100);
BEGIN
WHILE I<=5
LOOP
J:=1;
WHILE J<=I
LOOP
RESULT:=RESULT||J||' ';
J:=J+1;
END LOOP;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(RESULT);
RESULT:=NULL;
I:=I+1;
END LOOP;
END;
/
1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5
3. FOR LOOP:
-> by default increment by 1
Syntax:
FOR <index_variable> in <start value>..<end value>

loop
<exec-statements>;
end loop;
ex:
1 Begin
2 For i in 1..10
3 loop
5 end loop;
6* end;
SQL> /
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1 Begin
2 For i in reverse 1..10
3 loop
5 end loop;
6* end;
SQL> /
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
NESTED FOR LOOP
SQL> DECLARE
2 RESULT VARCHAR2(100);
3 BEGIN
4 FOR I IN 1..5
5 LOOP
6 FOR J IN 1..I
7 LOOP
8 RESULT:=RESULT||J||' ';
9 END LOOP;
10 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(RESULT);
11 RESULT:=NULL;
12 END LOOP;
13 END;
14 /
1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
X
1 DECLARE
2 RESULT VARCHAR2(100);
3 BEGIN
4 FOR I IN REVERSE 1..5
5 LOOP
6 FOR J IN 1..I
7 LOOP
8 RESULT:=RESULT||J||' ';
9 END LOOP;
10 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(RESULT);
11 RESULT:=NULL;
12 END LOOP;
13* END;
SQL> /
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
1 2
1
4. For Cursor:
DECLARE
E EMP%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT * INTO E FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=&DEPTNO;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(E.EMPNO||E.ENAME||E.SAL||E.DEPTNO);
END;

DECLARE
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01422: exact fetch returns more than requested number of rows
ORA-06512: at line 4
CURSORS:
-> It is used to store transactional data

-> it creates temporary buffer.
-> it is not stored permanently in database.
-> when select statements retrieves more than one row, on that time
we can use this cursors.
2 types of cursors
1. explicit cursors -> it is created by user

2. implicit cursors -> it is created by oracle
1. explicit cursors:
cursor operations:
1. declaring cursor:
cursor <cursor_name> is <select statement>;
-> it declares the cursor

2. open <cursor_name>;
-> it opens the cursor,

-> memory is allocated after opened.
3. fetch <cursor_name> into <pl/sql variables>;
-> it fetches rows from cursor to pl/sql variables

-> fetch statement fetches one row at a time.
4. close <cursor_name>;
-> it closes the cursor

-> memory alloted, will be deallocated.
cursor attributes:
-> it shows status of the cursor
syntax:
<cursor_name>%attribute;
1. %isopen
-> it returns true when cursors opens successfully
2. %found :
-> it returns true, when cursor contains data
3.%notfound:
-> it returns true, when cursor doesn't find any data
4. %rowcount:
-> it return number
-> no.of fetch statement executed.
EXAMPLE :
1 DECLARE
2 CURSOR EMP_CUR IS SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO FROM EMP WHERE
DEPTNO=&DEPTNO;
3 TEMPNO EMP.EMPNO%TYPE;
4 TENAME EMP.ENAME%TYPE;
6 TDEPTNO EMP.DEPTNO%TYPE;
7 BEGIN
8 OPEN EMP_CUR;
9 IF EMP_CUR%ISOPEN THEN
10 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('CURSOR OPENS SUCCESSFULLY');
11 END IF;
12 FETCH EMP_CUR INTO TEMPNO,TENAME,TSAL,TDEPTNO;
18* END;
19 /
CURSOR OPENS SUCCESSFULLY
7369 SMITH 800 20
7566 JONES 2975 20
7788 SCOTT 3000 20
DECLARE
CURSOR EMP_CUR IS SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=&DEPTNO;
E EMP_CUR%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN EMP_CUR;
IF EMP_CUR%ISOPEN THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('CURSOR OPENS SUCCESSFULLY');
END IF;
LOOP
FETCH EMP_CUR INTO E;
EXIT WHEN EMP_CUR%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(E.EMPNO||' '||E.ENAME||' '||E.SAL||' '||E.DEPTNO);
END LOOP;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(EMP_CUR%ROWCOUNT||' rows selected');
CLOSE EMP_CUR;
END;
SQL> /
7782 CLARK 2450 10
7839 KING 5000 10
7934 MILLER 1300 10
3 rows selected
CURSOR WITH PARAMETERS:
DECLARE
CURSOR EMP_CUR(PDEPTNO NUMBER)
IS SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO=PDEPTNO;
E EMP_CUR%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN EMP_CUR(&DEPTNO);
IF EMP_CUR%ISOPEN THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('CURSOR OPENS SUCCESSFULLY');
END IF;
LOOP
FETCH EMP_CUR INTO E;
EXIT WHEN EMP_CUR%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(E.EMPNO||' '||E.ENAME||' '||E.SAL||' '||E.DEPTNO);
END LOOP;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(EMP_CUR%ROWCOUNT||' rows selected');
CLOSE EMP_CUR;
END;
SQL> /
7499 ALLEN 1600 30
7521 WARD 1250 30
7654 MARTIN 1250 30
7698 BLAKE 2850 30
7844 TURNER 1500 30
7900 JAMES 950 30
6 rows selected
NESTED CURSORS :
-> CURSOR WITHIN CURSOR
1 DECLARE
2 CURSOR DEPT_CUR IS SELECT * FROM DEPT;
3 CURSOR EMP_CUR(PDEPTNO NUMBER) IS SELECT * FROM EMP
4 ZWHERE DEPTNO=PDEPTNO;
5 D DEPT_CUR%ROWTYPE;
6 E EMP_CUR%ROWTYPE;
7 BEGIN
8 OPEN DEPT_CUR;
9 IF DEPT_CUR%ISOPEN THEN
10 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('DEPT CURSOR OPEN SUCCESSFULLY');
11 END IF;
12 LOOP
13 FETCH DEPT_CUR INTO D;
14 EXIT WHEN DEPT_CUR%NOTFOUND;
15 OPEN EMP_CUR(D.DEPTNO);
16 IF EMP_CUR%ISOPEN THEN
17 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('EMP CURSOR OPEN SUCCESSFULLY');
18 END IF;
19 LOOP
20 FETCH EMP_CUR INTO E;
21 EXIT WHEN EMP_CUR%NOTFOUND;
22 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(E.EMPNO||' '||E.ENAME||' '||E.SAL||' '||E.DEPTNO
23 ||' '||D.DEPTNO||' '||D.DNAME||' '||D.LOC);
24 END LOOP;
25 IF EMP_CUR%ROWCOUNT=0 THEN
26 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('NO EMPLOYEES ARE WORKING IN '||D.DEPTNO||'
DEPARTMENT');
27 END IF;
28 CLOSE EMP_CUR;
29
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('---------------------------------------------------');
30 END LOOP;
31 CLOSE DEPT_CUR;
32* END;
SQL> /
DEPT CURSOR OPEN SUCCESSFULLY
EMP CURSOR OPEN SUCCESSFULLY
7782 CLARK 2450 10 10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
7839 KING 5000 10 10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
7934 MILLER 1300 10 10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
---------------------------------------------------
7369 SMITH 800 20 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7566 JONES 2975 20 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7788 SCOTT 3000 20 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7876 ADAMS 1100 20 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7902 FORD 3000 20 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
---------------------------------------------------
7499 ALLEN 1600 30 30 SALES CHICAGO
7521 WARD 1250 30 30 SALES CHICAGO
7654 MARTIN 1250 30 30 SALES CHICAGO
7698 BLAKE 2850 30 30 SALES CHICAGO
7844 TURNER 1500 30 30 SALES CHICAGO
7900 JAMES 950 30 30 SALES CHICAGO
---------------------------------------------------
NO EMPLOYEES ARE WORKING IN 40 DEPARTMENT
---------------------------------------------------
2. IMPLICIT CURSORS:
X
SQL> BEGIN
2 DELETE FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=&DEPTNO;
3 IF SQL%ROWCOUNT>3 THEN
4 ROLLBACK;
5 ELSE
6 COMMIT;
7 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('ROWS DELETED SUCCESSFULLY');
8 END IF;
9 END;
10 /

DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ----------
----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800
20
30
30
20
30
30
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87 3000
20
30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100
20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950
30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000
20
11 rows selected.
FOR CURSOR:
1 DECLARE
2 CURSOR EMP_CUR IS SELECT * FROM EMP;
3 BEGIN
4 FOR I IN EMP_CUR
5 LOOP
6 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(I.EMPNO||' '||I.ENAME||' '||I.SAL||I.DEPTNO);
7 END LOOP;
8* END;
SQL> /
7369 SMITH 80020
7499 ALLEN 160030
7521 WARD 125030
7566 JONES 297520
7654 MARTIN 125030
7698 BLAKE 285030
7788 SCOTT 300020
7844 TURNER 150030
7876 ADAMS 110020
7900 JAMES 95030
7902 FORD 300020
Wrote file afiedt.buf
1 BEGIN
2 FOR I IN (SELECT * FROM EMP)
3 LOOP
4 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(I.EMPNO||' '||I.ENAME||' '||I.HIREDATE||' '||I.SAL||
' '||I.DEPTNO);
5 END LOOP;
6* END;
SQL> /
7369 SMITH 17-DEC-80 800 20
7499 ALLEN 20-FEB-81 1600 30
7521 WARD 22-FEB-81 1250 30
7566 JONES 02-APR-81 2975 20
7654 MARTIN 28-SEP-81 1250 30
7698 BLAKE 01-MAY-81 2850 30
7788 SCOTT 19-APR-87 3000 20
7844 TURNER 08-SEP-81 1500 30
7876 ADAMS 23-MAY-87 1100 20
7900 JAMES 03-DEC-81 950 30
7902 FORD 03-DEC-81 3000 20

EXCEPTIONS :
-> PL/SQL ERRORS IS TERMED AS EXCEPTIONS
TYPES OF EXCEPTIONS:
1. PREDEFINED EXCEPTIONS:
-> DEFINED BY ORACLE

-> ACTIVATED BY ORACLE
-> SOLUTION IS PROVIDED BY USER
2. USER-DEFINED EXCEPTIONS :
-> DEFINED BY USER

-> ACTIVATED BY USER(RAISE STATEMENT)
3. NON-PREDEFINED EXCEPTIONS
-> THESE EXECPTIONS ARE RAISED WHEN CONSTRAINT VOILATED ERRORS
-> DEFINED BY USER
-> ACTIVATED BY ORACLE
1. PREDEFINED EXCEPTIONS :
1 DECLARE
2 E EMP%ROWTYPE;
3 BEGIN
4 SELECT * INTO E FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO=&EMPNO;
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(E.EMPNO||' '||E.ENAME||' '||E.JOB||' '||E.SAL||' '||
E.DEPTNO);
6 EXCEPTION
7 WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
8 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(' NO EMPLOYEES ARE WORING WITH EMPLOYEE NUMBER');
9* END;
SQL> /
7902 FORD ANALYST 3000 20
1 DECLARE
2 E EMP%ROWTYPE;
3 BEGIN
4 SELECT * INTO E FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=&DEPTNO;
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(E.EMPNO||' '||E.ENAME||' '||E.JOB||' '||E.SAL||' '||
E.DEPTNO);
6 EXCEPTION
7 WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
8 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(' NO EMPLOYEES ARE WORING WITH EMPLOYEE NUMBER');
9 WHEN TOO_MANY_ROWS THEN
10 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(' MORETHAN ONE EMPLOYEE EXISTS ');
11* END;
SQL> /
MORETHAN ONE EMPLOYEE EXISTS
SQL> /
NO EMPLOYEES ARE WORING WITH EMPLOYEE NUMBER
2. USER DEFINED EXCEPTIONS:
SQL> DECLARE
2 VALUE_MISSING EXCEPTION; -- EXCEPTION NAME
3 A NUMBER(2):=&A;
4 B NUMBER(2):=&B;
5 C NUMBER(4);
6 BEGIN
7 IF A IS NULL OR B IS NULL THEN
8 RAISE VALUE_MISSING; -- CALLING EXCEPTION
9 END IF;
10 C:=A+B;
11 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('ADD OF TWO NUMBERS : '||C);
12 EXCEPTION
13 WHEN VALUE_MISSING THEN
14 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(' COLUMN VALUES ARE MANDATORY ');
15 END;
16 /
ADD OF TWO NUMBERS : 30
SQL>
SQL> /
Enter value for a: NULL
COLUMN VALUES ARE MANDATORY
3. NON-PREDEFINED EXCEPTOINS:
1 DECLARE
2 DUPLICATE_VALUES EXCEPTION;
3 PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(DUPLICATE_VALUES,-00001); --> IT RAISES EXPCEPTION
BASED ON ERROR NUMBER.
4 BEGIN
5 INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES(&DEPTNO,'&DNAME','&LOC');
6 EXCEPTION
7 WHEN DUPLICATE_VALUES THEN
8 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('DUPLICATE VALUES ARE NOT ACCEPTED');
9* END;
SQL> /
Enter value for dname: AAAA
Enter value for loc: TTTT
DUPLICATE VALUES ARE NOT ACCEPTED
SQL> SELECT * FROM DEPT;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- -------------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
COMPOSITE DATATYPES:
Composite Datatypes:
? User defined Datatypes

? Created by user in PL/SQL Block
? Valid in PL/SQL only
? They are not stored in database
? They are not Re-usable & Shared
? They will not hold data
? They improve performance of Oracle while Manipulating data in PL/SQL block
2 types
1. PL/SQL Record
2. PL/SQL Table
1. PL/SQL Record
i. It is an collect of elements of �different data types� and stored at �one
location�
ii. it is similar to �C� structure
Syntax:
Type <recordname> is record

( Element1 datatype,
Element2 datatype,
��..,
ElementN datatype);
2. PL/SQL Table
i. It is an collect of elements of �same data type� and stored in �Continuous

Memory location�
ii. it is similar to �C� arrays
Syntax:
Type <table name> is table of <data type> index by Binary_integer;
PL/SQL Block using PL/SQL Records:
ED
SQL> /
Enter value for employid: 7788
7788 SCOTT 3000 750 1050 4504350
-- PL/SQL Block using PL/SQL Table:
SQL> Declare
2 Type Name is Table of Emp.Ename%type index by Binary_Integer;
3 Type Pay is Table of Emp.sal%type index by Binary_Integer;
4 N Name;
5 P Pay;
6 Ctr Number(3):=0;
7 Totsal Number(9,2):=0;
8 Begin
9 -- Filling PL/SQL table
10 For I in (Select ename,sal from emp)
11 Loop
12 N(ctr):=i.ename;
13 P(ctr):=i.sal;
14 Ctr:=Ctr+1;
15 End Loop;
16 -- Printing Table Contents
17 For K in 0..N.count-1
18 Loop
19 Dbms_output.put_line(N(k)||' '||P(k));
20 Totsal:= Totsal + Nvl(P(k),0);
21 End Loop;
22 Dbms_output.put_line('Total Salary is '|| Totsal);
23 End;
24 /
ALLEN 1600
WARD 1250
JONES 2975
MARTIN 1250
BLAKE 2850
SCOTT 3000
TURNER 1500
ADAMS 1100
JAMES 950
FORD 3000
TRIGGERS :
Triggers:
? A set of PL/SQL statements stored permanently in database and �Automatically�

activated
when ever an Even Raising statement(DML) is performed.
? They are used to impose user defined Restrictions(or)Business Rules on
Tables.
? They are also activated when Tables are manipulated by other users or by
other application S/w tools.
? They provide High Security on tables
? They are stored in �USER_TRIGGERS� system table
Trigger Parts:
1. Trigger Event :
Indicates when to activate the Trigger
Before
Insert, Update, Delete = 6 Events
After
2. Trigger Type :
Indicate the type of Trigger
a. Row Trigger : Trigger is activated for Every Row manipulated by DML

statement.
b. Statement Trigger: Trigger is activated only once for 1 DML statement
3. Trigger Restriction :
Supports to stop the Trigger Execution based on condition
4. Trigger Body :
A set of PL/SQL statements.
Syntax:
Create or Replace Trigger <Trigger_name>

Before/After insert or update OR delete ? (1)
[ of <columns> ] on <table name>
[ for each row ? (2)
When <condition> (TRUE -> Executes the trigger, FALSE ? Not execute)
Declare
<variable declaration>; ]
Begin
<exec statements>;
[ Exception
<exec statements>; ]
End;
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER DEPT_TRIG
2 BEFORE INSERT ON DEPT
3 FOR EACH ROW
4 BEGIN
5 :NEW.DNAME:=UPPER(:NEW.DNAME); -- :NEW.DNAME -> BIND VARIABLE
6 END;
7 /
Trigger created.
SQL> INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES(50,'finance','HYD');
1 row created.
SQL> SELECT * FROM DEPT;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- -------------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
50 FINANCE HYD
TRIGGER FOR TO TAKE BACKUP
COPIENG TABLE:
CREATE TABLE BACKUP AS SELECT * FROM EMP [ WHERE 1=1; ]
-> IT COPIES STRUCTURES WITH DATA
CREATE TABLE BACKUP AS SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE 1=2;
-> IT COPIES ONLY STRUCTURE
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER BACKUP_TRIG

2 AFTER DELETE ON EMP
3 FOR EACH ROW
4 BEGIN
5 INSERT INTO BACKUP
VALUES(:OLD.EMPNO,:OLD.ENAME,:OLD.JOB,:OLD.MGR,:OLD.HIREDATE,
6 :OLD.SAL,:OLD.COMM,:OLD.DEPTNO);
7 END;
8 /
Trigger created.
1 row deleted.

DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ----------
----------
30
30
20
30
30
20
30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100
20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950
30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000
20
10 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT * FROM BACKUP;

DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ----------
----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800
20
SQL> DELETE FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=30;
6 rows deleted.
SQL> SELECT * FROM BACKUP;

DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ----------
----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800
20
30
30
30
30
30
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950
30
7 rows selected.

DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ----------
----------
20
20
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100
20
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000
20
STATEMENT LEVEL TRIGGERS:
1 CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER HOLI_TRIG

2 BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OR DELETE ON EMP
4 DECLARE
5 CNT NUMBER(2);
6 BEGIN
7 IF TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'HH24') NOT IN (10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17) THEN
8 RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20001,'OFF TIMINGS TRANSACTIONS ARE
9 ALLOWED');
10 END IF;
11 IF TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DY') IN ('SAT','SUN') THEN
12 RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20002,'WEEK ENDS TRANSACTIONS ARE N
13 ALLOWED');
14 END IF;
15 SELECT COUNT(HDATE) INTO CNT FROM HOLIDAY
16 WHERE TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MON-YY')=
17 TO_CHAR(HDATE,'DD-MON-YY');
18 IF CNT>0 THEN
19 RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20003,'TODAY HOLIDAY TRANSACTIONS ARE
20 ALLOWED');
21 END IF;
22* END;
SQL> /
Trigger created.
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO) VALUES(1,'AAAA',7000,10);

INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO) VALUES(1,'AAAA',7000,10)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20002: WEEK ENDS TRANSACTIONS ARE NOT
ALLOWED
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.HOLI_TRIG", line 9
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'SCOTT.HOLI_TRIG'

1 row created.

INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO) VALUES(1,'AAAA',7000,10)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20003: TODAY HOLIDAY TRANSACTIONS ARE NOT
ALLOWED
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.HOLI_TRIG", line 16
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'SCOTT.HOLI_TRIG'
BANK APPLICATION TRIGGER :
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER BANK_TRIG1

BEFORE INSERT ON BANK FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
IF :NEW.ACC_TYPE='S' THEN
IF :NEW.BAL<500 THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20001,'SAVING A/C BALANCE MINIMUM
RS.500/-');
END IF;
ELSIF :NEW.ACC_TYPE='C' THEN
IF :NEW.BAL<1000 THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20002,'CURRENT A/C BALANCE MINIMUM RS.
1000/-');
END IF;
ELSE
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20003,'INVALID ACCOUNT TYPE, TRY
AGAIN!!!!!');
END IF;
SELECT NVL(MAX(ACCNO),0)+1 INTO :NEW.ACCNO FROM BANK;
END;
SCHEMA LEVEL TRIGGERS:(LOGON)
SQL>
1 CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER LOGON_TRIG
2 AFTER LOGON ON SCHEMA
3 BEGIN
4 INSERT INTO LOG_BOOK VALUES(USER,SYSDATE);
5* END;
SQL> SELECT * FROM LOG_BOOK;
UNAME
----------
LOGON_TIME
-------------------------------------------------------------
SCOTT
26-JAN-09 01.54.11.000000 PM
LOGOFF TRIGGER:
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER LOGOFF_TRIG

2 BEFORE LOGOFF ON SCHEMA
3 BEGIN
4 INSERT INTO LOG_BOOK VALUES(USER,SYSDATE);
5* END;
SEE THE TRIGGER NAMES ON PARTICULAR TABLE
SELECT TRIGGER_NAME FROM USER_TRIGGERS WHERE TABLE_NAME='EMP'
DROPPING TRIGGERS:
DROP TRIGGER <TRIGGER_NAME>;
DROP TRIGGER LOGOFF_TRIG;
SUB PROGRAMS :
SUB PROGRAMS:
-> A SET OF PL/SQL STATEMENTS STORED PERMANENTLY IN DATABASE AND

PERFORMS A TASK.
-> THEY ACCEPT ARGUMENTS WHILE EXECUTION
-> THEY ARE STORED IN 'COMPILED FORMAT';
-> THEY ARE REUSABLE COMPONENTS
-> THEY PROVIDES MODULARITY
MODULARITY
-> A HUGE PROGRAM DEVIDED INTO SUB TASKS
-> EASY TO UNDERSTAND
-> EASY TO DEBUG THE ERRORS
1. PROCEDURES
-> Procedures are may/may not return value
2. FUNCTIONS
-> Functions should return value
Procedure syntax:
Create or Replace Procedure <Procedure_name>

[ (argument mode datatype,....)]
is
<variable declaration>;
Begin
<exec statements.;
[ Exception Block
end;
Function Syntax :
Create or Replace Function <function_name>

[(arguments mode datatype,....) ]
RETURN <data_type>
is
<variable declaration>;
Begin
<exec-statements>;
[Exception Block
End;
PROCEDURES:
PROCEDURE WITHOUT ARGUMENTS:

old 3: A NUMBER(2):=&A;
new 3: A NUMBER(2):=10;
old 4: B NUMBER(2):=&B;
new 4: B NUMBER(2):=20;
Procedure created.
TO EXECUTE THE PROCEDURE
SQL> EXEC MY_PROC;
SQL> SET SERVEROUTPUT ON

SQL> EXEC MY_PROC;
RESULT =30
SQL> EXEC MY_PROC;

RESULT =30
SQL>
PROCEDURE WITH PARAMETERS:
1 CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE MY_PROC(A NUMBER, B NUMBER)

2 IS
3 C NUMBER(4);
4 BEGIN
5 C:=A+B;
6 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('RESULT ='||C);
7* END;
SQL> /
Procedure created.
SQL> EXEC MY_PROC(50,20);

RESULT =70
1 CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE EMP_PROC(TEMPNO EMP.EMPNO%TYPE)

2 IS
3 E EMP%ROWTYPE;
4 BEGIN
5 SELECT * INTO E FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO=TEMPNO;
6 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(E.EMPNO||' '||E.ENAME||' '||E.SAL||' '||E.DEPTNO);
7* END;
SQL> /
Procedure created.
SQL> EXEC EMP_PROC(7902);

7902 FORD 3000 20
SQL> EXEC EMP_PROC(7788);

7788 SCOTT 3000 20
SQL>
1 CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE BANK_PROC(TACCNO BANK.ACCNO%TYPE,

2 TCNAMe BANK.CNAME%TYPE,
3 TACC_TYPE BANK.ACC_TYPE%TYPE,
4 TBAL BANK.BAL%TYPE)
5 IS
6 BEGIN
7 IF TACC_TYPE='S' THEN
8 IF TBAL<500 THEN
9 RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20001,'SAVINGS A/C Minimum Balance 500');
10 END IF;
11 ELSIF TACC_TYPE='C' THEN
12 IF TBAL<1000 THEN
13 RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20002,'Current A/C Minimum Balance
1000');
14 End if;
15 else
16 RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20003,'Invalid Account Type');
17 end if;
18 insert into bank values(taccno,tcname,tacc_type,tbal);
19 commit;
20* end;
21 /
Procedure created.
SQL> EXEC BANK_PROC(100,'KIRAN','S',1500);
SQL> SELECT * FROM BANK;
ACCNO CNAME A BAL

---------- ---------- - ----------
100 KIRAN S 1500
SQL> EXEC BANK_PROC(101,'AAA','S',400);

BEGIN BANK_PROC(101,'AAA','S',400); END;
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20001: SAVINGS A/C Minimum Balance 500
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.BANK_PROC", line 9
SQL> EXEC BANK_PROC(101,'AAA','C',800);

BEGIN BANK_PROC(101,'AAA','C',800); END;
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20002: Current A/C Minimum Balance 1000
SQL> EXEC BANK_PROC(101,'AAA','C',1000);
SQL> EXEC BANK_PROC(102,'BBB',D',3000);

ERROR:
ORA-01756: quoted string not properly terminated
SQL> EXEC BANK_PROC(102,'BBB','D',3000);

BEGIN BANK_PROC(102,'BBB','D',3000); END;
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20003: Invalid Account Type
ACCNO CNAME A BAL

---------- ---------- - ----------
100 KIRAN S 1500
101 AAA C 1000
SQL>
ARGUMENTS MODES
IN -> IT ACCEPTS INPUT INTO SUBPROGRAM(DEFAULT)
OUT -> RETURNS OUTPUT THROUGH SUBPGRAM
IN OUT -> BOTH
IN:
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE IN_PROC(A IN NUMBER, B IN NUMBER)

2 IS
3 C NUMBER(4);
4 BEGIN
5 C:=A+B;
6 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('RESULT ='||C);
7 END;
8 /
Procedure created.
SQL> EXEC IN_PROC(10,40);

RESULT =50
SQL>
OUT :
1 CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE MY_PROC(A IN NUMBER, B IN NUMBER, C

2 IS
3 BEGIN
4 C:=A+B;
5* END;
SQL> /
Procedure created.
SQL> EXEC MY_PROC(10,20,C);

BEGIN MY_PROC(10,20,C); END;
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-06550: line 1, column 21:
PLS-00201: identifier 'C' must be declared
PL/SQL: Statement ignored
SQL> VAR C NUMBER;

SQL> EXEC MY_PROC(10,20,:C);
SQL> PRINT :C
C
----------
30
SQL> DECLARE
2 C NUMBER(4);
3 BEGIN
4 MY_PROC(&A,&B,C);
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('RSULT ='||C);
6 END;
7 /
old 4: MY_PROC(&A,&B,C);
new 4: MY_PROC(40,60,C);
RSULT =100
IN OUT :
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE MY_PROC(A IN OUT NUMBER)

2 IS
3 BEGIN
4 A:=A*A*A;
5 END;
6 /
Procedure created.
SQL> VAR A NUMBER;

SQL> EXEC :A:=10;
SQL> EXEC MY_PROC(:A);
SQL> PRINT :A
A
----------
1000
DROPPING PROCEDUES :
DROP PROCEDURE <PROCEDURE_NAME>;
DROP PROCEDURE MY_PROC;
SELECT TEXT FROM USER_SOURCE WHERE NAME='MY_PROC';
SELECT * FROM USER_PROCEDURES;
FUNCTIONS:
1 CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION SI(P NUMBER, N NUMBER, R NUMBER)

2 RETURN NUMBER
3 IS
4 RES NUMBER(8,2);
5 BEGIN
6 RES:=(P*N*R)/100;
7 RETURN(RES);
8* END;
SQL> /
Function created.
SQL> SELECT SI(1000,2,10) FROM DUAL;
SI(1000,2,10)
-------------
200
SQL>
FUNCTION FOR CHECK BALANCE USING RETURN TYPE BOOLEAN
1 CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION CHK_BAL(TACCNO TRANS.TACCNO%TYPE,TTYPE TRANS.TTYPE

%TYPE,
2 TAMOUNT TRANS.TAMOUNT%TYPE)
3 RETURN BOOLEAN
4 IS
5 TBAL BANK.BAL%TYPE;
6 TACC_TYPE BANK.ACC_TYPE%TYPE;
7 RBAL BANK.BAL%TYPE;
8 BEGIN
9 SELECT ACC_TYPE,BAL INTO TACC_TYPE,TBAL FROM BANK WHERE ACCNO=TACCNO;
10 RBAL:=TBAL-TAMOUNT;
11 IF TTYPE='W' AND TACC_TYPE='S' THEN
12 IF RBAL<500 THEN
13 RETURN(FALSE);
14 ELSE
15 RETURN(TRUE);
16 END IF;
17 ELSIF TTYPE='W' AND TACC_TYPE='C' THEN
18 IF RBAL<1000 THEN
19 RETURN(FALSE);
20 ELSE
21 RETURN(TRUE);
22 END IF;
23 END IF;
24* END;
25 /
Function created.
CALLING FUNCTION:
SQL> BEGIN
2 IF CHK_BAL(&TACCNO,'&TTYPE',&TAMOUNT)=TRUE THEN
3 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('SUFFICIENT BALANCE');
4 ELSE
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('INSUFFICIENT BALANCE');
6 END IF;
7 END;
8 /
Enter value for taccno: 100
Enter value for ttype: W
Enter value for tamount: 500
old 2: IF CHK_BAL(&TACCNO,'&TTYPE',&TAMOUNT)=TRUE THEN
new 2: IF CHK_BAL(100,'W',500)=TRUE THEN
SUFFICIENT BALANCE
ACCNO CNAME A BAL

---------- ---------- - ----------
100 KIRAN S 1500
101 AAA C 1000
SQL> BEGIN
2 IF CHK_BAL(&TACCNO,'&TTYPE',&TAMOUNT)=TRUE THEN
3 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('SUFFICIENT BALANCE');
4 ELSE
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('INSUFFICIENT BALANCE');
6 END IF;
7 END;
8 /
Enter value for taccno: 100
Enter value for ttype: W
Enter value for tamount: 1400
old 2: IF CHK_BAL(&TACCNO,'&TTYPE',&TAMOUNT)=TRUE THEN
new 2: IF CHK_BAL(100,'W',1400)=TRUE THEN
INSUFFICIENT BALANCE
NESTED FUNCTIONS :
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION CHK_VAL(A NUMBER, B NUMBER)
2 RETURN BOOEAN
3 IS
4 BEGIN
5 IF B=0 THEN
6 RETURN(FALSE);
7 ELSE
8 RETURN(TRUE);
9 END IF;
10 EBD;
11 .
SQL> ED
1 CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION CHK_VAL(A NUMBER, B NUMBER)

2 RETURN BOOLEAN
3 IS
4 BEGIN
5 IF B=0 THEN
6 RETURN(FALSE);
7 ELSE
8 RETURN(TRUE);
9 END IF;
10* END;
SQL> /
Function created.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION DEVIDE_FUN(A NUMBER, B NUMBER)

2 RETURN NUMBER
3 IS
4 BEGIN
5 IF CHK_VAL(A,B)=TRUE THEN
6 RETURN(A/B);
7 ELSE
8 RETURN(0);
9 END IF;
10 END;
11 /
Function created.
SQL> SELECT DEVIDE_FUN(10,2) FROM DUAL;
DEVIDE_FUN(10,2)
----------------
5
SQL> SELECT DEVIDE_FUN(10,0) FROM DUAL;
DEVIDE_FUN(10,0)
----------------
0
DROP FUNCTION <FUNCTION_NAME>;
DROP FUNCTION CHK_BAL;

PACKAGES :
PACKAGES :
? It is an collection of Variables, Cursors, Procedures & Functions are stored

in one location.
? Easy to share the Subprograms in Application S/w Tools
? They Improve performance while accessing subprograms from client location
? They are stored in �User_Source� system table
? They supports function Overloading, Encapsulation & Databinding
? It has two parts
1. Package Specification :
? It holds the declaration of Variables, Cursors & Subprograms
2. Package Body:
? It holds the body of subprograms
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE MY_PACK

2 IS
3 PROCEDURE MY_PROC(A NUMBER, B NUMBER);
4 FUNCTION NETSAL(TEMPNO EMP.EMPNO%TYPE) RETURN NUMBER;
5 END;
6 /
Package created.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY MY_PACK

2 IS
3 PROCEDURE MY_PROC(A NUMBER, B NUMBER)
4 IS
5 C NUMBER(4);
6 BEGIN
7 C:=A+B;
8 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('RESULT= '||C);
9 END;
10 FUNCTION NETSAL(TEMPNO EMP.EMPNO%TYPE) RETURN NUMBER
11 IS
13 TCOMM EMP.COMM%TYPE;
14 NETSAL NUMBER(10,2);
15 BEGIN
16 SELECT SAL,NVL(COMM,0) INTO TSAL,TCOMM FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO=TEMPNO;
17 NETSAL:=TSAL+TCOMM;
18 RETURN(NETSAL);
19 END;
20 END;
21 /
Package body created.
SQL> EXEC MY_PACK.MY_PROC(10,40);

RESULT= 50

SQL> SELECT MY_PACK.NETSAL(7521) FROM DUAL;
MY_PACK.NETSAL(7521)
--------------------
SQL> SELECT MY_PACK.NETSAL(7902) FROM DUAL;
MY_PACK.NETSAL(7902)
--------------------
3000
1 CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE FO_PACK

2 IS
3 FUNCTION ADDVAL(A NUMBER, B NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER;
4 FUNCTION ADDVAL(A NUMBER, B NUMBER, C NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER;
5 FUNCTION ADDVAL(STR1 VARCHAR2,STR2 VARCHAR2) RETURN VARCHAR2;
6 FUNCTION ADDVAL(STR1 VARCHAR2, STR2 VARCHAR2,STR3 VARCHAR2) RETURN VARCHAR2;
7* END;
SQL> /
Package created.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY FO_PACK

2 S
3 .
SQL> ED
1 CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY FO_PACK

2 IS
3 FUNCTION ADDVAL(A NUMBER, B NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER
4 IS
5 BEGIN
6 RETURN(A+B);
7 END;
8 FUNCTION ADDVAL(A NUMBER, B NUMBER, C NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER
9 IS
10 BEGIN
11 RETURN(A+B+C);
12 END;
13 FUNCTION ADDVAL(STR1 VARCHAR2, STR2 VARCHAR2) RETURN VARCHAR2
14 IS
15 BEGIN
16 RETURN(STR1||STR2);
17 END;
18 FUNCTION ADDVAL(STR1 VARCHAR2, STR2 VARCHAR2,STR3 VARCHAR2) RETURN VARCHAR2
19 IS
20 BEGIN
21 RETURN(STR1||STR2||STR3);
22 END;
23* END;
24 /
Package body created.

SQL> SELECT FO_PACK.ADDVAL(10,20,30) FROM DUAL;
FO_PACK.ADDVAL(10,20,30)
------------------------
60
SQL> SELECT FO_PACK.ADDVAL('RAMA','KRISHNA') FROM DUAL;
FO_PACK.ADDVAL('RAMA','KRISHNA')
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RAMAKRISHNA
SQL> SELECT FO_PACK.ADDVAL(10,20) FROM DUAL;
FO_PACK.ADDVAL(10,20)
---------------------
30
SQL> SELECT FO_PACK.ADDVAL('RAMA','KRISHNA','RAJU') FROM DUAL;
FO_PACK.ADDVAL('RAMA','KRISHNA','RAJU')
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RAMAKRISHNARAJU
TO SEE THE PACKAGE INFORMATION
SELECT TEXT FROM USER_SOURCE WHERE NAME='FO_PACK';
DROPPING PACKAGES:
DROP PACKAGE <PACKAGE>;
DROP PACKAGE FO_PACK;
DYNAMIC SQL
1 CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE DDL_PROC(TNAME VARCHAR2)

2 IS
3 BEGIN
4 EXECUTE IMMEDIATE('DROP TABLE '||TNAME);
5* END;
SQL> /
Procedure created.
SQL> EXEC DDL_PROC(EMP);

BEGIN DDL_PROC(EMP); END;
*
ERROR at line 1:
PLS-00357: Table,View Or Sequence reference 'EMP' not allowed in this context
PL/SQL: Statement ignored
SQL> EXEC DDL_PROC('EMP');
SQL> DESC EMP;

ERROR:
ORA-04043: object EMP does not exist
REF CURSOR:
Ref Cursor :
� Dynamic Cursors
� Supports to define cursor without any select statement
� Select statement will be provided while opening the Cursor
Syntax:
Type <Ref Cursor Name> is <Ref Cursor>;
Ex:
Create Package p1
as
type Rcur is Ref Cursor;
End p1;
** Procedure Returning Multiple Rows thrOUGH out parameter
Create Procedure Get_info(Vdeptno in Number,

Pcur out P1.Rcur)
Is
Begin
Open Pcur for Select empno,ename,job,sal,deptno from
Emp where deptno=vdeptno;
End;
PL/SQL block using Procedure :
Declare
Vcur P1.Rcur;
Veno emp.empno%type;
Vename emp.ename%type;
Vjob emp.job%type;
Vsal emp.sal%type;
Vdeptno emp.deptno%type;
Begin
Get_info(30,Vcur);
Loop
Fetch vcur into veno,vename,vjob,vsal,vdeptno;
Exit when vcur%notfound;
Dbms_output.put_line(veno||' '||vEname||' '||vsal||' '||vjob);
End loop;
Close Vcur;
End;
/
SQL> set serveroutput on

SQL> /
7698 BLAKE 2850 MANAGER
7654 MARTIN 1250 SALESMAN
7499 ALLEN 1600 SALESMAN
7844 TURNER 1500 SALESMAN
7900 JAMES 950 CLERK
7521 WARD 1250 SALESMAN
PARTITIONS
-> Supports to divide huge tables into logical partitions to improve performance
while retrieving / manipulating data.
Partitioning Methods
There are several partitioning methods offered by Oracle Database:
- Range partitioning
- Hash partitioning
- List partitioning
Range Partitioning
Use range partitioning to map rows to partitions based on ranges of column values.
SQL> create table emp345

(empno number(3) primary key,
ename varchar2(30),
sal number(8,2),
deptno number(2))
Partition by range (deptno)
(Partition p1 values less than (10),
Partition p2 values less than (20),
Partition p3 values less than (30),
Partition p4 values less than (40))
SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP007(EMPNO NUMBER(2),ENAME VARCHAR2(10),SAL NUMBER(8,2))

2 PARTITION BY RANGE(EMPNO)
3 (PARTITION P1 VALUES LESS THAN(10),
4 PARTITION P2 VALUES LESS THAN(20));
Table created.

1 row created.
SQL> /
INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(21,'BBBB',8000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-14400: inserted partition key does not map to any partition
SQL> /
new 1: INSERT INTO EMP007 VALUES(12,'CCCC',6500)
1 row created.
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP007;
EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
1 AAAA 5000
12 CCCC 6500
List Partitioning
Use list partitioning when you require explicit control over how rows map to
partitions. You can specify a list of discrete values for the partitioning column
in the description for each partition.
SQL> CREATE TABLE Dept_part

(deptno number,
deptname varchar2(20),
state varchar2(2))
PARTITION BY LIST (state)
(PARTITION q1 VALUES ('OR', 'WA'),
PARTITION q2 VALUES ('AZ', 'UT', 'NM') ,
PARTITION q3 VALUES ('NY', 'VM', 'NJ'),
PARTITION q4 VALUES ('FL', 'GA'));
table created.
SQL> INSERT INTO DEPT_PART VALUES(&DEPTNO,'&DEPTNAME','&STATE')

2 ;
Enter value for deptname: AAAA
Enter value for state: OR
old 1: INSERT INTO DEPT_PART VALUES(&DEPTNO,'&DEPTNAME','&STATE')
new 1: INSERT INTO DEPT_PART VALUES(1,'AAAA','OR')
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for deptname: BBBB
Enter value for state: XL
new 1: INSERT INTO DEPT_PART VALUES(2,'BBBB','XL')
INSERT INTO DEPT_PART VALUES(2,'BBBB','XL')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-14400: inserted partition key does not map to any partition
SQL> /
Enter value for deptname: BBB
Enter value for state: GA
new 1: INSERT INTO DEPT_PART VALUES(2,'BBB','GA')
1 row created.
SQL> SELECT * FROM DEPT_PART;
DEPTNO DEPTNAME ST
---------- -------------------- --
1 AAAA OR
2 BBB GA
SQL> select partition_name from dba_tab_subpartitions where table_name='EPT_PART'
Hash Partitioning
It controls the physical placement of data across a fixed number of partitions

and gives you a highly tunable method of data placement.
To Create HASH Partition

SQL> create table purchases (inv_no number , day number,
month number, year number)
partition by hash (day, month, year)
(partition h1,
partition h2,
partition h3);
Adding a Partition to a Partitioned Table

alter table emp345 add partition p5 values less than (50);
Truncating Partitions
alter table emp345 truncate partition p5 ;
Dropping a Table Partition

Alter table emp345 drop partition p5;
Merging Partitions
ALTER TABLE emp345 MERGE PARTITIONS p1 , p2 into PARTITION p6 ;
Moving a Partitions
ALTER TABLE emp345 MOVE PARTITION p4 tablespace tbs4;
Renaming a Table Partition

ALTER TABLE emp345 rename PARTITION p4 to p45 ;
Coalescing a Partitioned Table

ALTER TABLE emp345 COALESCE PARTITION;
LOCKS
Lock means : U can do the update transaction at one location and the another person
do the same transaction at another location it can occurs the dead lock situation.
1. Implicit Locks:
? U & another person do the same transaction at the same time dead locks occurs
at that time who enter the Transaction first that will decided by the implicit
Locks. Whose person can open the table that person will do that transaction.
2. Exlicit Locks:
? U can do some Transaction these Transaction are completed to allow the other
person that is explicit Lock.
? User can provide our own manipulation per particular time given after the
time finish another person comes.
? How to Lock release in Explicit Locks used by commit/rollback.
Type of locks
1. row level locks

2. table locks
--> Row Level Locks:

This lock is used to lock either a single or group of records, for the
purpose of updations. A Row Level Lock is implemented with in a select query using
"for update of " clause.
Ex: Select * from emp where empno=7788 for update of comm,sal;

note: another user cannot manipulate comm&sal of 7788,for the rest of the numbers &
entities he can do manipulation
Ex: Select * from emp for update of comm, sal;
Note: another user cannot manipulate comm&sal all the numbers, for the rest of the
entities he can do manipulation
Ex: Select * from EMP for update;(to lock the table)
note: another user cannot manipulate all the entities of the table
Note: only manipulations r not allowed but he can retrive values (select)of the
table
--> Table Level Locks: These are further classified into three caregories...
-> Shared Lock

-> Shared Update Lock
-> Exclusive Lock
SQL> LOCK table emp in sharemode;
SQL> LOCK table emp in Share Update Mode;
SQL> LOCK table emp in Exclusive Mode -> this is not allowed to other people
before to
Release
** COMMIT/ROLLBACK will release any type of LOCK.
SQL LOADER :
scott/tiger :
create table depta(depnto number(2),dname varchar2(10),loc varchar2(10));
take any file which has raw data
file name : 'd:\ABC.TXT'
10,ACC,HYD
20,RES,SEC
30,FIN,CHENNAI
40,ADMIN,BANGLORE
Prepare a SQL Loader script to load the above raw into the above created table.
file name : 'd:\my_ctl.ctl'
LOAD DATA
INFILE "D:\ABC.TXT"
INSERT INTO TABLE DEPTA
FIELDS TERMINATED BY ','
(DEPTNO,DNAME,LOC)
in command prompt execute as below :
C:\>sqlldr scott/tiger D:\my_ctl.ctl
SQL*Loader: Release 10.1.0.2.0 - Production on Wed Jan 28 12:10:02 2009
Copyright (c) 1982, 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.
Commit point reached - logical record count 4
C:\>
logon to :
scott/tiger
SQL> select * from depta;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ----------
10 ACC HYD
20 RES SEC
30 FIN CHENNAI
40 ADMIN BANGLORE
import & export(data pump):
Microsoft(R) Windows DOS

(C)Copyright Microsoft Corp 1990-2001.
C:\DOCUME~1\ADMINI~1>CD\
C:\>EXP
Export: Release 10.1.0.2.0 - Production on Wed Jan 28 12:24:59 2009
Username: SCOTT/TIGER
Connected to: Oracle Database 10g Enterprise Edition Release 10.1.0.2.0 -

tion
With the Partitioning, OLAP and Data Mining options
Enter array fetch buffer size: 4096 > 5000
Export file: EXPDAT.DMP > MYDMP.DMP
(2)U(sers), or (3)T(ables): (2)U > T
Export table data (yes/no): yes > Y
Compress extents (yes/no): yes > Y
Export done in WE8MSWIN1252 character set and AL16UTF16 NCHAR character s
About to export specified tables via Conventional Path ...

Table(T) or Partition(T:P) to be exported: (RETURN to quit) > EMP
. . exporting table EMP 17 rows export

Table(T) or Partition(T:P) to be exported: (RETURN to quit) > DEPT
. . exporting table DEPT 4 rows export

Table(T) or Partition(T:P) to be exported: (RETURN to quit) >
Export terminated successfully without warnings.
C:\>
C:\>imp
Import: Release 10.1.0.2.0 - Production on Wed Jan 28 12:34:41 2009
Username: my_user/tiger
Connected to: Oracle Database 10g Enterprise Edition Release 10.1.0.2.0 -

tion
With the Partitioning, OLAP and Data Mining options
Import file: EXPDAT.DMP > mydmp.dmp
Enter insert buffer size (minimum is 8192) 30720>
Export file created by EXPORT:V10.01.00 via conventional path
Warning: the objects were exported by SCOTT, not by you
import done in WE8MSWIN1252 character set and AL16UTF16 NCHAR character s

List contents of import file only (yes/no): no > n
Ignore create error due to object existence (yes/no): no > y
Import grants (yes/no): yes > y
Import table data (yes/no): yes > y
Import entire export file (yes/no): no > y
. importing SCOTT's objects into MY_USER

. . importing table "EMP" 17 rows import
. . importing table "DEPT" 4 rows import
About to enable constraints...
Import terminated successfully without warnings.
C:\>

Varma

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Varma

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

what is o.s?

-> it is a collection of softwares, working together.

-> o.s are classified into 4 types

1. CUI (Character User Interface):

ex: MS-DOS, UNIX

2. GUI(Graphical User Interface):

ex: windows family, linux

3. Single User O.S:

-> this o.s can support only single user.

ex: Windows 93,95

4. multi user o.s:

-> this o.s can supports multiple users.

ex: windows xp, 2000 server, vista,linux,unix

1946-55 -> Ist generation computers

-> machine level languages(0,1)

-> assembly level language(middle level language)

-> in this language program consists neumonic codes

assembler(compiler) : it converts middle level language program into

1966-75 -> 3rd generation

-> High level language(user friendly language)

1976-85 -> IVth Generation

-> non-procedural languages

1986-Vth generation computers

-> platform independent languages are developed.

ex: JAVA, ORACLE

-> IT IS COLLETION OF INFORMATION STORED IN BYTES/CHARACTERS.

-> IT DOESN'T SUPPORT DATATYPE.

-> IT IS A COLLECTION OF RELATED AND MEANING INFORMATION STORED AT

-> IN THIS MODEL DATA STORED IN INVERTED TREE FORMAT.

EX: ORACLE, SQL-SERVER,SYBASE,DB2,TERADATA,etc.,

WHATS THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DBMS AND RDBMS :

-> IT IS DESKTOP(STANALONE) APLICATION

-> IT DOESN'T SUPPORTS MULTIPLE USERS AND MULTIPLE PLATFORMS.

-> IT PROVIDES POOR SECURITY.

EX: DBASE,FOXPRO,MS-ACCESS,ORACLE 6.0

-> QUITE OPPOSITE OF DBMS RULES.

-> IT IS 4TH GENERATION LANGUAGE.

-> IT IS DEVELOPED BY USING 90%(C LANGUAGE) & 10%( LOW LEVEL)

-> IT IS DEVELOPED BY E.F CODD, HE IS AN IBM EMPLOYEE.

-> IT IS COMMON LANGUAGE FOR EVERY RDBMS PACKAGE.

-> IT SUPPORTS IN-LINE COMMANDS.

ORACLE SQL-SERVER SYBASE

SQL *PLUS TRANSACT SQL

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCES BETWEN ORACLE AND SQL SERVER

ORACLE SQL SERVER

1. IT IS CUI BASED 1. IT IS GUI BASED

ORACLE 6.0 : -> IT SUPPORTS DBMS FEATURES.

ORACLE 7.X-> SUPPORTS CLIENT-SEVER ARCHITECTURE.

ORACLE 8.0 -> IT SUPPORTS OORDBMS

ORACLE 8I -> IT SUPPORTS WEB APPLICATIONS

ORACLE 9I -> IT SUPPORTS XML

ORACLE 10G -> IT SUPPORTS REGULAR EXPRESSIONS.

ORACLE 11i -> it is ERP TOOL

1. SIMPLE DATATYPE - SQL SUPPORTS

2. COMPOUND DATATYPE(USER DEFINED DATATYPES) - PL/SQL CAN SUPPORT COMPOSITE

1. NUMBER(P,S): -> PRECISION , S->SCALE

-> MAXIMUM RANGE :

EX: EMPNO NUMBER(2); 12,78, 99

-> IT IS FIXED LENGTH DATATYPE.

-> IT ACCEPTS ALPHABETS,ALPHANUMARICS

-> MAXIMUM LIMIT

EX: ENAME CHAR(10); 'RAM'

-> IT SUPPORTS DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION.

-> IT ACCEPTS ALPHABETS,ALPHANUMARICS