Cedees Dental Material Smart Notes

CEDEES DENTAL MATERIAL www.bdsnext.
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SMART NOTES
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CEDEES…………… DENTAL MATERIAL SMART NOTES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Surface Tension-The increase in energy per unit area of surface is referred to as

the surface energy or surface tension / Surface energy (www.bdsnext.com)
The greater the surface energy, the greater will be the capacity for adhesion.
Wetting- To produce adhesion in this manner, the liquid must flow easily over
the entire surface and adhere to the solid. This is called wetting.
The degree of wetting is indicated by the contact angle of the adhesive to the
adherend.
Contact angle- The contact angle is the angle formed by the adhesive (e.g. water)
and the adherend (e.g. glass) at their interface.
Contact Angle = 0 Perfect wetting
Contact Angle = 0 < < 180° low wettability
Contact Angle = 180° Perfect non-wetting
Impression materials are also classified as:-
1. Hydrophilic, if their contact angle is from 80 to 105°.
2. Hydrophobic, if their contact angle is from 40 to 70°
Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension (or interfacial tension)
between two liquids or between a liquid and a solid.
Surfactants may act as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents,
and dispersants. Surfactants are added to some dental materials to improve
wetting.
Sol-Colloidal particles dispersed in a liquid e.g.: Starch in water
Emulsion- one liquid is dispersed in the other but they do not mix or are not
soluble in each other eg: Petrol & water (www.bdsnext.com)
Colloid- 4th state of matter
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STRESS
The internal resistance of the body to the external force is called stress.
Stress is equal and opposite in direction to the force (external) applied.
Types of Stresses
1. Tensile stress- Results in a body when it is subjected to two sets of forces
that are directed away from each other in the same straight line. The load
tends to stretch or elongate a body
Eg: While pulling up water from a well, it is the tensile stress that works
on the rope and pulley to pull up the water. (www.bdsnext.com)
2. Compressive stress - when the body is subjected to two sets of forces in

the same straight line but directed towards each other. The load tends to or
shortens a body. Eg: Pressing a sponge
3. Shear stress- Shear stress is a result of two forces directed parallel to each
other. A stress that tends to resist a twisting motion, or a sliding of one
portion of a body over another is a shear or shearing stress.
Eg: Polishing the surface.

Strain
Strain= Deformation or change in length /Original length
Liquids/Fluids can be of 4 types (www.bdsnext.com)

Newtonian- The fluid whose viscosity remains constant is known as the
Newtonian fluid.
These fluids are independent of the amount of shear stress applied to them with
respect to time
Non Newtonian fluids:-
Poisson’s ratio - Within the elastic range, the ratio of the lateral to the axial strain
is Poisson ratio

Proportional limit (www.bdsnext.com)

The point ‘P’ is the proportional limit, i.e., up to point ‘P’ the stress is proportional
to strain (Hooke’s Law).
Beyond ‘P’ the strain is no longer elastic and so stress is no longer proportional
to strain.
Elastic limit
 elastic limit may be defined as the maximum stress that a material will
withstand without permanent deformation (change in shape)
Yield strength is defined as the stress at which a material exhibits a specified
limiting deviation from proportionality of stress to strain.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY or ‘Young’s modulus’. (www.bdsnext.com)

 It represents the relative stiffness or rigidity of the material within the
elastic range.
 Enamel has 3 to 7 times Elastic modulus than dentin
 It is projected by the slope of the curve in Stress Strain graph
 .Modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus = Stress /Strain

PERMANENT DEFORMATION -Once the elastic limit of a material is

crossed by a specific amount of stress, the further increase in strain is called
permanent deformation, i.e., the resulting change in dimension is permanent eg:
Stretching a plastic cover to the point where it loses it’s initial shape
TOUGHNESS (www.bdsnext.com)
 It is defined as the energy required to fracture a material.
 Toughness is also measured as the total area under the stress-strain curve
(energy absorbed till Ultimate tensile strength)
Resilience- is also measured by the area under the straight line portion of the
stress-strain curve. It is the area till Elastic limit.
BRITTLENESS A brittle material fractures at or near its proportional limit.
Brittleness is the opposite of toughness, e.g. glass is brittle at room temperature.
It will not bend appreciably without breaking.
It should not be wrongly understood that a brittle material lacks strength.
Many dental materials are brittle, e.g. porcelain, cements, dental stone, etc.
DUCTILITY It is the ability of a material to withstand permanent deformation
under a tensile load without rupture. A metal that can be drawn readily into a wire
is said to be ductile.
 Ductility is dependent on tensile strength.
 Ductility decreases as the temperature is raised.

MALLEABILITY- It is the ability of the material to withstand rupture under

compression, as in hammering or rolling into a sheet.
 Gold is the most ductile and malleable metal.
Hardness Test (www.bdsnext.com)

1. Brinell – a 10 mm diameter steel ball as an indenter, applying a uniform
3000 kgf (29 kN) force.
Used for measuring hardness of metals and metallic materials. Not suitable
for plastic and brittle materials
2. Rockwell Hardness Number (RHN) – , a steel ball or a conical diamond
point is used. However, instead of measuring the diameter of the
impression, the depth is measured directly by a dial gauge on the
instrument
3. Vickers Hardness Test

(VHN) – , a diamond in the
shape of a square pyramid is
used .The load is divided by
the area of indentation.
Used for measuring hardness
of tooth structure
4. Knoop Hardness Test (KHN)
– A diamond indenting tool is used. The indentation is more narrower and
elongated.
Used for exceedingly hard and soft
5. The Shore and the Barcol - Used for measuring the hardness of rubber
and plastics
 The Knoop and Vickers tests are classified as microhardness tests.

 The Brinell and Rockwell tests are classified as macrohardness tests.
RHEOLOGY
Viscosity is the resistance offered by a liquid when placed in motion, e.g.
honey is more viscous than water

Creep
Time dependent plastic deformation or change of shape that occurs when
a metal is subjected to a constant load near its melting point is known as
creep. This may be static or dynamic in nature.
THIXOTROPIC
These materials exhibit a different viscosity after it is deformed, e.g. latex
paints for ceilings show lower viscosity after it is stirred vigorously.
Zinc oxide eugenol cements show reduced viscosity after vigorous mixing.
Dental prophy paste is another example. (www.bdsnext.com)
Glass Transition Temperature - The glass transition temperature is a

thermal range in which the polymerized resin passes from a soft, rubbery
state to a rigid, glassy state. Cooling the denture base resin beyond the glass
transition temperature yields a rigid mass.It is 39 degree.
Latent heat of fusion—Thermal energy required to convert a solid to a

liquid.
Fusion temperature= 43.5 degree Celsius (www.bdsnext.com)
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is defined as the property of a material that indicates
its ability to conduct heat through its body under a steady state condition
Thermal expansion coefficient— The coefficient of thermal

expansion describes how the size of an object changes with a change in
temperature.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion List:
Chroma—Degree of saturation of a particular hue (dominant color). It

depends on Hue
Value—Relative lightness or darkness of a color. Also known as the gray

scale. It is independent of Hue (www.bdsnext.com)
Hue—Dominant color of an object; for example, red, green, or blue.

Metamerism—Phenomenon in which the color of an object under one

type of light source appears to change when illuminated by a different light
source.
Galvanic shock—Pain sensation caused by the electrical current generated

when two dissimilar metals are brought into contact in the oral
environment. (www.bdsnext.com)
Pitting corrosion—Highly localized corrosion occurring at metal surface

defects such as pits, scratches, and cracks in which the region at the bottom
is oxygen-deprived and becomes the anode while the surface around it
becomes the cathode. Thus, metal at the base preferentially ionizes and
goes into solution, causing the defects to enlarge.
Crevice corrosion—Accelerated corrosion in narrow spaces caused by

localized electrochemical processes and chemistry changes, such as
acidification and depletion in oxygen content. Crevice corrosion
commonly occurs when microleakage takes place between a restoration
and the tooth (www.bdsnext.com)
Stress corrosion—Degradation caused by the combined effects of

mechanical stress and a corrosive environment, usually exhibited as
cracking.

 The basis for judging the tendency of metals and alloys to undergo
electrochemical corrosion is the electromotive (or galvanic) series,
which arranges metals by their equilibrium values of electrode
potential.
 Hydrogen has an electrode potential of 0.00
 Potassium has -2.92 V
 Most positive is Gold +1.50 V
 The more positive the electrode potential less chance for the
metal to undergo tarnish and corrosion
Tarnish—Process by which a metal surface is dulled or discoloured when

a reaction with a sulphide, oxide, chloride, or other chemical causes surface
discoloration through formation of a thin oxidized film.
GYPSUM
Classification :
 Type 1—Dental plaster for impressions
 Type 2—Dental plaster Class 1 - for mounting Class 2 - for models
 Type 3—Dental stone for models (www.bdsnext.com)
 Type 4—Dental stone (high strength, low expansion) for dies
 Type 5—Dental stone (high strength, high expansion) for die

IMPRESSION MATERIALS
Impression compound
Type I - Impression compound
Type II - Tray compound (www.bdsnext.com)
Ingredients
 Resin 30
 Copal resin 30
 Carnauba wax 10
 Stearic acid 5
 Talc 25
 Colouring agent (e.g. rouge)

ELASTIC IMPRESSION MATERIALS
AGAR
Classification BASED ON VISCOSITY
Type 1 — Heavy bodied (for use as tray material)
Type 2 — Medium bodied (for use as tray or syringe material)
Type 3 — Light bodied (for syringe use only) Type 3A — Light bodied for agar-
alginate combination technique (www.bdsnext.com)
PROPERTIES OF AGAR HYDROCOLLOIDS
 Gelation, liquefaction and hysteresis

Gelation (solidification) occurs at 37 °C approximately, whereas liquefaction
(melting) occurs at a higher temperature, i.e. 60–70 °C higher than the gelation
temperature. This temperature lag between liquefaction and gelation is known as
hysteresis.
 Syneresis and imbibition (dimensional stability)
If left in a dry atmosphere, water is lost by syneresis and evaporation, and if it is
immersed in water, it absorbs water by a process known as imbibition.
The exuding of fluid from the gel is known as syneresis.
 LAMINATE TECHNIQUE (agar–alginate combination technique)
IRREVERSIBLE HYDROCOLLOID—ALGINATE (www.bdsnext.com)

TYPES
Type I — Fast setting.
Type II — Normal setting

ELASTOMERIC IMPRESSION MATERIAL (www.bdsnext.com)

Chemically, there are four kinds of elastomers:
1. Polysulfide
2. Condensation polymerizing silicones
3. Addition polymerizing silicones
4. Polyether
Classification based on viscosity :
Type 0—Putty consistency (very heavy)
Type 1—Heavy-bodied consistency (tray consistency)
Type 2—Medium-bodied consistency (regular bodied)
Type 3—Light-bodied (syringe consistency)
POLYSULPHIDE  Unpleasant odour and color..
 These materials are extremely viscous and sticky.
Mixing is difficult.
 It has a long setting time of 12.5 minutes (at 37 °C).
 Excellent reproduction of surface detail.
 Dimensional stability The curing shrinkage is high
(0.45%) and continues even after setting. It has the
highest permanent deformation (3–5%) among the
elastomers
 It has high tear strength (4000 g/cm)

 It has good flexibility (7%) and low hardness. A 2 mm

spacing in the tray is sufficient for making an
impression.
 It is hydrophobic
 It can be electroplated. More with silver than copper.
 The shelf life is good (2 years).
CONDENSATION
SILICONE  Pleasant color and odour..
 Setting time is 6–9 minutes. Mixing time is 45 seconds.
 Excellent reproduction of surface details.
 Dimensional stability is comparatively less because of
the high curing shrinkage (0.4–0.6%), and shrinkage
due to evaporation of the ethyl alcohol by-products. To
avoid this the cast should be poured immediately. The
permanent deformation is also high (1–3%).
 Tear strength ( (3000) g/cm is lower than the
polysulfides.
 It is stiffer and harder than polysulfide.
 It is hydrophobic.
 Can be plated with silver/copper
 Shelf life is slightly less than polysulfides due to the
unstable nature of the orthoethyl silicates
(www.bdsnext.com)
ADDITION  Pleasant odour and color.
SILICONE  This may also cause allergic reaction so direct skin
contact should be avoided.
 Excellent reproduction of surface details
 Setting time ranges from 5 to 9 minutes. Mixing time
is 45 seconds. Working time may be extended by
chilling the tubes. Gains of up to 90 seconds have been
reported when the materials are chilled to 2 °C.
 It has the best dimensional stability among the
elastomers. It has a low curing shrinkage (0.17%) and
the lowest permanent deformation (0.05–0.3%).
 Early materials had the problem of hydrogen gas
formation. If hydrogen gas is liberated pouring of stone

is delayed by 1–2 hours to prevent formation of air

bubbles in the stone cast. Current materials do not have
this problem because of the addition of palladium.
 It has good tear strength (3000 g/cm).
 It is extremely hydrophobic
 It can be electroplated with silver or copper.
 It has low flexibility and is harder than polysulfides.
(www.bdsnext.com)
POLYETHER  Pleasant odour and taste.
 The sulfonic ester can cause skin reactions.
 Setting time is around 6–8 minutes. Mixing should be
done quickly that is 30 seconds. Heat decreases the
setting time.
 Dimensional stability is very good.
 It is extremely stiff (flexibility 3%). It is harder than
polysulfides and increases with time. Removing it from
undercuts can be difficult, so additional spacing (4 mm)
is recommended.
 Tear strength is good (3000 g/cm).
 It is hydrophilic
 It can be electroplated with silver or copper.
 The shelf life is excellent — more than 2 years.
 It has excellent detail reproduction (20 microns).
(www.bdsnext.com)

AMALGAM (www.bdsnext.com)
(www.bdsnext.com)
 ON THE BASIS OF ADDITION OF NOBLE METALS:-
i. First generation- 3 parts of silver and 1 part of tin.

ii. Second generation- copper (4%) was added to decrease the
plasticity and increases the hardness and strength & zinc (1%)
were also added to act as deoxidizer.
iii. Third generation- silver copper eutectic alloy.

iv. Fourth generation- copper content up to 29% , most of the tin is

firmly bonded to copper
v. Fifth generation- alloying of silver copper tin indium, creating a
true quaternary alloy.
vi. Sixth generation- the alloying of palladium (10%), silver (62%)
and copper(28%). The set amalgam exhibits highest nobility
Eames’ technique (www.bdsnext.com)

 Dr. Wilmer Eames proposed 1:1 ratio of mercury: alloy.
 This is came to be known as the minimal mercury or Eames’ technique
(mercury/alloy 1:1).
 SETTING REACTION- LOW COPPER ALLOYS
 SETTING REACTION HIGH COPPER ALLOYS

 SETTING REACTION SINGLE COMPOSITION ALLOYS
(www.bdsnext.com)
Difference between primary and secondary expansion

(www.bdsnext.com)
• Expansion that occurs due to reaction of Hg with alloy components is
termed primary expansion or mercuroscopic expansion.

• Expansion that occurs after 1 to 7 days due to moisture contamination

during trituration or condensation before the amalgam mass is set, is
termed secondary expansion or delayed expansion.
COMPOSITE RESINS
Components of a composite resin (www.bdsnext.com)
1. Resin matrix/binder—Bis-GMA or urethane dimethacrylate

2. Filler—Quartz, colloidal silica or heavy metal glasses
3. Coupling agent—Organ silanes.
4. In addition, they contain A curing system—Chemical or light curing
chemicals.
5. Inhibitors (0.01%)—Prevents premature polymerization, e.g.,
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT).
6. UV absorbers—to improve color stability
7. Opacifiers—(0.001 to 0.007%) e.g., titanium dioxide and aluminium
Color pigments—to match tooth color
COUPLING AGENTS
 Coupling agents bond the filler particles to the resin matrix
 The most commonly used coupling agents are organosilanes
Based on curing mechanism

Class 1 — Self cured materials
Class 2 — Light cured materials
Class 3 — Dual cured materials (www.bdsnext.com)
Based on filler particle size

 Macrofillers (10-100 µm)
 Midifillers (1-10 µm)
 Minifillers (0.1-1 µm)
 Microfillers (0.01-0.1 µm)
 Nanofillers (0.005–0.01 µm)
 Hybrid (range of sizes which usually includes micro or nanofillers
with macro, midi or mini fillers
Based on viscosity
 Conventional
 Flowable
 Packable
Based on applications and commercial availability

1. Restorative composites—direct intraoral restorations
– Hybrid composites
- Macrofilled hybrids
- Midifilled hybrids
- Minifilled hybrids
- Nanofilled hybrids (www.bdsnext.com)
– Microfilled
– Nanofilled composites
– Flowable
– Packable
– Core build-up composites
2. Prosthodontic composites (for fabrication of inlays, veneers, crowns

and FDPs)
3. Provisional composites (for temporary crowns, FDPs, etc.)
4. Luting composites
5. Repair composites (intraoral repair of fractured ceramic or acrylic or
composite veneer
Based on the mode of activation of polymerization, there are three

main types
A. Chemically activated resins
B. Light-activated resins
C. Combination of the above (dual cure).

CHEMICALLY ACTIVATED COMPOSITE RESINS

This is a two-paste system
Base paste contains—benzoyl peroxide initiator
Catalyst paste—tertiary amine activator (i.e. N, N-dimethyl-p-toluidine).
LIGHT ACTIVATED COMPOSITE RESINS

Under normal light they do not interact. However, when exposed to light
of the correct wavelength the photo initiator (camphorquinone) is activated
and reacts with the amine to form free radicals which then start the
polymerization.
1.(UV) light for curing.

2.Visible-light activated (www.bdsnext.com)
DUAL CURE RESINS

A combination of chemical and light curing is used to overcome some of
the drawbacks of light curing
CURING LAMPS
 QTH (Quartz-tungsten-halogen) These were the earliest visible
lightlamps.The Lightsource is a tungsten-halogen-quartz bulb. 400 to 500
nm
 LED (Light emitting diodes) LED - 440 and 480 nm
 PAC (Plasma arc curing) - 400 to 500 nm (www.bdsnext.com)
 Argon laser – 490 nm

PIT AND FISSURE SEALANTS
Deep pits and fissures on posterior teeth are susceptible to decay as they provide
shelter for organisms. They are often too narrow making it difficult to clean.
1. Based on filler content 2 types are available—
-Filled
-Unfilled.
2. Based on curing mechanism—they may be light cured or chemical cured.
Composition
The most commonly and successfully used sealant is bis-GMA

It may be cured chemically (amine-peroxide system) or by light.

BONDING AGENTS (www.bdsnext.com)
First generation
 They used glycerophosphoric acid dimethacrylate to provide a bifunctional
molecule.
 The hydrophilic phosphate part reacted with calcium ions of the
hydroxyapatite.
 The hydrophobic methacrylate groups bonded to the acrylic restorative
resin.
Disadvantage
1. Low bond strength (2 to 6 MPa) because of their high polymerization
shrinkage
2. High CTE
Second generation (1970s)
-Developed as adhesive agents for composite resins
-One system used NPG-GMA.
- Bond strengths achieved were three times more than the earlier generations.
Disadvantage
Bond strengths were still low., e.g. Prisma, Universal Bond, Clearfil, Scotch
Bond. (www.bdsnext.com)
Third generation (1980s)

 The third generation bond agents made a serious attempt to deal with the
smear layer which is formed when dentin is cut.
 Bond strength improved to 12 to 15 MPa.
Disadvantage
 Complex as it requires two to three application steps
 E.g.: e Tenure, Scotch bond 2, Prisma, Universal bond, Mirage bond, etc.
Fourth generation

 The fourth generation systems were possible because of some important

ideological breakthroughs-like the total etch technique and the
development of the hybrid zone.
 Examples are All Bond 2, Scotch bond multipurpose , Opti bond
Fifth generation
 Because of the clinical complexity and multiple steps of 4 th Gen,the fifth
generation combined the primer and adhesive in to one bottle (self-priming
adhesive).
 Examples of the fifth generation self-priming adhesives are Single Bond
(3M) One Step (BISCO), Prime and Bond (Dentsply)
Sixth generation -A separate etchant is not required. These are 2 bottle systems
Type I
2 bottle 2 step system.
 Etchant and primer are combined in one bottle (called self-etching primer).
 Other bottle contains adhesive. (www.bdsnext.com)
Type II
2 bottle 1 step system
 Liquid A -contains the primer.
 Liquid B contains a phosphoric acid modified resin (self etching adhesive).
 Both liquids are mixed just before application.
Seventh generation
 Attempts to combine all three (etchant, primer and adhesive) into a single
product. Thus, seventh generation adhesives may be characterized as -‘no
mix self-etching adhesives’.
 Unfortunately, insufficient research exists of the efficacy of the newer
systems.

CEMENTS
ZINC PHOSPHATE CEMENT (www.bdsnext.com)

Zinc phosphate is the oldest of the luting cements
APPLICATIONS 1. Luting of restorations (inlays, crowns, fixed dental
prostheses, etc.) 2. High strength bases. 3. Temporary restorations. 4. Luting of
orthodontic bands and brackets.
CLASSIFICATION
a. Luting (Maximum film thickness—25 μm) (www.bdsnext.com)
b. Bases and lining
COMPOSITION

Advantages
1. Long track record with proven reliability. 2. Good compressive strength.
Disadvantages
1. No chemical adhesion. Not indicated if the retention is poor.
2. No anticariogenic property. (www.bdsnext.com)
3. Pulp irritation.
4. Poor aesthetics
ZINC OXIDE EUGENOL
CLASSIFICATION ADA specification No. 16.
 Type I or Hard
 Type II or Soft
 ZOE cements are biocompatible as luting cements and temporary

restorations, but the ZOE properties and handling characteristics are
inferior to those of other long-term luting cements.
 However, ZOE cements have been useful for retaining fixed prostheses on
implant-supported abutments, which facilitates retrievability of the
prostheses.

The modified ZOE cements are :- (www.bdsnext.com)

 EBA-Alumina modified cements
 Polymer reinforced

ZINC POLYCARBOXYLATE CEMENTS
SETTING REACTION (www.bdsnext.com)

When the powder and liquid are mixed, the surface of powder particles are
attacked by the acid, releasing zinc, magnesium and tin ions. These ions bind to
the polymer chain via the carboxyl groups. They also react with carboxyl groups
of adjacent polyacid chains to form cross-linked salts
Advantages 1. Comparatively less irritating to the pulp. 2. Chemical bond to
tooth structure.
Disadvantages Limited fluoride release when compared to GIC.

GLASS IONOMER (GIC)
CLASSIFICATION (www.bdsnext.com)
a. Luting b. Bases and liners c. Restorations
They may also be classified as
1. Conventional GIC 2. Resin-modified GIC 3. Metal-modified GIC
COMPOSITION
POWDER
Liquid

SETTING REACTION (www.bdsnext.com)

 Leaching -When the powder and liquid are mixed together, the acid attacks
the glass particles. Thus calcium, aluminum, sodium and fluoride ions
leach out into the aqueous medium.
 Calcium cross-links.
 Aluminum cross-links
 Sodium and fluorine ions These ions do not take part in the cross-linking.
Some of the sodium ions may replace the hydrogen ions in the carboxylic
groups. The rest combine with fluorine to form sodium fluoride which is
uniformly distributed within the cement.
 Hydration Water plays a very important role in the cement.
 Initially it serves as the medium. Later it slowly hydrates the matrix, adding
to the strength of the cement (maturation process).
 Silica gel sheath The unreacted glass (powder) particle is sheathed
(covered) by a silica gel. It is formed by the leaching of the ions (Ca²+,
Al³+, Na+, F¯) from the outer portion of the glass particle.
PACKABLE GLASS IONOMER

A packable GIC (Fuji VIII for anterior teeth and Fuji IX or posterior teeth) with
a dough like consistency is available as a cheaper alternative to compomers and
composites for posterior restorations. Useful for Atraumatic Restorative
treatment
MODIFIED GLASS IONOMERS

1. Metal modified GIC
2. Resin modified GIC (www.bdsnext.com)

DIRECT FILLING GOLD
Many categories of direct filling gold are available and is based on its physical
form and manufacturing process.
1. Foil (fibrous gold)
– Sheet
- Cohesive
- Noncohesive
– Ropes
– Cylinders
– Laminates
– Platinized
2. Electrolytic precipitate (crystalline gold)
– Mat
– Mat foil
– Gold-calcium alloy
3. Granulated gold (encapsulated powder (www.bdsnext.com)
GOLD FOIL
 Gold foil is the oldest of all products
 A cast ingot of 15 mm thickness is beaten to a sub microscopic
thickness of 15 or 25 µm. The product is called gold foil
Carbonized or corrugated gold

 Preformed gold foil in the form of ropes and cylinders may be
available in ‘carbonized’ or ‘corrugated’ form (made from No. 4 foil
that has been ‘carbonized’ or ‘corrugated’).
Platinized foil
 This is a laminated foil in which pure platinum foil is sandwiched
between two sheets of No. 4 gold foil. The sheets are beaten and
joined together.
 Platinum is added to gold foil to increase the hardness of the
restoration. This product is available only in No. 4 sheet form.
Cohesive gold
 It is also called ‘sticky gold’.
 This gold is free of surface contaminants. (www.bdsnext.com)
Mat Gold
 is electrolytically precipitated gold sandwiched between sheets of
foil and then formed into strips. Mat gold is used to build-up the bulk
of the restoration
 However, mat gold has lots of voids and results in a pitted external
surface
Mat Foil (www.bdsnext.com)

 It is a sandwich of electrolytic precipitated gold powder between
sheets of No. 3 gold foil.
 The sandwich is sintered and cut into strips of differing widths.
Alloyed Electrolytic Precipitates
 A form of electrolytic gold is an alloy of gold and calcium (0.1% by wt.)
called ‘Electraloy RV’.
 For greater ease of handling, the alloy is sandwiched between two layers
of gold foil.
EPOXY RESIN DIE MATERIALS
Epoxy is another resin material that has been developed for die construction. They
are most effective with rubber impression materials .
ADVANTAGES (www.bdsnext.com)
Tougher and more abrasion resistant than die stone.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Slight shrinkage (0.1%).
2. Viscous, does not flow readily.
3. Setting may take up to 24 hours.
AVAILABLE AS:
Two components—resin paste and hardened (www.bdsnext.com)

DIE STONE-INVESTMENT COMBINATION (DIVESTMENT)

 This is a combination of die material and investing medium.
 A gypsum-bonded material called divestment is mixed with a
colloidal silica liquid.
 A die is prepared from the mix and a wax pattern is constructed on
it.
 Then the wax pattern together with die is invested in divestment.
 The setting expansion of divestment is 0.9% and thermal expansion
0.6%, when heated to 677 °C.
 As it is a gypsum-bonded material it is not recommended for high
fusing alloys, e.g. metal ceramic alloy (www.bdsnext.com)
WAXES

According to Use (www.bdsnext.com)
CORRECTIVE IMPRESSION WAX

Types
1. Aluwax
2. Korecta wax (No. 4) (extra soft - orange)
3. Iowa wax—Available as 6 inch sticks or in a small container
4. H-L physiologic paste (yellow-white)
5. Adaptol (green) (www.bdsnext.com)
According to ISO 15854:2005, inlay casting waxes are classified as

 Class 1 Soft – Extra oral or laboratory use
 Class 2 Hard – Intra oral use
CLASSIFICATION: (ISO-15843:2005) BASEPLATE WAX

Type I Soft - For building veneers
Type II Hard - To use in mouths in normal climates
Type III Extra- hard - For use in tropical climates

DENTAL INVESTMENTS
Classification based on type of binder used : (www.bdsnext.com)

1. Gypsum bonded investments
They are mainly used for casting gold alloys. They can withstand temperature up
to 700 °C. Used For casting of inlays, fixed partial dentures, removable partial
denture frameworks using gold alloys and other low-fusing alloys
2.Phosphate bonded investments

Mainly For metal ceramic and cobalt-chromium alloys. They can withstand
higher temperatures. Used For casting high fusing alloys, e.g. high fusing noble
metal alloys, metal ceramic alloys and base metal alloys like nickel-chromium
and cobalt-chromium
3.Ethyl silica bonded investments
They are an alternative to the phosphate bonded investments, for high
temperature casting. They are principally used in the casting of base metal alloy
partial dentures.
Refractory (www.bdsnext.com)
A refractory is a material that will withstand high temperatures without
decomposing or disintegrating, e.g. silica.

Allotropic forms Silica exists in at least four allotropic forms.

1.Quartz
2. Tridymite
3. Cristobalite
4. Fused quartz
CASTING (www.bdsnext.com)
 The length of the sprue is adjusted so that the wax pattern is approximately
1/4” from the other end of the ring
CASTING RING LINING

A ring liner is placed inside of the casting ring. It should be short at one
end.
TYPES
1. Fibrous ceramic aluminous silicate
2. Cellulose (paper)
3. Ceramic-cellulose combination (www.bdsnext.com)
Based on method of casting the machines are

1. Centrifugal force type
2. Air pressure type
Casting machines can also be grouped based on heating system

employed
1. Torch melted
2. Induction melted
3. Arc melted
Torch melting
The flame has four zones : (www.bdsnext.com)

A. Mixing zone Air and gas are mixed here. No heat is present. It is dark
in color.
B. Combustion zone This surrounds the inner zone. It is green in color. It
is a zone of partial combustion and has an oxidizing nature.

C. Reducing zone It is a blue zone just beyond the green zone. It is the
hottest part of the flame. This zone is used for the fusion of the casting
alloy.
D. Oxidizing zone Outermost zone in which final combustion between the
gas and surrounding air occurs. This zone is not used for fusion.
CASTING DEFECTS
A casting defect is an irregularity in the metal casting process that is very

undesired. (www.bdsnext.com)
DEFECT CAUSE PREVENTION

DISTORTION due to distortion of wax pattern. 1.Manipulation of wax at high
Some distortion occurs during temperature.
manipulation due to the release of 2. Investing pattern within
stresses one hour after finishing.
3.If storage is necessary, store
in refrigerator.
SURFACE  Improper W-P ratio -A higher  Minimized by using

ROUGHNESS W-P ratio gives rougher casting. correct W/P ratio and
– investment of correct
particle size.

 Prolonged heating causes  Minimized by

disintegration of the Mold complete the casting as
cavity. – soon as the ring is
 Too high or too low casting heated and ready.
pressure. –  Minimized by using 15
 Foreign body inclusion shows lbs/sq inch of air
sharp, well-defined pressure or three to four
deficiencies. Inclusion of flux turns of centrifugal
shows as bright concavities casting machine.
They are usually caused by air or gas  Proper mixing of

SURFACE bubbles trapped on the wax pattern. investment
NODULES  Vibration of mix
 Vacuum investing
 Painting of a thick layer
of investment on the
pattern Application of
wetting agent
FIN Fins are narrow raised areas on a 1.Proper water powder ratio
casting usually corresponding to a 2.Avoid prolonged and rapid
crack in the investment heating of the Mold. Heat the
ring gradually to 700 °C (in at
least 1 hour).
3. Proper spruing so as to
prevent direct impact of the
molten metal at an angle of
90º.
4.Allow the investment
adequate time to set properly
POROSITY Types of porosities

1. Those caused by
solidification shrinkage
– Localized shrinkage
porosity
– Suck back porosity
(Irregular in shape)
– Microporosities
2. Those caused by gas
– Pin hole porosity

– Gas inclusions (Usually

spherical in shape)
– Subsurface porosity
3. Those caused by air trapped
in the Mold (back pressure
porosity
Localized shrinkage These are large irregular voids usually 1.Using sprue of correct
porosity found near the sprue-casting junction . thickness.
It occurs when the cooling sequence is 2. Attach sprue to thickest
incorrect and the sprue freezes before portion of wax pattern.
the rest of the casting. 3.Flaring the sprue at the
point of attachment or placing
a reservoir close to the wax
pattern
Suck back porosity It is a variation of the localised It is avoided by reducing the

shrinkage porosity. This is an external temperature difference
void usually seen in the inside of a between the Mold and the
crown opposite the sprue. A hot spot is molten alloy
created by the hot metal impinging on
the Mold wall near the sprue which
causes this region to freeze last. Since
the sprue has already solidified, no
more molten material is available and
the resulting shrinkage causes a type of
shrinkage called suck back porosity
Microporosity These are fine irregular voids within

the casting. It is seen when the casting
cools too rapidly. Rapid solidification
occurs when the Mold or casting
temperature is too low.
Pin hole porosity Many metals dissolve gases when

molten. Upon solidification the
dissolved gases are expelled causing
tiny voids, e.g. platinum and palladium
absorb hydrogen.

Gas inclusion Gas inclusion porosities are also

porosities spherical voids but are larger than the
pin hole type. They may also be due to
dissolved gases, but are more likely
due to gases carried in or trapped by
the molten metal.
Back pressure This is caused by inadequate venting 1. Using adequate casting

porosity of the Mold. Air is trapped in the Mold force.
and is unable to escape. The sprue 2. Use investment of
pattern length should be adjusted so adequate porosity.
that there is not more than 1/4” 3. Place pattern not more
thickness of the investment between than 6 to 8 mm away from
the bottom of the casting ring and the the end of the ring.
wax pattern. 4. Providing vents in large
castings
Stainless Steel
TYPES (www.bdsnext.com)
There are three types of stainless steel based on the lattice arrangement of iron.
1. Ferritic
2. Martensitic
3. Austenitic
FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS (www.bdsnext.com)
Pure iron at room temperature has body-centered cubic (BCC) structure

and is referred to as ferrite, which is stable up to 912 °C.
PROPERTIES AND USE
The ferric alloys have good corrosion resistance, but less strength and
hardness. So they find little application in dentistry.

MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS (www.bdsnext.com)
When austenite (face-centered cubic structure) is cooled very rapidly

(quenched), it will undergo a spontaneous, diffusionless transformation to a body-
centered tetragonal (BCT) structure called martensite. This is a highly distorted
and strained lattice, which results in a very hard and strong but brittle alloy.
PROPERTIES AND USES
Corrosion resistance of the martensitic stainless steel is less than that of the
other types. Because of their high strength and hardness, martensitic stainless
steels are used for surgical and cutting instruments. Bur shanks are also made
from this steel.
AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS(www.bdsnext.com)
At temperatures between 9120C and 13940C, the stable form of iron is a

face- centered cubic (FCC) structure called austenite. The austenitic stainless
steel alloys are the most corrosion resistant of the stainless steels
TABLES

Computer-aided milling (CAM) of  Cerec VITABLOCS

fully sintered forms  In- Denzir
 BruxZir
Computer –aided milling (CAM) of  Cercon
partially sintered form
Machining, grinding of dry-pressed  Procera Alceram
powder on enlarged die
Condensation  Ceramco
 VITA VMK
 Duceram LFC
 IPS d.Sign
Hot Pressing  IPS Empress 2
 OPC 3G
 Finesse Pressable
Casting  Dicor

AMALGAM
ADA SPECIFICATION NUMBERS

American Dental Association Specifications/American National
Standards: ANSI/ADA No. for various dental products:
No. 1 Alloy for Dental Amalgam

No. 2 Dental Gypsum-Bonded Casting Investments
No. 3 Dental Impression Compound
No. 4 Dental Inlay Casting Wax
No. 5 Dental Casting Gold Alloys
No. 6 Dental Mercury
No. 7 Dental Wrought Gold Wire Alloy
No. 8 Dental Zinc Phosphate Cement
No. 9 Dental Silicate Cement
No.10 Denture Rubber (obsolete)

No. 11 Agar Impression Materials

No. 12 Denture Base Resins
No. 13 Denture Cold - Curing Repair Resins
No. 14 Dental Base Metal Casting Alloys
No. 15 Synthetic Polymer Teeth
No. 16 Dental Impression Paste - ZnO2 -Eugenol
No. 17 Denture Base Temporary Relining Resins
No. 18 Alginate Impression Materials
No. 19 Dental Elastomeric Impression Material
No. 20 Dental Duplicating Material
No. 22 Intra oral Dental Radiographic Film
No. 23& 23a Dental Excavating Burs and addendum
No. 24 Dental Base plate Wax
No. 25 Dental Gypsum Products
No. 26 Dental X-ray Equipment
No. 27 Direct Filling Resins
No. 28 Root Canal Files and Reamers, Type K (Hand Use)
No. 30 Dental Zinc oxide -Eugenol and – Non Eugenol Cements
No. 31 Exposure time designation for timers of dental X-ray
machines
No. 32 Orthodontic Wires
No. 33 Dental Terminology
No. 34 Dental Aspirating Syringes &34a Addendum
No. 35 High Speed Air Driven Hand pieces

No. 36 Diamond Rotary Cutting Instruments

No. 37 Dental Abrasive Powders
No. 38 Metal-Ceramic Dental Restorative Systems
No. 39 Pit and Fissure Sealants
No 40 Dental Implants
No. 41—Recommended Standard process for Biological
Evaluation of Dental Materials
No. 42—Dental Phosphate-Bonded Casting Investments
No. 43—Mechanical Amalgamators
No. 44—Dental Electrosurgical Equipment
No. 46—Dental Patient Chairs
No. 47—Dental Units
No. 48—Visible Light Curing Units
No. 53—Polymer-Based Crowns and Bridge Resins
No. 54—Dental Needles
No. 57—Endodontic Sealing Material
No. 58—Root Canal Files ( Type H)
No. 62—Dental Abrasive Pastes
No. 63—Root Canal Barbed Broaches and Rasps
No. 69—Dental Ceramic
No. 70—Dental X-ray Protective Aprons and Accessory Devices
No. 71—Root Canal Filling Condensers and Spreaders
No. 73—Dental Absorbent Points
No. 74—Dental Operator's Stool

No. 75—Resilient Lining Materials for Removable Dentures -Part

1 Short Term materials
No. 76—Non-Sterile Natural Rubber Latex Gloves For Dentistry
No. 78—Dental Obturating Cones
No 79 –Dental Vacuum Pumps
No. 80—Color Stability Test procedure
No. 82—Dental Reversible/Irreversible Hydrocolloid
Impression Material Systems
No. 85-Part 1—Disposable Prophy Angles
No. 87—Dental Impression Trays
No. 88—Dental Brazing Alloys
No. 89—Dental Operating Lights
No. 91—Dental Ethyl Silicate Bonded Casting Investment
No. 92—Dental Phosphate-Bonded Refractory Die Materials
No. 93—Dental Brazing Investments
No. 94—Dental Compressed Air Quality
No. 95—Root Canal Enlargers
No. 96—Dental Water-Based Cements
No. 97—Corrosion Test Methods
No. 99—Athletic Mouth Protectors and Materials
No. 100—Orthodontic Brackets and Tubes
No. 101—Root Canal Instruments
No. 102—Non-Sterile Nitrile Gloves
No. 103—Non-Sterile Poly Vinyl Chloride Gloves For Dentistry

No. 105 Orthodontic Elastomeric Materials

No. 108 Amalgam Separators
No .109 Procedures for Storing Dental Amalgam Waste and
requirements for Amalgam Waste storage/shipment containers
No. 113 Periodontal Curettes, Dental Scalers, Excavators
No .116 Oral Rinses
No. 119 Manual Tooth brushes
No. 120 Powered Toothbrushes
No. 122 Dental Casting and Baseplate Waxes
No. 125 Manual Interdental Brushes
No .126 Casting Investments and Refractory Die Materials

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CEDEES DENTAL MATERIAL www.bdsnext.

CEDEES India’s BEST and OLDEST MDS Entrance Coaching Center

Surface Tension-The increase in energy per unit area of surface is referred to as

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2. Compressive stress - when the body is subjected to two sets of forces in

Eg: Polishing the surface.

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Liquids/Fluids can be of 4 types (www.bdsnext.com)

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Proportional limit (www.bdsnext.com)

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY or ‘Young’s modulus’. (www.bdsnext.com)

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PERMANENT DEFORMATION -Once the elastic limit of a material is

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MALLEABILITY- It is the ability of the material to withstand rupture under

Hardness Test (www.bdsnext.com)

3. Vickers Hardness Test

 The Knoop and Vickers tests are classified as microhardness tests.

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Glass Transition Temperature - The glass transition temperature is a

Latent heat of fusion—Thermal energy required to convert a solid to a

Fusion temperature= 43.5 degree Celsius (www.bdsnext.com)

Thermal expansion coefficient— The coefficient of thermal

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Coefficient of Thermal Expansion List:

Chroma—Degree of saturation of a particular hue (dominant color). It

Value—Relative lightness or darkness of a color. Also known as the gray

Hue—Dominant color of an object; for example, red, green, or blue.

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Metamerism—Phenomenon in which the color of an object under one

Galvanic shock—Pain sensation caused by the electrical current generated

Pitting corrosion—Highly localized corrosion occurring at metal surface

Crevice corrosion—Accelerated corrosion in narrow spaces caused by

Stress corrosion—Degradation caused by the combined effects of

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Tarnish—Process by which a metal surface is dulled or discoloured when

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ELASTIC IMPRESSION MATERIALS

PROPERTIES OF AGAR HYDROCOLLOIDS

 Gelation, liquefaction and hysteresis

IRREVERSIBLE HYDROCOLLOID—ALGINATE (www.bdsnext.com)

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ELASTOMERIC IMPRESSION MATERIAL (www.bdsnext.com)

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 It has good flexibility (7%) and low hardness. A 2 mm

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is delayed by 1–2 hours to prevent formation of air

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i. First generation- 3 parts of silver and 1 part of tin.

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iv. Fourth generation- copper content up to 29% , most of the tin is

Eames’ technique (www.bdsnext.com)

 SETTING REACTION HIGH COPPER ALLOYS

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 SETTING REACTION SINGLE COMPOSITION ALLOYS

Difference between primary and secondary expansion

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• Expansion that occurs after 1 to 7 days due to moisture contamination