Anc - Med - Art&Culture Compilation For Prelims

COMPILATION OF ART AND CULTURE, ANCIENT AND
MEDIEVAL
One of the most challenging portion to cover , extremely vast and hard to revise due to
spread of sources . But we are always here to make your work easier. Here we are with a
compilation that will help you to solve questions either directly or this knowledge will help
you to apply logic and derive the correct answer.
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FOUNDER KARMAYOGI IAS
ADITYA (IRON MAN)
1. PREHISTORY/ Stone Age
• Paleolithic/old stone age (5,00,000-10,000BC)

i. Pliestocene period
ii. Quartzite man
iii. Larger stone tool - blunt
iv. Bori (MH), Bhimbetka
• Mesolithic/Microlithic/later stone age (10,000-4,000BC)

i. Transition phase Fishing started
ii. Domestication of animals
iii. Small stone tools - microliths
iv. Adamgarh (MP), Sarai Nahraya (UP), Bhimbetka (MP)
• Neolithic/ New Stone Age (6000-1000BC)

i. Settled life - agri, animal domestication
ii. Using cotton & wools for clothes
iii. Polished microlith - sharp flintstones
iv. Pottery making
v. Mastered use of fire
vi. Mehergarh - 1st village (Baluchistan)
o Prehistoric Findings =>

i. Bhimbetka - 500 painted rock shelters (MP)
ii. Nevasa - Evidence of cotton
iii. Atranjikheda - Textile printing
iv. Inamgaon - Mother goddess statue (MH)
v. Mehargarh, Baluchistan - earliest evidence of agri, settled life
vi. Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice
vii. Bagor and Adamgarh, Raj - Earliest evidence of domestication of animal
viii. Chirand, Bihar - Serpant cult
FOUNDER KARMAYOGI IAS (ADITYA)

ix. Burzahom Gulfkral, J&K - Pit dwelling
2. INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

• Bronze Age
(no iron)

• Used Solid wheels => NOT spoked wheels (used by Aryans)
• Animals - dogs, cats, buffalo, pigs,cow, camel, chicken, goat, sheep,
elephant
(ivory tusks) - NO HORSE

Megalithic Phase
• 2nd century BC in Peninsula => megalith builders (graves called
megaliths because encircled by large stones)

• Iron weapons buried with dead i.e. Iron Age=> agri not advanced
• Red-Black pottery
Chalcolithic Period - used copper as well as stone

• Aka stone-copper age => decline from IVC as they did not use bronze
• Red-Black Ware Pottery
• People mostly lived on river banks near hills => Western India and Deccan
• NO burnt bricks
• Knew terracotta like Harappans
o Belan Valley, UP => evidence of Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic sites in sequence
▪ Koldihwa (in Belan Valley) - earliest evidence of rice
o RECENT sites-
• Keeladi, TN - Sangam site - Tamil Brahmi script
• Chebrolou, Andhra Pradesh - worship of goddess Saptamatrika – 7 goddess => Sanskrit insciption
3. VEDIC PERIOD
Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 BC – 1000 BC)
Initially, the Aryans lived in the land known as “Sapta Sindhu” (Land of the Seven Rivers). These
seven rivers were: Sindhu (Indus), Vipash (Beas), Vitasta (Jhelum), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni
(Chenab), Shutudri (Satluj) and Saraswati.
Political structure:
Monarchical form of government with a king known as Rajan.

Patriarchal families. Jana was the largest social unit in Rig Vedic times.
Social grouping: kula (family) – grama – visu – jana.
Tribal assemblies were called Sabhas and Samitis. Examples of tribal kingdoms: Bharatas, Matsyas,
Yadus and Purus.
Social structure:
Women enjoyed a respectable position. They were allowed to take part in Sabhas and Samitis.
There were women poets too (Apala, Lopamudra, Viswavara and Ghosa).
Cattle especially cows became very important.
Monogamy was practised but polygamy was observed among royalty and noble families.
There was no child marriage.
Social distinctions existed but were not rigid and hereditary.
Economic structure:
They were a pastoral and cattle-rearing people.
They practised agriculture.
They had horse chariots.
Rivers were used for transport.
Cotton and woollen fabrics were spun and used.
Initially trade was conducted through the barter system but later on coins called ‘nishka’ were in
use.
Religion:

They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, etc. By personifying them into
deities.
Indra (thunder) was the most important deity. Other deities were Prithvi (earth), Agni (fire), Varuna
(rain) and Vayu (wind).
Female deities were Ushas and Aditi.
There were no temples and no idol worship.
Later Vedic Period or Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000 BC – 600 BC)
During this time, the Aryans moved eastwards and occupied western and eastern UP (Kosala) and
Bihar.
Political structure:
Kingdoms like Mahajanapadas were formed by amalgamating smaller kingdoms.
King’s power increased and various sacrifices were performed by him to enhance his position.
Sacrifices were Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Vajapeya (chariot race) and Ashwamedha
(horse sacrifice).
The Sabhas and Samitis diminished in importance.
Social structure:
The Varna system of social distinction became more distinct. This became less based on occupation
and more hereditary.
The four divisions of society in decreasing social ranking were: Brahmanas (priests), Kshatriyas
(rulers), Vaishyas (agriculturists, traders and artisans), and Shudras (servers of the upper three
classes).
Women were not permitted to attend public assemblies like Sabhas and Samitis.
Their position in society diminished.
Child marriages became common.
Sub-castes based on occupation also emerged. Gotras were institutionalised.
Economic structure:
Agriculture was the chief occupation.
Industrial work like metalwork, pottery and carpentry work also was there.
There was foreign trade with far off regions like Babylon and Sumeria.
Religion:
Prajapati (creator) and Vishnu (preserver) became important gods. Indra and Agni lost their
significance.
Importance of prayers diminished and rituals and sacrifices became more elaborate.
The priestly class became very powerful and they dictated the rules of the rites and rituals. Because
of this orthodoxy, Buddhism and Jainism emerged towards the end of this period.

Vedic Literature
The word ‘Veda’ originated from the root ‘vid’ which means spiritual knowledge/subject of
knowledge/means of acquiring knowledge.
The four Vedas are: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.

Rig Veda was composed during the Early Vedic Age. The other three were written in the Later
Vedic Age.
Rig Veda – this is the oldest religious text in the world. It contains 1028 hymns and is classified
into 10 mandalas.
Yajur Veda – this deals with the ways to perform rituals.
Sama Veda – deals with music. Indian music is said to be originated from Sama Veda.
Atharva Veda – contains spells and magical formula.
Vedic Priesthood
Hotri For Vedic priests viz. Hotri, adhvaryu, udgatri and brahman (brahmin) participated in the
shrauta rites and each of them had special attributes. Hotri was the priest chanting the hymns of Rig
Veda; adhvaryu chanting the hymns of Yajur Veda; Udgatri chanting the Sama Veda hymns.

Brahman priest was the most and supervisor of the entire ceremony and the one chanting the hymns
of Atharva Veda.
Other Vedic texts were the Brahmanas (explains the meaning of sacrifices);
Upanishads (also called Vedantas, 108 in number, source of Indian philosophy); and Aranyakas
(books of instructions).
The great Indian epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana were also composed during this period.
▪ Aryans defeated Dasyus (natives)

• Das - defeated Aryans
• Dasyu - defeated natives
▪ Brought horses, knew use of iron
• Rituals
Panch Mahayagyas
i. Brahma Yagya
ii. Bhuta Yagya - for living beings
iii. Deva Yagya - for gods
iv. Manushya Yagya - for friends, relatives
v. Pitru Yagya - for forefathers
• Others - Rajasuya, Ashwamedha, Narmedha/Purushmedha, Agnichayana
b. Vajapeya - Chariot race
Polity
i. Rajan (EVP - battle and secure cows, LVP - battle and secure lands)
ii. Kula - family, Vis/Jana - tribe
iii. Officers - Purohit (priest), Senani (commander), Gramani (village chief), Ugra & Jivagrabha
(police like), Akshvapa (accountant), Bhagadugha (tax collector), Madhyamasi (mediator in
disputes)
iv. 3 assemblies -
1. Sabha (only few elders) => some women also => LVP -> became small body + women not
allowed
2. Vidhata => most important assembly => women present => secular, religious and military
purpose => disappeared in Later Vedic period
3. Samiti => gained significance only during end of EVP => not present in LVP
c. Coins -
i. Satamana - silver coin
ii. Nishaka
RIVER NAMES

4. MAHAJANAPADAS
a. 2nd urbanisation
b. NBPW Pottery
c. Ganas - Oligarchy Mahajanpadas (Budhha and Mahavira belonged to
such Ganas)
d. Angutta Nikaya - Part of Sutta Pitaka mentioning Mahajanapadas
e. Bhagwati Sutra - Jain text mentioning Mahajanapadas
f. Coins -
i. Satamana - silver coin
ii. Nishaka
5. MAURYAS (322-185BC)
a. Literary Sources
i. Arthashastra – Kautilya
ii. Indica - Megasthenes

iii. Mudra Rakshasa - Vishakadatta (chanakya-Chandragupta story) - written in Gupta times
iv. Devi-Chandragupta - Vishakadatta (Sanskrit political drama)
v. Puranas
vi. Jatakas - socio-economic condition of Magadha
vii. Dipavamsa & Mahavamsa - decribe Ashoka's role in spreading Buddhism to SL
viii. Divyavadana - Tibetan Buddhist text - Ashoka and his efforts to spread Buddhism
b. Archaeological Sources
i. Silver Punch mark coins - without name of rulers
ii. Burnt bricks and ringed well
iii. NBPW
iv. Wooden palace of Chandragupta Maurya
v. Ashokan edicts - Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts, Cave Insciptions
i. All pillars carved out of Chunar hills => displaced at different places
ii. 3 languages - Prakrit, Greek, Aramaic
iii. 4 scripts -
1. Brahmi, Kharoshti (Manshera & Shabzgiri inscriptions) for Prakrit
2. Greek, Aramaic
• Edict 13 in Kandahar is bilingual (Greek and Aramaic)
iv. Important Inscriptions- (deciphered by James Princep in 1837)

1. Sarnath - Dhamma Ashoka
2. Maski & Gujara - Ashoka revealed his true name
3. Barbu - Ashoka expressed his faith in Buddhism
4. Rumandei - land grants and economic favours to monasteries
5. Manshera - Kharosthi script used
• Major Rock Edicts - principles of dhamma
• Minor Rock Edicts - personal history of Ashoka
Mauryan Administration
Mauryan administration was highly centralized.
The king was the supreme power and source of all authority.
He was assisted by a Council of Ministers. It was called ‘Mantriparishad’. The ministers were
called ‘Mantris.’
The council was headed by ‘mantriparishad-adhyakshya’ akin to the Prime Minister of today.
Tirthas: the highest category of officials in the administration. There were 18 Tirthas.
Adhyakshya: Ranked next only to Tirthas. There were 20 Adhyakshyas. They had economic and
military functions.
Mahamattas: Higher ranking officials.
Amatyas: High ranking officials almost like present-day secretaries. They had administrative and
judicial roles.
The Adhyakshyas were formed into a secretariat, which was divided into many departments.
Arthashastra mentions many Adhyakshyas for commerce, storehouses, gold, ships, agriculture,
cows, horses, city, chariots, mint, infantry, etc.
Yuktas: Subordinate officers responsible for the king’s revenue.
Rajjukas: Officers in charge of land measurement and boundary-fixing.
Sansthadhyasksha: Superintendent of mint
Samasthadhyasksha: Superintendent of markets
Sulkaadhyaksha: Superintendent of tolls
Sitaadhyaksha: Superintendent of agriculture
Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships

Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of iron
Pauthavadhyakhsa: Superintendent of weights and measuresAkaradhyaksha: Superintendent of
mines
Vyavharika Mahamatta: Judiciary officers
Pulisanj: Public relations officers ,Registration of births and deaths, foreigners, industries, trade,
manufacture and sale of goods, sales tax collection were under the administration’s control.
Local Administration
The smallest unit of administration was the village.
Head of a village: Gramika Villages had a lot of autonomy.
Pradeshika was the provincial governors or district magistrates.
Sthanika: Tax collectors working under Pradeshikas.
Durgapala: Governors of forts.
Antapala: Governors of frontiers.
Akshapatala: Accountant General
Lipikaras: Scribes
Military
The commander-in-chief of the entire military was called Senapati and his position was next to the
king’s. He was appointed by the king.
The military was divided into five sectors namely, infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephant forces, navy
and transport & provisions.
The army’s salary was paid in cash.
Revenue
The revenue department chief was called Samharta.
Another important official was Sannidhata (treasurer).
Police
All the main centres had police headquarters.
Jail was called Bandhangara and lock-up was known as Charaka.
Espionage
The espionage system of the Mauryas was well-developed.
There were spies who informed the king about the bureaucracy and markets.
There were two types of spies: Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wanderer).
Gudhapurushas were the detectives or secret agents.
They were controlled by the Mahamatyapasarpa. These agents were picked from different segments
of society.
There were also agents called Vishakanyas (poisonous girls).
Transport
The transport department fixed the width of the chariots, cattle tracks and pedestrians.
Ashoka's Dhamma
1. Diff from Buddhism
2. Tenet of tolerance + moral conducts
3. Objective - to preserve social order as with Mauryan expansion the pop become heterogenous,
diverse and multi-racial
4. Pay respects to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks
5. Mercy to slaves
6. If people behaved well => would attain Swarga

iii. Aka Devinami Priyadarshini

6. POST MAURYAN

Religious Land Grants
▪ Brahmadeya - donated to Brahmans
▪ Devadana - donated to Gods
▪ Agrahara - tax free settlement of priests - also had right vested with temple and monasteries to call
for Vishti (unpaid labour) from tillers of donated land => priests could collect tax from tillers
though.
SATAVAHANAS (60BC - 225AD) - 30 kings

i. Successors of Mauryans in Deccan and Central India
ii. Capital - Pratishtana (banks of Godavari), Port city - Bharuch
iii. Gathsaptasati - by Hala (Satavahana ruler)
iv. Founder - Simuka
v. Satakarni I - performed vedic sacrifices
vi. Succeeded by - Vakataka dynasty in MH; Ikshvaku dynasty in Andhra
i. Ikshvaku => feudatories of Satavahanas
ii. Capital - Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda)
iii. Patornized Amravati school
vii. Started the practise of donating land to Brahmans/Buddhist monks - aka BRAHMADEYA =>
led to feudalism
viii. Language - Prakrit
ix. Gautamiputra Shatkarani (23rd king)
i. Metronymics - taking Mother's name before his name (Polygyny society)
x. But patrilineal succession -> NOT matrilineal
xi. NO gold coins
xii. Hinduism
INDO-GREEK
i. First foreign rulers of NW India in post Maurya period
ii. Menander (165-145BC) - Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena - MilindPanho
iii. Capital - Sialkot
iv. Introduced regular coinage in India in large number
v. First coins to bear names and images of kings were issued by IndoGreeks.
SAKAS
i. Aka Scythians, replaced Indo-Greeks
ii. Rudraraman (130-150 AD) - repaired Sudarsan lake (made by Chandragupta Maurya) and gave
patronage to Sanskrit
i. Title of Mahakshatrap
iii. Junagarh Inscription => attributed to Rudraraman
iv. 58 BC - Vikramaditya defeated Sakas => Vikram Samvat
v. Satrap System of govt

i. Similar to that of Achaemenid and Seleucid systems in Iran
ii. Each province (satrap) under a military governor called Mahakshatrap
iii. They issued their own inscriptions and also minted their own coins
KUSHANS (1st to 3rd century AD)

i. Replaced Parthians in NW India => then expanded to lower Indus basin and Ganga basin
ii. Controlled silk route
iii. Founded by Kadphises I

iv. First to issue gold coins on a wide scale => gold coins of high purity
v. Most famous ruler - Kanishka (78 - 101 AD) - aka Second Ashoka => started Saka Era in 78 AD
(after defeating Sakas)
vi. Empire spread over 5 countries - Russia, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, India
vii. Capital - Peshawar (Purushpura)
viii. Patron of Mahayana Buddhism => 4th Buddhist Council in Kundalvana, Kashmir by Kanishk
ix. Patronized Scholars like Nagarjuna, Ashvagosha, Vasumitra, Parsava, Charaka
x. Large headless statue of Kanishk at Mathura
7. SANGAM AGE

Categories of People in South India
i. Vellalar - landowners
ii. Uzhavar - ordinary ploughmen
iii. Adimai and Kadaisiyar - slaves and landless labourers
• Similarly in North India =>
i. Bhojaka - village headman (also largest landowner)
ii. Grihapati - small landowner
iii. Dasa Karmakar – landless
▪ Hero worship prevalent - Viragals - stone slabs with hero's inscriptions
1. CHERAS
i. Capital - Vanji
ii. Senguttuvan - greatest ruler (aka Red Chera, Good Chera) – created temple of Kannagi
iii. Roman temple of Augustus (later destroyed by Tipu)
iv. Muziris Port
v. Pugalur incsription(1st century AD) -> mentions 3 generations of Cheras
2. EARLY CHOLAS
i. Capital - Kaveripatnam/Puhar
ii. Karikala Chola - greatest ruler - founded Puhar port
iii. Puhar Port
iv. Uraiyur - chief political center famous for cotton trade
3. PANDYAS
i. Patronized Sangam assembly at Madurai

ii. Meduncheliya ruler - Known for curse of Kannagi
iii. Madurai => capital
iv. Korkai Port - Pearl Trade
TAMIL LITERATURE- secular

1. 1st Sangam (mythological) - chaired by Agastya Mahamuni at Madurai
2. 2nd Sangam - Tamil text on grammar - Tolkkapiyam => chaired by Tolkkapiyar at
Kapatpuram.
3. 3rd Sangam - most imp - massive literature- chaired by Nakkirar at Madurai
i. 18 Major Works -Melkanakus (Narrative) - on love and God
i. Tirumurugaruppadai - on tamil god Murugan by Nakkirar (prez of 3rd sangam)
ii. 18 Minor Works - Kilkanakus (Didactic)
i. Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar - code of ethics & universal human values
iii. 3 epics
i. Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal - Madurai, Pandyan King, Vaishnavism Shaivism Jainism,
Pattani Cult
ii. Manimegalai by Sattalai Sattanar (story of a dancer becoming Buddhist nun)
iii. Sivaga Sindamani by Tiruttokadevar(story of hero Sivaka becoming Jain monk)

8. GUPTAS
Literary Sources
i. Nitisar by Kamandaka
ii. Devichandraguptam by Vishakadutta
iii. Mrichakatika by Sudraka
iv. Kathasagarsarita by Somdev
v. Sawpanwasavdatta by Bhasa
Important Kings
Sri Gupta - founded dynasty
Chandragupta I
1. Assumed title Maharajadhiraja
2. Started Gupta Era in 320AD
3. Issued many gold coins => king and queen on coins
4. Matrimonial alliance with Licchavi (nepal) princess Kumaradevi - Kumaradevi coins
Samudragupta (335-389AD)
1. Greatest Gupta king - title of Prakrama
2. Prayag Prasasti (Allahabad Pillar inscription) by his poet Harisena in sanskrit
3. Great conqueror and poet - aka Kaviraja
4. Vaishnav, tolerant to Buddhists also

Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (380-414AD)
1. Matrimonial alliance (of his daughter) with Naga dynasty
2. Issued silver coins
3. Made Ujjain second capital
4. Vishakadatta's play Natya-Darpan and Devichandraguptam => Chandragupta II defeated Saka
ruler Rudrasimha III.
5. Iron Pillar (Qutub Minar)
6. Mehrauli Inscription
7. Fa-Hien visited => book Fu-kuo-ki => common life and untouchability
8. Navaratna of Chandragupta II - Kalidasa, Dhanavantri, Varahmira, Vetala Bhatta..etc
Kumargupta Founded Nalanda Mahavihara - Mahayana Buddhism
Skandagupta (455-467 AD)

1. Pushed back Hunas
2. Repaired Sudarshan Lake (originally built by Chandragupta Maurya & repaired by Rudraraman)
3. Bhitari Pillar Inscription
4. Continous Hun attacks -> weakened empire
Administration
i. Officers post - Hereditary
ii. High Decentralization as compared to Mauryans
iii. Quasi Feudal economy - hereditary grants , • Religious grants of 2 types -> Agrahara and
Devagraha
iv. King took exalted titles like Maharajadhiraj, Samrat, Chakravartin etc
• Trading boisi.
Sarthavaha - leaders of caravan traders
ii. Sresthi - very rich merchant
iii. Vanik - trader in general
Central Administration
• Maha Mantri (Chief minister) : stood at the head of civil administration.
• Maha-baladhikrta : commander-in-chief
• Sandhivgrahika : the foreign minister
• Maha-dandanayaka : Chief justice
• Maha-asvapati : commander of the calvalry
• Maha-pilupati : commander of elephant
• Maja-ranabhandagarika : Master general of military stores
Society
i. Varna system modifies due to -
i. Many foreigners assimilated into Indian society as Kshatriyas
ii. Assimilated tribals into Shudras
iii. Guilds of craftsmen transformed into caste with decline of trade and urban centers
ii. Lil improvement in position of women - education allowed, but Sati present
iii. Gods getting consorts - Lakshmi with Vishnu, Parvati with Shiva
iv. Evolution of Vajrayana Budhhism and tantric cults
v. Idol Worship became common
Economy
i. Land survey

ii. Tax fixed at 1/6th of the produce.
Taxes
-i. Bali
ii. Bhaga
iii. Bhogkar
iv. Hiranyanka - tax in cash
iii. Paid salary in form of land grants (Mauryans paid in cash)
i. Pustapala - officer maintained land records
4. Largest no. of gold coins (but not as pure as Kushana coins)
5. Decline in long distance Indo-Roman trade
vi. East Coast Ports - Tamralipti, Ghantashala, Kandura
vii. Western Coast Ports - Bharuch, Chaul, Kalyan, Cambay
Culture
i. Decline of animal sacrifice as Bhagwatism/Vishnu worship grew
ii. Idol worship - free standing temple
iii. Rock cut caves - Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh caves
g. Inscriptionsi. Allahabad Inscription (prayag Prashasti) - Samudragupta - by Harisena
• ALLAHABAD PILLAR -
i. Ashoka (originally)
ii. Samudragupta (Prayag Prashasti by Harisena)
iii. Jehangir incription (in Persian language)
ii. Mehrauli inscription - Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
iii. Bhitari inscription (UP) – Skandagupta
▪ Other inscriptions
• Ayodhya Inscription - Pushyamitra Shunga
• Junagarh Inscription - Rudraraman
• Aihole Inscription - Pulakesin II (mentions to Harsha also)

9. POST GUPTA AGE
5 major powers emerged in North India -

▪ Maukharis (western UP)
▪ Maitrakas - (Saurashtra)
▪ Gaudas - (Bengal) - Shashank Gauda (uprooted Bodhi tree)
▪ Kamarupa – (assam)
▪ Pushyabhuti (Thaneshwar)
i. Prabhakarvardhan assumed title Parambhattaraka Maharajadhiraja
ii. Marriage alliance with Maukharis
iii. Made Kannauj capital

• Rajyavardhan became king => Shashank Gowda of Bengal killed him and captured his sister
Rajyashri => so 16 year old Harshavardhan had to step up => killed shashank gowda and freed his
sister Rajyashri
Harshavardhan (606-647 AD)

a. Officers -
i. Baladhikrit - commander
ii. Vrihadeshwawar - head of cavalary
iii. Katuk - elephant brigade head
b. Political Career-. Conquered Kannauj (capital), Bengal, Assam, Gujarat, Bihar, Raj
Defeated by Pulakesin II of Badami Chalukyans in Guj and Narmada was agreed as border.
Aihole inscription (commissioned by Pulakesin II) on walls of Jain temple - "Sakalottara
Padeshwara" (lord of whole north India) refers to Harsha.
Literature -
i. Harsha wrote 3 dramas – Priyadarshini, Nagananda, Ratnavali
ii. Banabhatta wrote – Harshacharita, Kadambari, Parvatiparinayam
iii. Hieun Tsang – Si-Yu-Ki
Welfare of people - Mahamoksha Parishad -> distributed wealth to poor
Admin istration
i. Highly feudal and decentralized
ii. Not a lot of coins -> started feudal practice of paying officers with land grants
iii. Law and order not well maintained
iv. Severe punishment for crime (later reduced under influence of Buddhism)
v. Madhuban Plate Inscription.
10. Powerful kingdoms in Deccan

Badami Chalukyans of Deccan (543-775AD)
i. Ancient name Vatapi Chalukyans
ii. Pulakesin II
a. Aihole Inscription
i. Authored by RaviKirti
ii. At banks of Malaprabha river in Raichur doab in Bijapur, Karnataka
iii. Aihole inscription made under reigning king Pulakesin II
iv. Mentions defeat of Harsha at hands of Pulakesin II
v. Mentions shifting of capital from Aihole to Badami
b. Defeated Harsha
c. Vaishnavite. Secular - tolerant of other faiths
d. Vengi Chalukyans - seperated after death of Pulakesin II
e. 2 wars with Pallavas
i. Battle of Pullaluru => Mahendravarma I was killed
ii. Battle of Maninamgula => Pulakesin II was killed by Narsimhavarma-I (aka Vatapi Konda)
f. Handed over territories to his brother vishnuvardhan who started another branch of
Chalukyas => Vengi Chalukyas.

iii. Last ruler Keertivarma-II was assasinated by Dantidurga (estd Rashtrakuta dynasty with capital
at ellora)
iv. Art and Architecture

a. Developed Vesara Style
b. Rock cut temples and structural temples
i. Rockcut caves of Badami (karnataka)
v. Military Officers
a. Baladhikrita
b. Dandanayaka
c. Mahaprachanda Danadanayak
vi. Administration
a. Village divided into
i. Maharashtrakas (provinces)
ii. Rashtrakas (mandalas)
iii. Vishaya (distt)
iv. Bhoga (group of 10 villages)
b. Amatyas - looked after revenue matters
Pallavas of Kanchi (550-850 AD)

i. Satavahanas => Ikshvaku => Pallavas
ii. Founders of Dravidian architecture
iii. Introduced art of excavating temples from rock
iv. Founded by Simhavishnu (Vaishnavite)
v. Mahendravarma-I
a. Wrote sanskrit drama "Matta vilasa prahasanam"
b. Killed by Pulakesin-II
c. Aka - i. Vichitrachitta (curious minded)
ii. Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists)
iii. Chaityakari (temple builder)
vi. Narasimhavarma-I
a. Aka "Mammala"
b. Assumed title Vatapikonda (conquered Vatapi/Badami)
c. Killed Pulakesin-II
d. Built new city Mahabalipuram(Mammalapuram)
vii. Narasimhavarma-II
a. Title - Raja Simha
b. Built Shore Temple
c. Built number of Ghatikas (educational institutions)
viii. Literature
a. Constributed to development of Grantha Script
b. Gave importance to Sanskrit -
i. Bharavi - wrote Kiratarjuneeyan
ii. Dandi - wrote Dashakumaracharita

After Decline of Pushyabhuti, the void in North India was filled by 3 dynasties-
1. Rashtrakutas
2. Palas
3. Pratiharas
KANNAUJ TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE (8th century AD)

• Btw Rashtrakutas (Deccan), Palas (east), Pratiharas (West)
• Lasted for 2 centuries and made all three dynasties weak => resulted in Islamic invasion
• Kannauj => located on Ganga trade route and was connected to
Silk Route
• Finally, Nagabhatta II of Gurjara-Pratiharas won.
68 º 72 º 76 º 80 º 84 º 88 º 92 º 96 º
The Kannauj Triangle

36 º
c750 - 900
SHAHIS
KASHMIR
Empire:
Rashtrakutas
32 º
Palas
Gurjara - Pratiharas
Modern International Boundary
Mi 100 200 300

Km 100 200 300 400
Multan
28 º
NEPAL
SIND ARABS
GURJARA - Kanauj
Mansurah PRATIHARAS Gwalior

MAGADHA
24 º
CHANDELAS NalandaKAMARUPA r
23.5 º Mount Abu S

PALAS
MALWA mod Paharpur
Gulf of Kutch
Ujjain
Dhar VANGA
l
GUJARAT PARAMARAS
Gulf Mouths of the Ganges
20 º of
Khambhat UTKALA
Ellora ORISSA
BERAR Puri
Chilika Lake
it
RASHTRAKUTAS
Manyakheta EASTERN
16 º
CHALUKYAS
Arabian Pattadakal
Badami abh
Sea CHALUKYAS
Bay
h
PALLAVAS
Pulicat Lake
of
12 º
Kanchipuram
GANGAS
n
Bengal
CHOLAS
Tanjore Andaman
CHERAS Sea
Palk
Vembanad Lake Ten Degree Channel
Bay
PANDYAS
8 º
Gulf
of
Mannar
Indian Ocean
Great Channel
11. CHOLAS(Imperial)
Founded by Vijayalaya (feudatory of Pallavas of Kanchi) => made Tanjore (banks of Kaveri) his
capital in 850AD.
Rajaraja Chola -- defeated Pandyas and Cheras and also SL, Maldives, Lakshadweep
• built Brihadeshwar/Rajrajeshwaram Temple, Tanjore (1010AD) on River Kaveri

• Assumed title Mummudi Chola
Rajendra 1 - captured northward territories; overseas campaign against Srivijaya kingdom in SE

Asia (Bali, Sumatra, Java, Malay)
• even more ambitious than his father => defeated Mahipala in gangetic valley but didn't annex =>
created new capital at Gangaikonda Cholapuram (banks of Kaveri)
• Assumed title Gangaikonda.
Administration
▪ Decentralised Administration :
- Units -
• Mandalam (province)
• Valanadu (distt)
• Nadu (block)
• Kottam (village)
• Ur (smallest admin unit)
▪ Villages -
• 2 types of assemblies - Ur (general assembly), Mahasabha (gathering of adult men in

agraharas)
• Brahmadeya and Agrahara => lands for Brahmans
• Devadana - tax for temples
• Intercaste village

Types of Land
MEDIEVAL HISTORY
1. Invasions
3 invasions before Delhi sultanate -
o 710 AD - Mohd Bin Qasim - Arab. defeated Raja of Kucch
o 1025 AD - Mahmud Of Ghazni - Turkish. Destroyed Somnath

▪ Al Beruni (11th century) - founder of Indology, studied Brahmanas, translated Euclid's work into
Sanskrit etc
• Tehqeeq-i-Hind - religious, literary and scientific traditions of India
• Kitab-ul-Hind - Arabic language, social life, weights and measures, each chapter begins with a
question
▪ Firdausi - wrote Shah Nama
1173 AD - Mohd Ghori - from Afghanistan. Came through Bolan Pass (not Khyber pass)
▪ 1191 - 1st battle of Tarain (haryana)
▪ 1192 - 2nd battle of Tarain (Ghori allied with Jaichand of Kannauj and defeated PRC)
▪ 1194 - Battle of Chandavar => Ghori defeated Jaichand and appointed his slave Qutubuddin Aibak

2. DELHI SULTANATE
Delhi Sultanate Summary

o Iltutmish -
▪ Made delhi capital
▪ Estd Chalisa
▪ Iqta system
▪ Coins - Tanka (silver), Jital (copper)
o Balban
▪ Broke chalisa power
▪ Estd Diwan-i-arz

▪ Nowroz
▪ Sajda, Paibos
o Alauddin Khilji
▪ Standing army => paid salary in cash
▪ Dagh & Hooliya system
▪ First to start measurement of land ,Standardised weights and measures
▪ Market check & spies -kept by 2 officers - Diwan-i-Riyasat, Shahna-iMand
▪ Amir Khusro
4 Administrative reforms
a. Free grant of land for religious purpose
b. Reorganised spy system
c. Prohibited use of wine
d. Nobles - shouldn't have social gatherings and inter-caste marriages without
permission,Controlled Umrah -> separated religion from politics
Amir Khusro - his court poet

• Originator of Khayal & Tarana styles of music => Father of Qawwali
• Wrote Tughlaqnama
Founded Siri Fort (3rd foundational city of Delhi)
o Mohd bin Tughlaq -

▪ Ibn-e-Batuta - Rihala (Made qazi)
▪ Diwan-i-Kohi - agri dept
▪ Sondhar & Takkavi - agri loans
a. Ghari - house tax
b. Charahi - pasture tax
Controversial due to quick decisions which later failed.
o Firoz Shah Tughlaq -

▪ Made Iqta hereditary
▪ Soldiers paid by land (Not cash)
▪ Extended jiziya to brahman & women
▪ Ziauddin Barani - Tarikh-i-firozeshahi, Fatwa-i-Jahandari
Welfare king
a. Built canals (Satluj, Yamuna)
b. Built hospitals (Shifa Khana) - "Dar-ul-Shifa"
c. Haq-i-Shirb => 10% tax on irrigation
d. Built Yateem-Khana - widow home
e. Marriage and employment bureau
Aka Great Builder => built 300 cities and towns like -
a. Hospital in Delhi - "Dar-ul-shifa" (Charity Hospital)
b. Feroz Shah Kotla city
c. Feroz Shah Kotla Fort
d. Hisar
e. Fatehabad (haryana)

f. Firozabad (UP) -5th foundational city of Delhi
g. Jaunpur (UP)
Ziauddin Barani wrote -

• Tarikh-i-Firozshahi - about rules of many previous rulers also
• Fatwa-i-Jahandari - admin & ethics
Delhi Sultanate Administration

o IQTA
1. Revenue assignments => transferrable
2. Iqta governor Iqtadar => aka Muqtis or Walis
3. Not hereditary, did not imply right to land => became heriditary under Feroz Shah Tughlaq
o SUBAS - (provinces)
1. Iqtas later became provinces or Subas
▪ SHIQS - distt
▪ PARGANA - 84 or 100 villages
• Amin/Amil or Mushrif - treasurer
• Qanungo
• Karkuns - clerks
▪ VILLAGE - smallest unit of administration
• Chaudhari
• Patwari
• Khut - small landowners in village
• Muqaddam
• Chaukidar

3. MUGHALS
8.

. 9.
LATER MUGHAL KINGS
MANSAB SYSTEM:
· The word mansab means a place or position and therefore it means a rank in the mansab system
under the Mughals.
· The latter differed in some ways from the mansab system that evolved Under the Mughals after
Babur.

· Akbar gave mansabs to both military and civil officers on the basis of their merit or
service to the state.
· To fix the grades of officers and classify his soldiers, he was broadly inspired by the principles
adopted by Chingiz Khan.
1. Zat - personnel rank of mansabdar for hierarchy => no. of soldiers to be maintained
2. Sawars - no. of horses to be maintained by Mansabdar
Mansab denoted three things:

i) It determined the status of its holder (the mansabdar) in the official hierarchy.
ii) It fixed the pay of the holder.
iii) It also laid upon the holder the obligation of maintaining a specified number of Contingent with
horses and equipment.
The mansabdari system was not hereditary.
Land Revenue System under Akbar (Todarmal)

o 3 types-
▪ Zabti System
▪ Ghalla-Bakshi
▪ Nasaq
o Zabti System (most prevalent)
a. Land measured in bighas by(bamboo jarib system)
b. 4 categories of land-
▪ Polaj - land cultivated every year
▪ Parati - fallow for 1 year
▪ Chachar - fallow for 2-3 years
▪ Banjar - fallow for longer
o Akbar offered loans (Taccavi) to peasants for seeds, equipments, animals etc
c. Dahsala System - 10 year assessment to calculate land revenue
d. Farmers could pay in cash or kind
e. Land revenue was "renumeration of soveriegnty", NOT rent
Summary of some important works done by Mughal Kings

Babur (1526-30)
1. Battles -
a. Battle of Panipat, 1526 - Babur+Rana Sanga+Daulatkhan Lodhi + Mohammud Lodhi vs Ibrahim
Lodhi
b. Battle of Khanwa, 1527 - vs Rana Sanga
c. Battle of Chanderi, 1528 (MP) - vs Medini Raja of MP
d. Battle of Ghaghra, 1529 (Bihar)- vs Mohd Lodhi
2. First to use artillery and gun powder in India
3. Autobiography - "Tuzuk-i-Baburi" or Baburnama (in Turkish)
4. Wrote - "Risal-i-Usaz" (Letters of Babur)
Humayun (1530-40, 55-56)

1. Battlesa. Battle of Chausa, 1539 (Bihar)- Humayun vs Sher Shah Suri (afghan ruler) (suri won)
b. Battle of Kannauj, 1540 (UP) - Humayun vs Sher Shah Suri (suri won)

c. Battle of Macchiwara , 1555 (Punjab) - Humayun vs Sikandar Shah Suri (humayun won)
2. Died by falling from library (Shermandal) stairs at Puranaquila in Delhi, 1556
3. Built the city of Dinpanah (world refuge) => for refugees
4. Humayun's Tomb - built by wife Hameeda Bano Begum (haji begum)
5. Humayun Nama - Biograpahy of Humayun by his sister Gulbadan begum.
Sher Shah Suri (1540-45) (Not mughal)

1. Abolished Zamindari system => introduced New Land revenue system in India (farmer to give
1/3rd tax to king)
2. Standardized weight and measurement
3. Issued first Rupiya (silver) and Dam (copper) coins
4. Reorganised postal system.
5. First to Introduce Shariya Law for judicial purpose
6. Captured Chunar Fort, UP
7. Ministers-
1. Diwan-i-Wizarat => Revenue Finance
2. Ariz - army
3. Rasalat - foreign minister
4. Insha - communications
8. Judicial Dept => Muqadma - to give justice to people
9. Patta/Qabuliyat => written agreement btw govt and peasant => landholding and tax was finalised
- brought peasant closer to state (discouraging Jagir system)
10. 3 categories of land for tax (good, middle, bad)
11. Extended GT road from Chittagong to Kabul
12. Built city of Shergarh - 6th foundational city of Delhi.
Akbar (1556-1605)
1. Guardian - Bairam Khan
2. 2nd Battle of Panipat, 1556 - Bairam Khan vs Hemu
3. Banned forcible conversion of PoW into slaves and release PoW
4. Married Jodha Bai/Harka Bai
5. Decree of Mazhar - decision of emperor is final in adjudication process
6. Abolished Pilgrim taxes on Hindus
7. Abolished religious tax (Jiziya)
8. Fatehpur Sikri - new capital city near Agra; Buland Darwaza (gateway of Fatehpur Sikri) -> in
memory of capturing Gujarat
9. Ibadat Khana - prayer house - religious discussion happened
Battle of Haldighati - Man Singh vs Maharana Pratap of Mewar
10. Ralph Fitch (englishman) in Akbar's court => pioneer english man
11. Din-i-Ilahi/Tauhid-i-Ilahi
1. Wanted to spread ideology of Sul-i-kul (universal brotherhood)
2. Akbar's new Sufi type religion in 1582
3. No rituals/ceremonies/hierarchy/scripture etc
4. Voluntary and only those approved by Akbar could join
12. NAVRATNA of Akbar -

• Birbal, Todarmal, Tansen (composed Raga Rajdarbari in honour of Akbar), Maharaja Maan Singh,
Abul Fazl (Akbarnama, Ain-i-Akbari), Abul Faizi (translated Mahabharat into Persian - "Razam
Namah / Razmanama") , Abdul Rahim Khan (son of Bairam Khan, Hindi poet),
Mulla Do Pyaza & Fakir-Aziao-din (religious advisor)

13. Tulsidas lived in Akbar's period
Jehangir (1605-27)
1. Married Mehrunissa (Noor Mahal Noor Jahan)
2. Executed 5th Guru Arjan Dev
3. 1609 - received William Hawkins (envoy of EIC)
4. Built Shalimar & Nishant Gardens, Srinagar
5. Golden Age of Mughal Painting - Ustad Mansurr, Abul Hassan - paintings
6. Italian traveller Pietra Velle came
7. Introduced Du-aspa Sih-aspa => doubled the Sawar rank of Mansabdar without changing Zat
8. Wrote Autobiography – "Tuzukh-i-Jahangiri"
o Shah Jahan (1627-57)

1. Golden Age of mughal architecture
2. Taj Mahal (1631-1653) - Ustad Isa Persian architect
3. Shifted capital from Agra to Shahjahanabad, Delhi
4. Built Jama Masjid, Red Fort, Peacock Throne
5. Francois Bernier, Manucci - travellers
6. Built Shahjahanabad - 7th city of Delhi
o Aurangzeb (1657-1707)
▪ Dara Sikoh -> translated Gita in Persian
• Was of Qadri Sufi order
• Battle Of Samugarh-> Aurangzeb killed Dara Sikoh
1. Used title - Alamgir
2. Aka Zinda Pir (living Saint)
3. Executed 9th Guru teg Bahadur
4. Reimposed Jiziya
5. Abolished Sati
6. Battle of Purandhar (Maharaja Jai Singh beat Shivaji) => Treaty Of Purandar - humiliating treaty
for Shivaji
7. Aka temple breaker
8. Tomb - Daulatabad (MH)
▪ Bibi-ka-Maqbara, Aurangabad - built by Bahadurshah 1 (in memory of his mother)

4. MARATHA
Ashta pradhan
The eight prominent officials of Marathas were known as Ashta Pradhan. They were as follows:
Peshva (Prime Minister)
Amatya or Mazumdar (Finance Minister)
Waqia-Navis (like a home minister)
Samant or Dabir (dealing with the outsiders)
Sachiv (The official correspondence)
Pandit Rao (The official religious officer)
Sar-i-nabuat (army affairs)
Nyayadhish (judiciary)
There were eight subordinate officials to support the above and they were known as Diwan,
Mazumdar, Fadnavis, Daftardar, Karkhani, Chitnis, Jamdar and Potnis.

The Jagir system was abolished by Shivaji and he preferred giving the cash salary. Until now
The revenue collection was the job of the Kulkarnis and Patils, and the officer was hereditary.
Shivaji changed this system and the revenue collection was not now a hereditary job.
Chauth - military contribution paid to ward off attack of Marathas => on neighbouring territories
Sardeshmukhi - additonal 10% on top of Chauth => on neighbouring territories where Marathas
claimed Hereditary rights
5. VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE
Administration
Well-organized administrative system
The king was head of all powers in the state.
Council of Ministers – to assist the King in the work of administration.
The Empire was divided into six Provinces.
Naik – a Governor who administered each Province.
The provinces were divided into districts and the districts were further divided into smaller units
namely villages.
The village was administered by hereditary officers like accountants, watchmen, the weightsmen,
and officers in charge of forced labour.
Mahanayakacharya: He is an officer and the contact point between the villages and the Central
administration

• Vijaynagar kings claimed to rule on behalf of God Virupaksha
• Rulers also used title of "Hindu Suratrana" (hindu sultan)
• Capital on banks of Tungabhadra (aka Pampa)
• Clash with Bahmani kingdom wrt 3 areas -
a. Tungabhadra (tributary of Krishna) doab
b. Krishna Godavari delta
c. Konkan coast (MH)
• 4 dynasties -
a. Sangama
• Harihara and Bukka (founders)
• Deva Raya I
b. Suluva - Deva Raya II
c. Tuluva - Krishnadeva Raya (1509-29)
iv. Aravidu - Ram Raya
• Largely secular => religion as a political tool (Rivals => Bahmanis)
Nayakar System - feudal lords

• Amar Nayakar - military officers given land as salary – became hereditary
i. They were Brahmins associated with royal court => given territories to govern by Raya
ii. Major political innovation of Vijayanagara
iii. Collected taxes and given territories to govern

iv. Could be transferred by king
v. Inspired by Iqta system of delhi sultanate
Society -
1. Brahmins influential
2. Education for upper caste and males
3. Temples had kalyanMandap
4. Temples were important
5. Women -
• No purdah system
• Polygamy prevalent
• Sati present
• Child marriage not known
Ashtadiggaja
A group of eight scholars adorned his court and they were:

Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram, he was also known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha
Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
Madayagari Mallana
Dhurjati
Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi
Pingali Surana
Ramaraja Bhushana
Tenali Ramakrishna
Krishnadeva Raya (1509-29)
Babur speaks of him in his book Tuzuk-i-baburi

Great Scholar, wrote - Amuktamalyada, Jambavathikalyanam
Characterized by expansion and consolidation
Founded suburban township near Vijayanagara - "Nagalapuram" after his mother
Temples -
1. Veerbhadra temple - Lepakshi
2. Virupaksha temple – Pattadakal
6. Bahamani Kingdom
The Deccan region was a part of the provincial administration of the Delhi Sultanate. In order to
establish a stable administration in the Deccan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq appointed amiran-i-sada/
Sada Amir, who were the administrative heads of hundred villages.
From 1337 the conflict between the officers in Deccan and Delhi sultanate accelerated. This led to
the establishment of an independent state in the Deccan in 1347 with the capital at Gulbarga in
Karnataka.

Mohammad Gawan:
•The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the guidance of Prime minister Mahmmad
Gawan. He was a Persian merchant.
•He was well-versed in Islamic theology, Persian, and Mathematics. He was also a poet and
a prose-writer.
•He was also a military genius. He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa and
the sea pirates on the Arabian sea.
•He built a Madarsa at Bidar in Persian architectural style.
•This madarasa was great learning centre with collection of 3000 manuscripts from all over
the world.
•Gawan’s progress was not tolerated by native Muslim leaders.They made false allegations.
They made Sultan to punish him with death sentence.
•The kingdom was divided into four administrative units called ‘taraf’ or provinces. These
provinces were Daultabad, Bidar, Berar and Gulbarga
•After execution of Gawan Bahamani Sultanate started to decline.
• After few years Sultanate gradually broke up into five independent kingdoms: Bijapur,
Ahmadnagar, Berar , Golkonda and Bidar.
Contributions
▪ Urdu Language
▪ Quli Qutub Shah wrote Diwan-e-QutubShahi
▪ GolGumbaz => by Adil Shahi kings

IMPORTANT
Jagirdari System
a. Jagirdars => King's officials who enjoyed land gifted from king
b. Allotted Non-inheritable land area equivalent to their fee amount called Jagir
c. Responsible for maintenance of financial system of their area => collected revenue and handed
over to emperor
d. Zamindars come under Jagirdars => Jagirdar could remove Zamindar
• Zamindari System
a. Land owners => collected tax from peasant on behalf of imperial court or military purpose
b. Hereditary right over land and claim share in peasant's output
Ijaradaari System
a. Revenue Farmer => extracted revenue from peasant
b. Introduced by Shah Jahan - popularized by Aurangzeb
• Bhaichaari System (1800s - John Lawrence)

a. Land Revenue system => no patta => on trust
7. TRAVELLERS
a. Al Masudi - 890AD - aka "Herodotus of Arabs" - wrote Muruj-ul-Dahab
b. Al Beruni - Mahmud of Ghazni - wrote Kitab-al-Hind, Tehqeek-i-Hind, translated sanskrit works
like Patanjali's grammar into Arabic - Father of Indology
c. Marco Polo - Venetian - Rudramadevi Kakatiya's dynasty - 1292-94AD (Pandyan Kingdom -
stopped at Coromandel and Malabar coast when returning from China)
d. Ibn Batuta - Moroccan - Mohd Bin Tughlaq - 1333-47 AD -wrote Rihla (the travelogue)
e. Nicolo Conti - Italian - Devaraya I - gold & spice trade
f. Abdur Razzaq - ambassador of Shahruk of Timurid Dynasty - Deveraya II of Vijaynagar - 1442-
45AD
g. Domingo Paes - Krishnadevaraya (1520-1522) => described Nayakar system of Vijaynagar
empire
h. Ralph Fitch - English - Akbar

i. Antonio Montserrate - Portuguese - Akbar
j. Sir Thomas Roe - English diplomat - Jehangir (1615)
k. Peter Mundy - English - Shah Jahan
l. Nicollo Manucci - Italian - 5 mughal emperors Shah Jahan to Farukkhsiyar
m. Francois Bernier - French Physician to Aurangzeb - close to Dara Shikoh - compared India as
inferior to Europe, Travels in the Mughal Empire (book)
n. Jean Baptiste Travernier - French - Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb

8. IMPORTANT TERMS

ART AND CULTURE
1. TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

IMPORTANT TERMS
Garbhagriha:
 Literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like a sanctum.
 Made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much ritual attention.
Mandapa: {Diff. sizes named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, & Mahamandapa.}

 Entrance to temple.

 Hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.
 Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.
Shikhara or Vimana:
 Mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.
 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
 Shikhara has a curving shape while Vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.
Amalaka:
 It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North
Indian temples.
Kalasha:
 At topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.
Antarala (vestibule):
 Transition area between the Garbhagriha & temple’s main hall (mandapa).
Jagati:
 Raised platform for sitting and praying + common in North Indian temples.
Vahana:
 The mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj which
is placed axially before the sanctum

STYLES

Important temples of Nagara style
1. Dashavatara Vishnu Temple, Deogarh, UP

Built in the early 6th century CE. {late Gupta period}
1st Panchayatana style of architecture, on the bank of Betwa river.
3 main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple-

Sheshayana – on south (Vishnu reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta)
Nara-Narayana – on east (discussion between human soul and the eternal divine)
Gajendramoksha – on west (story of achieving moksha, symbolically communicated by Vishnu’s
suppression of an asura who had taken the form of an elephant)
2. Bhitargaon Brick Temple(UP)

During Gupta Era, the rock cut architecture reached its zenith and this era marked the beginning of
the free standing temples. 6th century, Gupta Age
Themes are mostly secular.
Brick and terracotta.
Figures of birds, animals and beasts.
Mythological story of abduction of Sita and penance of Nara and Narayan have been depicted here.
3. Temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh

Made in the 10th century and complex is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Patronized by Chandela kings.
All made of Sandstone.
The largest temple at Khajuraho is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple which is attributed to king
Ganda.

Known for their extensive erotic sculptures (about 10% of total sculptures); Many Hindu temples,
therefore feature Mithuns (embracing couples-erotic sculptures) sculptures, considered auspicious.
4. Chausanth Yogini temple, MP
 The temple is formed by a circular wall with 65 chambers, apparently for 64 yoginis and the
goddess Devi, and an open mandapa in the centre of a circular courtyard, sacred to Shiva.
 The temple is in the Seismic Zone III region and has survived several earthquakes, seemingly
without any serious damage. This fact was cited when the issue of safety from earthquake effect of
the circular Parliament House, its design supposedly based on the Mitaoli temple, was debated in
the Indian Parliament
5. Sun temple, Konark, Odisha

Built around 1240 on the shores of the Bay of Bengal, constructed by the eastern Ganga
ruler Narasimha Varmana.
Set on a high base, its walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental carving.
Include 12 pairs of enormous wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs, representing the
chariot wheels of the sun God who, in mythology, rides a chariot driven by 8 horses,
sculpted here at the entrance staircase => resemble a colossal processional chariot.
On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of Surya carved out of green stones.
One of wall had the doorway into the temple from where the actual rays of the sun would enter the
garbhagriha.
DRAVIDIAN STYLE
The main features of this style of temple architecture

are:
•The Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
•The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a Gopuram.
•The shape of the main temple tower known as vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped
pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India.
•In the South Indian temple, the word ‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning element at
the top of the temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola—
this is equivalent to the amalak and kalasha of North Indian temples.
•Fierce Dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple adorn the entrance to
garbhagriha
•It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the
complex.

•At some of the most sacred temples in South India, the main temple in which the
garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers. This is because it is usually
the oldest part of the temple
The contribution of Pallavas to Dravidian architecture

•In the south the Pallavas created beautiful monuments in th 7th CE AD
•Mahendravarman and his son Narasimhavarman were great patrons of art and architecture
(Their contribution to rock-cut architecture will be discussed elsewhere)\
•The shore temple at Mahabalipuram was built later, probably in the reign of
Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha. It has shrines dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu
The contribution of Cholas to Dravidian architecture

•The Cholas perfected the Dravidian temple style inherited from the Pallavas. During this time, the architecture
style became more elaborate by moving away from the early cave temples of the Pallavas
•Stone came to be used as the predominant material for the construction of the temples during this time
•Gopurams became more prominent. They were decorated with carvings representing various Puranas
•The Vimanas attained a greater grandeur during the Chola period. Ex: The temple tower of Brihadeshwara
temple is 66 metres
•Greater emphasis was given for the use of sculptures in the construction of the temple.
Shore temple Mahabalipuram - Late 7th century during reign of Narasimhavarman II

{Rajasimha} is specially known because of its location on the sea-shore.
Stylistically to Dharmaraja ratha BUT it is a structural temple and not a rock-cut one.
It is about 3 to 4 times the size of the Dharmaraja ratha and is made a triple structure by adding a
shrine at the back and slightly jutting out in the front.

The shrine is enclosed by a massive wall, having the typical Pallava rampart lion pilasters at regular
intervals.
Facing east towards the sea and has three shrines – east and west to Shiva and the middle for Vishnu
(Anantashayana).
Group of monuments at Mahabalipuram
5th century A.D, locally called as Ratha under Pallava rulers.

Panch Rath of Pandavas Named after the five Pandava brothers and Draupadi but they
neither have anything to do with chariots nor probably with the Pandavas and these

associations are purely of a local character.
These are rock cut.

RAVAN PHADI CAVE

2. CAVE ARCHITECTURE
Bhimbetka caves
Bhimbetka Rock Shelters - Features

•The term 'Bhim-betaka' refers to thev‘sitting location of Bhima’, one of the Pandava
brothers.
•Several layers of inhabitation can be seen in the rock shelters.
•At the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central India, the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, as
well as the historic period, are all represented.
•It displays the earliest signs of human life in India, as well as Stone Age evidence dating
back to Acheulian times.
•It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site with seven hills and over 750 rock shelters spread out
over a 10-kilometer area. At least some of the shelters have been occupied for over 100,000
years.
•The first period, which corresponds to the Upper Paleolithic epoch, features enormous
animals such as bosons, rhinos, and tigers.
•The Mesolithic period, or the second phase, is marked by miniature, stylized human
figurines.
•Weapons such as barbed spears, pointed rods, and bows and arrows are displayed on
these figurines.

•They also depict social interactions such as dancing, burials, drinking, eating, and so
on.
•The Chalcolithic phase is the third stage, characterised by agricultural activities and
exchange between nomads and agriculturists.
•Prehistoric cave paintings may be seen in some of the Bhimbetka rock shelters, the oldest
of which date back to around 10,000 years ago (c. 8,000 BCE), dating to the Indian
Mesolithic.
•They have a widened colour pattern with red, white, and yellow used in the
paintings.
•These paintings also depict magical creatures, sky chariots, and tree gods.
•The paintings discovered in the rock shelters bear striking resemblance to those
discovered in Australia's Kakadu National Park, as well as to Bushmen cave
paintings in the Kalahari Desert and Upper Palaeolithic Lascaux cave paintings in
France.
•The use of manganese, wooden coal, and hematite can be seen in the last period, which can
be classified as early mediaeval.
•The 'Zoo Rock,' which depicts elephants, bison, deer, and Sambar, is the most striking
feature.
AJANTA CAVES AND ELLORA CAVES

The Chinese Buddhist travellers Fa-Hien [AD 337 – AD 422] who visited India during the reign of
Chandragupta II and Hiuen Tsang [602 CE – 664 CE] came during the reign of emperor
Harshavardhana mentions in their travel accounts about the Ajanta caves
The most remarkable of the Ellora cave temples is Kailasa Temple (Kailasanatha; cave 16),
It features the largest single monolithic rock excavation in the world. It is named for the mountain
in the Kailasa Range of the Himalayas where the Hindu god Shiva resides.
ELEPHANTA CAVES

•The Elephanta Caves are on Elephanta Island (also known as Gharapuri Island), which is
made up of two hillocks separated by a narrow valley in Western India.
•Time of development - Elephanta cave temples (on a small island off the coast of Bombay)
date from the eighth century A.D. and are similar to those at Ellora.
•The Elephanta Caves were initially intended to be a Buddhist site, but the Shaivite faith
eventually took over.
•The caves on the island are divided into two groups:
•A collection of five Hindu caves with rock-cut stone sculptures. They are primarily
associated with the Shaivite sect of Hinduism, and are primarily dedicated to Lord
Shiva.
•A pair of Buddhist caves with cisterns that run along the island's banks. Near the
hill, there is a mound that resembles a Buddhist stupa.
•Between the 14th and 17th centuries, when Portuguese ships began to ply the Arabian Sea
and used these caves as a base, the caves suffered extensive damage.
•They caused significant damage to the statues, which was exacerbated by water logging and
dripping rainwater.
SOME MORE IMPORTANT CAVES

1. Udaygiri and khandagiri caves- Ranigumpha , built by kalinga king kharvela. Related to
jainism , famous for hathigumpha inscription.
2. Barabar and Nagarjuni Caves- Mauryan , highly polished finishing.

3. Bagh caves- Buddhist
3. STUPAS

SANCHI STUPA
Sanchi Stupa is a UNESCO world heritage site since 1989. Sanchi is in Madhya Pradesh.
•It was built by Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
•Originally, it was smaller than its present dimensions. It was expanded in later periods.
•The original structure was made out of bricks. Later on, it was covered with stone, vedica, and the
torana (gateway).
•There are four gateways to the stupa with the southern one being built first. The others were later
added.
•The gateways are adorned with beautiful sculptures and carvings. Each torana consists of two
vertical pillars and three horizontal bars on top. The bars contain exquisite carvings on front and
back.
•They contain images of shalbhanjikas – lady holding the branch of a tree. Stories from the Jataka
tales are carved here.
•The structure has a lower and upper pradakshinapatha or circumambulatory path. The upper
pradakshinapatha is unique to this stupa.
•On the southern side of the stupa, the Ashokan Lion Capital pillar is found with inscriptions on it.
•The hemispherical dome of the stupa is called the anda. It contains the relics of the Buddha.
•The harmika is a square railing on top of the dome/mound.
•The chhatra is an umbrella on top of the harmika. There is a sandstone pillar in the site on which
Ashoka’s Schism Edict is inscribed.
•The original brick dome was expanded into double its size during the reign of the Shunga dynasty
with stone slabs covering the original dome.

4. SCHOOLS OF SCULPTURE
5. ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
CHARACTERISTICS
Buildings in Islamic countries were made of brick, lime and mortar
•Their styles was arcuate; meaning architecture based on arches, domes and vaults

•Muslims under religious injunction avoided the use of human figurines rather they opted
for geometrical patters (arabesque), floral patterns, inscriptions in various styles, inlay on
marble (Pietra dura).
•Ornamental, perforated lattice screens with arabesques, star motifs and other geometric
designs such as pentagons, hexagons, octagons and circles.
•Gardens were an integral part of Islamic architecture.
Styles of Islamic architecture in the Indian subcontinent:

Imperial style
•The style of this period is also called the early Indo-Islamic style.
•The existing buildings were converted into mosques with the elements of ruins from Hindu
temples
•The palaces were elaborately decorated and embellished with arches and domes. Floral
patterns and other Hindu motifs were used widely
Provincial style:
In this style of architecture which lasted for a period of two-hundred-and-fifty years, they created
buildings with the locally available materials, combining the regional styles with the typical Muslim
features such as domes, arches, the minarets and the mihrabs. Initially they constructed on the ruins
of Hindu, and Jain temples, and later they derived their own style in building art.
Mughal style
•The Mughal style is the style of architecture that flourished in India under the patronage of
the Mughal Empire from the mid-16th to the 17th century
•It is a unique blend of Indo-Islamic and Persian style with Turkish influences.
•The buildings were excellent and remarkably symmetrical in form and uniform in pattern
with intricate ornamentation.
EVOLUTION
Delhi sultanate
•With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of
architecture- the architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia.
•The engineering features of these buildings were the domes, arches and minarets. The
palaces, mosques and tombs built by the rulers had these features which were blended with
the features of the indigenous architecture and a new synthesis in architecture was achieved.

•This happened because the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilized the services of the local Indian
craftsmen who were very skillful and had already constructed beautiful buildings.
•The earliest building of this period is Quwwatul Islam Mosque at Delhi and the Qutub
Minar. The latter is a tower, whose height is 70 metres. It is a tapering tower that has five
stories. There are beautiful engravings of calligraphy both in the mosque and on the tower.
Regional kingdoms
•With the establishment of regional kingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautiful
buildings having their own style were constructed.
•The Jama Masjid, the Sadi Saiyyad Mosque and the shaking towers at Ahmadabad are a
few examples of this architecture
•In Mandu (central India) the Jama Masjid, Hindola Mahal and Jahaz Mahal were built.
•In the Deccan, the Sultans erected a number of buildings. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga,
the Madarsa of Mahmud Gawan at Bidar, Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and
the fort at Golconda are just a few famous buildings.
•Gol Gumbaz has the largest dome in the world. All these buildings vary in design and style
from the buildings of north India.
•In Bengal the oblong shape of many structures and the peculiar style of roof construction
were some of the distinctive features of the regional architecture of Bengal like the Adina
mosque and the tomb of Jallal-ud-din at Pandua, Khil Darwaza and Tantipara mosque
at Gaur.
•In Jaunpur, the Atala mosque build by the Sharqui rulers had a gigantic screen covering
the dome while the tomb of Hoshang Shah at Malwa is made entirely of marble and is
made of yellow and black marble inlay work beautifully done by craftsmen.
•The Bahamani sultans borrowed from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and the temples of
Southern India. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is quite well known. The courtyard of this
mosque is covered with a large number of domes and is the only mosque in India which has
a covered courtyard.

GOL GUMBAJ
Mughals
•The advent of the Mughals brought a new era in architecture.
•Indo-Islamic architecture reached its zenith during this period
•The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. Red sandstone was used in
this building. It has a main gateway and the tomb is placed in the midst of a garden. Many
consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal
•Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The Buland Darwaza reflects the grandeur
of the mighty Mughal Empire. This building was made following Akbar’s victory over
Gujarat
•The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s House and
other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements.
•During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra near
Agra. He built the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula which was built entirely of marble.
•Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. He used marble extensively.
Decorative design in inlay work, (called pietra duro) beautiful arches and minarets were
the features of his buildings
•The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi and above all the Taj Mahal are some of the
buildings built by Shahjahan.

•The Taj Mahal, the tomb of Shahjahan’s wife, is built in marble and reflects all the
architectural features that were developed during the Mughal period. It has a central
dome, four elegant minarats, gateway, inlay work and gardens surrounding the main
building.
•The Mughal style of architecture had a profound influence on the buildings of the later
period. The buildings showed a strong influence of the ancient Indian style and had
courtyards and pillars. For the first time in the architecture of this style living beings-
elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds were sculptured in the brackets.
CHARG BAGH STYLE
PITRE DURA
6. ARCHITECTURE IN HIMALAYAS

Himalayan temple architecture is a confluence of multiple styles, such as:
Kashmir’s proximity to prominent Gandhara sites such as Taxila and Peshawar, lent it strong
Gandhara influence.
This style began to mix with Sarnath, Mathura, Gujarat and Bengal styles of Gupta and Post-Gupta
traditions because Hindu and Buddhist monks travelled between the hills and the rest of India.
In several temples Garbhagriha and Shikhara are made in Rekha-prasad style.

Temple at Pnadrethan is built between a water tank, a style followed in Gujarat.
Sculptures at Chamba show an amalgamation of local traditions with post Gupta tradition.
Many temples in Kumaon are classic examples of Nagara architecture.
7. Indo-Saracenic Architecture
At the end of the Victorian era, India entered the era of national awakening and movement. The
architecture represented the character of the time, a combination of imperial and national urges. It
was this urge that led to the movement of Indo-Saracenic. This movement drew elements from the
indigenous and Indo-Islamic architecture and combined it with the Gothic revival and Neo-classical
styles favored in Victorian England
Salient features of this form of architectural style are:
Bulbous domes
•This is one of the most characteristic feature of Indo-Saracenic buildings
•The Bulbous dome is a hemispherical structure evolved from arch, usually forming a
ceiling or roof.
•The Dome is considered as a symbolic representation of the vault of the heaven
•Some of the examples with Bulbous Domes are Egmore Railway Station, Chennai Museum
Overhanging eaves (Chhajja)
•It is a protruding structure which provides protection for the lower walls
•This feature was common in Mughal architecture. Ex: Tomb of Salim Chishti, Fatepur
Sikri, India
•This feature became part of the Indo-Saracenic architecture during 19th and 20th Ex:
Chhatrapathi Shivaji Terminus, Rashtrapati Bhavan

Vaulted roof
•Vaulted Roofs are ceilings with intersecting arches.
•These roofs can be seen in mausoleum which was built during the Islamic period.
•However, this feature was adopted by the British into the monuments they built during their
time in Ex: St.Matthias’ Church, Chennai.
Chhatris
•Chhatris are an elevated, dome-shaped pavilions used as an element in Indian architecture.
•The word chhatri is also refer to the small pavilions that mark the corners, roof of entrance
of a major building
•These pavilions are purely decorative and have no utility, but they are a classic folly which
represents the status and wealth. Ex: Tomb of Humayun
•This feature can also be found in Indo-Saracenic style. Ex: Rashtrapati Bhavan.
Minarets
•It is a tall spire with a conical or onion-shaped crown.
•Minarets are either free-standing or taller than associated support
•The basic form of a minaret includes a base, shaft, and gallery
•In Chennai, the Senate house is the best example of Indo-Saracenic architecture with
Minarets.
Pavilion
•Pavilion refers to the subsidiary building that is positioned separately or as an attachment to
a main building.
•Palaces or other large houses may have one or more subsidiary pavilions that are either
freestanding or connected by covered walkways in the buildings of Mughal architecture.

•These pavilions can be found in the forts, palaces of British architecture in Indo-Saracenic
style.
Cusped arches
•The cusp in architecture is the intersections of lobed or scalloped forms, particularly in
arches (cusped arches) and tracery (ornamental stone work)
•The monumental cusped arch had become the standard Mughal style component by the end
of 17th Century
•The British builders also used the cusped shape arch universally and frequently enriched it
with representations of leaves, flowers, or even human heads at the tip. Ex: Chennai
corporation building, Rashtrapati Bhavan, Chhatrapathi Shivaji Terminus
8. BUDDHISM
Basics
Buddhism is a major world religion that originated in ancient India and is based on the teachings of
Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha. The central teachings of Buddhism focus on the
Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which together provide a framework for understanding
and alleviating the suffering that is inherent in life.
Here are some of the key doctrines of Buddhism:
1. The Four Noble Truths: These are the fundamental principles that form the foundation of
Buddhist philosophy. They are: the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering, the
truth of the cessation of suffering, and the truth of the path leading to the cessation of
suffering.
2. The Eightfold Path: This is a set of practices that Buddhists follow in order to achieve
liberation from suffering. The path includes right understanding, right intention, right
speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
3. Karma: This is the idea that every action has consequences, and that these consequences
determine our future experiences.
4. Reincarnation: This is the belief that after we die, our consciousness is reborn into another
form.
5. No-self: This is the idea that there is no permanent, unchanging self or soul that exists within
us.
6. Impermanence: This is the understanding that all things are constantly changing and that
nothing lasts forever.

7. Meditation: This is a key practice in Buddhism, and involves training the mind to achieve
greater clarity and focus, and to develop compassion and wisdom.
These are just a few of the key doctrines of Buddhism, and there are many different interpretations
and variations of these teachings within the various Buddhist traditions.
Key terms
● Buddha = The Enlightened / Awakened

● Son of a Chief of Sakays
● Born in Lumbini, near Kapilavastu (Capital of Sakyas)
● Married Yashodhara
● Envious cousin - Devadatta
● Faithful charioteer Channa
● Favorite horse Kanthaka - on this he escaped palace
● Mahabhiniskramana = The Great Going Forth
● From sage Alara Kalama = learnt meditation
● Seated beneath a “Pipal Tree”
○ Outskirts of Gaya, in Magadha
○ Then ruled by Bimbisara
● Sujata - bought him a bowl of rice boiled in Milk
● Mara = Buddhist Devil
● Deer Park in Sarnath, near varanasi
● Bhikkhus = beggars
● Son = Rahul
● Buddha averted a war between Sakyas & Koliyas
● Converted the notorious bandit – Angulimala
● Sangha = Buddhist Order

● Died in Kushinara
● Parinirvana = Final Blowing Out
● His ashes also divided to King Ajatasatru of Magadha

SECTS OF BUDDHISM
Buddhism has several different branches and sects that have developed over
time, each with its own unique teachings, practices, and cultural influences.
Here are some of the major sects of Buddhism:
1. Theravada Buddhism: This is the oldest surviving branch of Buddhism and is mainly
practiced in Southeast Asia. It emphasizes the original teachings of the Buddha and the
individual's path to enlightenment through meditation and mindfulness practices.
2. Mahayana Buddhism: This is the largest branch of Buddhism and is practiced throughout
East Asia, including China, Japan, and Korea. Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes compassion
and the idea of the bodhisattva, or one who seeks enlightenment not only for themselves but
for all sentient beings.
3. Vajrayana Buddhism: This is a form of Buddhism that is primarily practiced in Tibet,
Bhutan, and Mongolia. It emphasizes the use of tantric practices, such as visualization and
mantra recitation, to achieve enlightenment in one lifetime.
4. Zen Buddhism: This is a branch of Mahayana Buddhism that is primarily practiced in Japan.
It emphasizes meditation and the attainment of sudden enlightenment through direct
experience rather than intellectual understanding.
5. Pure Land Buddhism: This is a form of Mahayana Buddhism that is primarily practiced in
East Asia. It emphasizes devotion to the Buddha Amitabha and the belief that by reciting his
name, one can be reborn in his pure land and achieve enlightenment.
These are just a few of the major sects of Buddhism, and there are many other variations and
regional adaptations of the religion as well.

Diamond Vehicle
• Ideas of magical mysticism.
• Chief divinities were called taras {Saviouresses}, spouses of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
• Tantra, developed along side Tantricism.
• Famous for sic syllables, “om mani padme hum”
• Didn’t neglect mental training, but direction was altered i.e. purpose was to achieve
supernatural powers.
• Sexual rites too took place.
BODDHISATVAS
In Buddhism, a Bodhisattva is a being who is dedicated to attaining enlightenment for the

benefit of all sentient beings. The term "bodhi" means "enlightenment," and "sattva" means
"being" or "spirit," so a Bodhisattva is someone who is enlightened and delays entering
paradise and who has committed themselves to helping others do the same.
In Mahayana Buddhism, Bodhisattvas are highly revered and are considered to be spiritual heroes
who embody the highest ideals of compassion, wisdom, and altruism. They are viewed as role
models for spiritual practitioners, who strive to emulate their qualities and follow their example.

Eight Prominent Bodhisattvas
There are 8 important Bodhisattvas who represent different aspects of Buddha. They are as following:
1.Avalokitesvara (Buddha’s Compassion): Avalokiteshwara means one who can see all. He
represents infinite compassion and mercy. He is the most popular Bodhisattva of all. He represents
the ideal of welfare in which he postpones his own transformation into Buddha to help others.
2.Manjusri (Buddha’s Wisdom): The literal meaning of his name is ‘Gentle Glory’. He
represents Pragya or transcendental wisdom at a very early age.
3.Samantabhadra (Buddha’s Aspirations): The meaning of Samantabhadra is ‘Universal Worthy’

and he is associated with practice and meditation. He made ten vows to fulfil his journey of becoming
a Buddha.
4.Ksitigarbha (Buddha’s Merit): He is popular as a Buddhist monk in the mostly East Asia. While
the name literally means Earth Womb, he is revered as the guardian of children and patron deity of
deceased children. He carries a staff.
5.Maitreya (Buddha’s Activity): He is also known as Ajita Boddhisattva. It is believed that he will
arrive when people will forget the path of righteousness. He is considered as the successor of
Gautam Buddha. In Buddhist traditions, he is revered as someone who will achieve complete
enlightenment and will teach dharma to people.
6.Vajrapani (Buddha’s Power): He is described as one of the 3 protective deities around Buddha,
others are Manjusri and Avlokiteshwara. Vajrapani represents Buddha’s power while Buddha’s
wisdom is symbolised by Manjushri, and Avalokiteshwara manifests as Buddha’s compassion.
7.Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin (Buddha’s Qualities): He is invoked to remove or eliminate all the

obstacles to insure a successful meditation.
8.Akasagarbha (Buddha’s Blessings): He is boundless as space. He was the twin brother of

Ksitigarbha. He manifests as a blessing.
Pratyeka-Buddhas
• Sthaviravadins counted no less than 25 Buddhas and large number of PratyekaBuddhas.
• Pratyeka-Buddhas literally lone Buddha or silent Buddha or private Buddha are those who
achieved salvation of their own w/o teachers or guides but could not teach the truth to others.
• They are often mentioned in Jataka stories at a time when no Buddha was mentioned.
• They leave no sangha as a legacy to carry on dhamma.

9.JAINISM
Jainism is an ancient religion that originated in India and

shares many similarities with Hinduism and Buddhism.
Jainism is based on the teachings of the Tirthankaras, or
"ford-makers," who are considered to be enlightened beings
who have shown the way to liberation from the cycle of birth
and death. Here are some of the key doctrines of Jainism:
1. Ahimsa: This is the principle of non-violence, which is central to Jainism. Jains believe that
all living beings, not just humans, have a soul or jiva, and that harming any living being,
even insects or plants, creates negative karma and hinders spiritual progress.
2. Karma: Like Hinduism and Buddhism, Jainism teaches that all actions have consequences,
and that these consequences determine one's future rebirths. Jains believe that the
accumulation of karma can be reduced through acts of compassion, meditation, and self-
discipline.
3. Multiple Realities: Jainism teaches that there are multiple levels of reality, including the
physical, mental, and spiritual realms. These realities are interconnected and interdependent,
and spiritual progress requires understanding and balancing all of them.
All judgments are conditional, holding good only in certain conditions, circumstances, or
senses. Syadavada literally means the ‘method of examining different probabilities’.
4. Anekantavada: This is the doctrine of non-absolutism or non-one-sidedness, which teaches
that reality is complex and multifaceted, and that no single perspective can capture the
whole truth. Jains believe that truth is relative and that multiple viewpoints can be valid.
5. Asceticism: Many Jains practice extreme forms of asceticism, such as fasting, celibacy, and
self-mortification, as a means of purifying the soul and reducing karma. However, not all
Jains practice asceticism to the same degree, and some Jains focus more on household and
community life.
6. Five Vows: Jains are expected to adhere to a set of five vows, which include ahimsa,
truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy or chastity, and non-possession. These vows are seen as a
means of reducing negative karma and promoting spiritual progress.
7. Saptabhanginaya - Seven POV to understand an object of knowledge.
8. Nayavada - An individual understands an object of knowledge from one particular POV.

9. Ajnanavada Agnosticism or skepticism school of Jainism.
LITERATURE
Two major categories:
1. Agam or Canonical Literature (Agam Sutras):
 Sacred books of Jains
 Mostly written in Ardha-magadhi, a form of Prakrit language.
2. Non-agam Literature:
 Commentary - explanation of Agams, and independent works, compiled by ascetics and scholars.
 Written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit,Apabhramsa, Old Marathi, Rajasthani,
Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, Tamil, German, and English.

KALPA SUTRAS
• Jain Text containing the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha and
Mahavira.
• Particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE).
• This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration
into the ancient south Karnataka region and created their tradition.
Śvētāmbaras believe instead that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal.
• Both traditions consider his Niryuktis and Samhitas important.
PAINNAS AND MULAS
Painnas, or Scattered Pieces, deal with almost every topic of interest to the Jains, in both prose and
verse. The fourth division of the canon corresponds roughly with the Vinaya-pitaka of the Pali
Buddhist canon, and probably contains a great deal of quite ancient material.
• The most representative of this section is the Kalpa-Sutra which is supposed to have been written
by the great Jain Bhadrabahu, the sixth head of the movement after Mahavira.
• Mula-Sutras, the first which is Uttaradhyana-Sutra, is one of the most valuable books in the
whole canon for an understanding of Jainism. It is partly poetic and partly prose. It contains
sermons, proverbs, advice to students, counsel to monks and nuns, parables, dialogues, and ballads.
COUNCILS

Buddhists reject the Jain idea that one can accrue Karma accidentally. (E.g., a Jain monk who
accidentally ingests meat hidden in his begging bowl takes on karmic debt even though he did not
mean to.)
Jainism does not believe in a personal God or a creator God.
• Later , Jainism recognized the existence of god but placed them lower than Jina (Mahavira). Here,
God is that soul who has completely removed all the Karmas. The defining characteristic of
Godhood is identical with that of liberation itself.
• Though the Jains reject God as the creator of the world, they think it is necessary to meditate on
and worship the liberated, perfect souls. Prayers are offered to them for guidance and inspiration.
• The term ‘Isvara’ can very well apply to the soul that has become powerful by attaining its
perfectly pure nature constituted of four characteristics, which are , infinite knowledge, infinite
vision, infinite power, and infinite bliss.
10. SIX SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Indian philosophy has a rich and diverse history, with many
different schools of thought emerging over time. Here are the
six main schools of Indian philosophy:
1. Samkhya: The Samkhya school of philosophy is based on the idea that there are two
fundamental principles in the universe: Purusha, or pure consciousness, and Prakriti, or
matter. The goal of Samkhya philosophy is to achieve liberation by understanding the nature
of these principles and their relationship to each other.
2. Yoga: The Yoga school of philosophy is based on the idea that the mind can be trained and
disciplined in order to achieve liberation. This is done through a combination of physical
postures, breathing exercises, and meditation.
3. Nyaya: The Nyaya school of philosophy is based on the idea that knowledge is the key to
liberation. It emphasizes logical reasoning and argumentation as a means of understanding
the world and achieving liberation.
4. Vaisheshika: The Vaisheshika school of philosophy is based on the idea that the universe is
made up of small, indivisible particles called atoms. It emphasizes the study of the physical
world and the classification of objects into different categories.
5. Mimamsa: The Mimamsa school of philosophy is based on the idea that liberation can be
achieved through the proper performance of rituals and duties. It emphasizes the study of
Vedic texts and the interpretation of their meaning in order to understand the correct way to
perform these rituals and duties.
6. Vedanta: The Vedanta school of philosophy is based on the idea that ultimate reality.
11. BHAKTISM
The Bhakti movement was a social and religious movement

that emerged in medieval India, between the 7th and 17th
centuries. It emphasized the devotional worship of a personal
god or goddess as a means of achieving spiritual liberation,
and sought to transcend the rigid caste system of Hindu
society. The movement spread across various regions of India
and influenced many different traditions, including Hinduism,
Sikhism, and Islam.

Some key features of the Bhakti movement include:
1. Devotion to a personal god: The Bhakti movement emphasized the worship of a personal
god or goddess, such as Vishnu, Shiva, or Devi. Devotees were encouraged to cultivate a
deep emotional connection with their chosen deity, often through music, dance, and other
forms of expressive arts.
2. Rejection of social hierarchies: The Bhakti movement challenged the rigid caste system of
Hindu society, which had traditionally placed strict limits on social mobility and interaction
between different castes. Bhakti saints often came from lower castes and challenged the
authority of the Brahmin caste, arguing that devotion to God was more important than social
status or birth.
3. Emphasis on inclusivity: The Bhakti movement welcomed people from all backgrounds and
castes, and emphasized the unity of all beings under the divine. Many Bhakti saints
promoted a message of universal love and compassion, and rejected sectarian divisions.
4. Importance of the guru: The Bhakti movement emphasized the role of the guru, or spiritual
teacher, in guiding devotees on their spiritual path. Many Bhakti saints themselves were
gurus who attracted large followings of disciples.
Overall, the Bhakti movement represented a significant shift in Indian religious and social attitudes,
emphasizing the power of devotion and personal connection with the divine over strict adherence to
traditional hierarchies and social norms.
Beginning
The Bhakti movement in South India had its roots in the Tamil-speaking regions of the southern
peninsula, where it emerged as a response to the dominant Brahminical orthodoxy of Hinduism
during the 6th to 9th centuries CE. The movement was characterized by the worship of Shiva and
Vishnu, as well as the goddesses Devi and Amman, and emphasized the importance of personal
devotion and emotional connection with the divine.
The Bhakti movement in South India was primarily driven by a group of poet-saints known as the
Alvars and the Nayanars. The Alvars were Vaishnavite poets who composed devotional hymns in
praise of Vishnu, while the Nayanars were Shaivite poets who wrote songs in praise of Shiva. These
poet-saints traveled across South India, composing songs and hymns in the local Tamil language
that spoke to the hearts of the common people.
Andal-One of the most important figures of the Bhakti movement in South India was the Alvar
saint, Andal, who lived in the 9th century CE. Andal is known for her devotional hymns in praise of
Vishnu, particularly her composition known as the Thiruppavai, which is still recited by devotees
today. Andal's poetry spoke of a deep emotional connection with the divine, and her work had a
profound influence on the development of the Bhakti movement in South India.
Appar-Another important figure of the Bhakti movement in South India was the Nayanar saint,
Appar, who lived in the 7th century CE. Appar was a devotee of Shiva and composed hymns in his
praise that were widely popular among the common people. He also challenged the Brahminical.

orthodoxy of Hinduism and called for a more inclusive form of worship that emphasized personal
devotion over strict adherence to caste-based hierarchies.
Overall, the Bhakti movement in South India emerged as a response to the rigid social and religious
structures of medieval Hinduism, and represented a shift towards a more personal and emotional
form of religious expression that emphasized the importance of devotion and love for the divine.
SHANKARACHARYA
Shankaracharya was an 8th-century Indian philosopher and theologian who is widely regarded as
one of the most influential thinkers in the history of Hinduism. He was born in the southern Indian
state of Kerala and is credited with reviving the tradition of Advaita Vedanta, which emphasizes the
non-dual nature of reality and the unity of all existence.
Shankaracharya is known for his commentaries on the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the
Brahma Sutras, which are collectively known as the Prasthanatrayi. He argued that these texts,
when properly understood, all point to the same essential truth: that the ultimate reality, Brahman, is
non-dual and that the world of appearances is illusory. According to Shankaracharya, the individual
self, or atman, is identical to Brahman and that the goal of human life is to realize this truth through
spiritual practice and self-inquiry.
Shankaracharya also established four monastic orders, or mathas, in different parts of India, which
served as centers of learning and spiritual practice. He traveled extensively throughout the country,
engaging in philosophical debates and spreading his teachings. He is also credited with composing
many devotional hymns and prayers, including the famous hymn known as the Nirvana Shatakam,
which celebrates the non-dual nature of reality.
Shankaracharya's teachings have had a profound impact on the development of Hindu philosophy
and spirituality, and his Advaita Vedanta has become one of the dominant schools of thought within
the Hindu tradition. His influence can be seen in the works of many later philosophers and
theologians, as well as in the practices of millions of Hindus around the world.

12. SUFISM
Sufism is a mystical branch of Islam that emphasizes the

inward search for God and a personal experience of the
divine. It is often described as a path of spiritual purification
and enlightenment, and is characterized by practices such as
meditation, chanting, and the remembrance of God through
the repetition of divine names.
Sufism emerged in the Islamic world in the 8th century CE and has since spread to many parts of
the world, particularly in the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa. Sufi practitioners are known as
Sufis, and they often form communities around spiritual teachers, known as Sufi masters or sheikhs,
who guide them on the path of spiritual growth and transformation.
Sufism has its roots in the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran, but it also draws on
the teachings of earlier mystics and philosophers, as well as the wisdom of other spiritual traditions.
Sufism emphasizes the importance of direct personal experience of the divine, and seeks to cultivate
a deep sense of love, devotion, and surrender to God.
Sufis often use poetry, music, and dance as a means of expressing their spiritual insights and
connecting with the divine. They also practice various forms of asceticism, such as fasting and
seclusion, as a means of purifying the body and mind and deepening their spiritual practice.
Sufism has had a profound impact on Islamic culture and spirituality, and has also influenced the
development of other mystical traditions, such as Kabbalah in Judaism and Christian mysticism in
Christianity. It is known for its message of love, tolerance, and compassion, and for its emphasis on
the unity of all existence and the transcendent nature of the divine.
SECTS OF SUFISM
There are many different sects or orders within Sufism, each with its own distinct practices,
teachings, and traditions. Some of the major Sufi orders include:
1. Qadiriyya: Founded by the Sufi saint Abdul Qadir Gilani in the 12th century, the Qadiriyya
order emphasizes the importance of dhikr, or the remembrance of God through chanting and
meditation.

2. Chishtiyya: Founded by the Sufi saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti in the 12th century, the
Chishtiyya order places a strong emphasis on love and devotion to God, and encourages the
practice of seclusion and asceticism as a means of spiritual purification.
3. Naqshbandiyya: Founded by the Sufi saint Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari in the 14th
century, the Naqshbandiyya order emphasizes the importance of self-discipline and
adherence to Islamic law, as well as the practice of silent meditation and contemplation.
4. Suhrawardiyya: Founded by the Sufi saint Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi in the 12th century,
the Suhrawardiyya order emphasizes the use of spiritual practices and rituals to achieve
mystical states of consciousness.
5. Rifaiyya: Founded by the Sufi saint Ahmed ar-Rifa'i in the 12th century, the Rifaiyya order
emphasizes the importance of ecstatic dancing and chanting as a means of connecting with
the divine.

13. DANCE FORMS
Indian classical dance refers to a group of traditional dance

forms that originated in different regions of India. These
dances are deeply rooted in Indian mythology, religion, and
culture, and are considered to be a form of worship and
devotion.

There are eight major classical dance forms in India, each with its own distinct style and
characteristics:
1. Bharatanatyam: Originating in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, Bharatanatyam is one of
the oldest and most popular classical dance forms in India. It is characterized by its intricate
footwork, expressive hand gestures, and graceful movements.
2. Kathakali: Originating in the southern state of Kerala, Kathakali is a highly stylized dance
form that is known for its elaborate makeup, colorful costumes, and exaggerated facial
expressions.
3. Kuchipudi: Originating in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh, Kuchipudi is a dance form
that combines elements of dance, music, and theatre. It is known for its fast footwork,
intricate hand gestures, and graceful movements.
4. Manipuri: Originating in the northeastern state of Manipur, Manipuri is a dance form that is
known for its fluid and graceful movements, and its use of delicate hand gestures and facial
expressions.
5. Kathak: Originating in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, Kathak is a dance form that is
known for its intricate footwork and fast spins, as well as its use of storytelling and poetry.
6. Odissi: Originating in the eastern state of Odisha, Odissi is a dance form that is known for
its fluid and graceful movements, and its use of hand gestures and facial expressions to
convey emotion.
7. Mohiniyattam: Originating in the southern state of Kerala, Mohiniyattam is a dance form
that is known for its delicate and feminine movements, and its use of hand gestures and
facial expressions to convey emotion.
8. Sattriya: Originating in the northeastern state of Assam, Sattriya is a dance form that is
traditionally performed in the monasteries of Assam. It is known for its fluid and graceful
movements, and its use of storytelling and poetry.
Each of these classical dance forms has a rich history and tradition, and is deeply connected to the
cultural and spiritual heritage of India.

Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu)
The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main
sources of textual material, for the study of the technique and
grammar of body movement in Bharatnatyam Dance.
Bharatnatyam dance is known to be ekaharya, where one dancer
takes on many roles in a single performance.
The dance involves transitional movements of leg, hip and arm.
Expressive eye movements and hand gestures are used to convey
emotions.
The accompanying orchestra consists of a vocalist, a mridangam player, violinist or veena player,
a flautist and a cymbal player. The person who conducts the dance recitation is the Nattuvanar.
In its usual form the dance is generally broken into seven main parts – Alarippu, Jatiswaran,
Shabda, Varna, Pada, Thillana and Sloka.
Bharatnatyam poses are depicted on the gopurams of the Chidambaram temple (Tamil Nadu).
E. Krishna Iyer and Rukmini Devi Arundale had played a significant role in helping the dance
regain its lost popularity and position.
Kathak (North India)
The word Kathak has been derived from the word Katha which
means a story.
It was primarily a temple or village performance wherein the dancers
narrated stories from ancient scriptures.
Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement.
The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called
rasa lila, which combined folk dance with the basic gestures of the
kathak story-tellers.
Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court, where it
acquired its present features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style.
Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew into a major art form.
Usually a solo performance, the dancer often pauses to recite verses followed by their execution
through movement.
The focus is more on footwork; the movements are skillfully controlled and performed straight
legged by dancers wearing ankle-bells.
Kathak is the only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the North Indian music.
Lady Leela Sokhey (Menaka) revived the classical style. Some prominent dancers include Birju
Maharaj, Sitara Devi.

Kathakali (Kerala)
Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and Ramanattam are
few of the ritual performing arts of Kerala which have had a direct
influence on Kathakali in its form and technique.
Kathakali is a blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes
stories, which are mostly adapted from the Indian epics.
Heavy make-up and stunning costumes (elaborate masks, huge skirts
and big head-dresses) are used.
The dancers enact the roles (kings, gods, demons etc.) of the stories
with particular make-up and costume, the vocalists narrate the legend
and the percussionists play the musical instruments.
Different facial colours indicate different mental stages & character, e.g. green – nobility, black –
wicked, red patches – combining royalty & evil.
Hand gestures, facial expressions and eye movements are important.
Weight of the body is on the outer edges of the feet which are slightly bent and curved.
Ramankutty Nair and Kalamandalam Gopi were the prominent artists.
Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)
Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh which has a very
long tradition of dance-drama. It was known under the generic name of Yakshagaana.
In 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceived by Siddhendra Yogi. He was
steeped in the literary Yakshagaana tradition being guided by his guru Teerthanaaraayana Yogi
who composed the Krishna-Leelatarangini, a kaavya in Sanskrit.
It is performed as dance drama i.e. performance in groups and also as solo items.
Costumes, ornaments and jewellery occupy an important place.
The solo items are Manduka Shabdam (story of frog maiden), Balgopala Taranga (dance on the
edges of brass plate with a pitcher full of water on head) and Tala Chitra Nritya (drawing pictures
with dancing toes).
Yamini Krishnamurthy and Raja Reddy are prominent dancers.
Mohiniyattam (Kerala)
Mohiniyattam or dance of Mohini (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu) is
the classical solo dance form of Kerala.
References of Mohiniyattam can be found in the
texts Vyavaharamala written in 1709 by Mazhamagalam
Narayanan Namputiri and in Ghoshayatra, written later by poet
Kunjan Nambiar.

It was structured into the present day classical format by the Travancore Kings, Maharaja Kartika
Tirunal and his successor Maharaja Swati Tirunal (18th-19th century)
Mostly a solo performance by girls with circular movements, delicate footsteps and subtle
expressions.
Movements have been borrowed from Nangiar Koothu and female folk dances Kaikottikali and
the Tiruvatirakali.
It has elements of Bharatanatyam (grace & elegance) and Kathakali (vigour) but is more erotic,
lyrical and delicate.
Realistic make-up and simple dressing (in Kasavu saree of Kerala) are used.
The lyrics are in Manipravala (a medieval south Indian language combining Tamil-Malayalam
and Sanskrit).
Sunanda Nair and Pallavi Krishnan are the notable artists.
Odissi (Odisha)
The major subjects of performance are lores of incarnations of Lord
Vishnu and verses of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda.
A soft dance backed by soothing lyrics and is similar to Bharatanatyam in
terms of the mudras and expressions.
Termed as ‘mobile sculpture’ it incorporates two major postures
- Tribhanga (the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees)
and Chowk (a position imitating a square).
Sonal Mansingh and Kelucharan Mohapatra are the eminent performers.
Sattriya (Assam)
The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15th century A.D by the Vaishnava saint and
reformer of Assam, Sankaradeva as a medium for propagation of the Vaishnava faith.
The dance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive style of dance later on.
Because of its religious character and association with the Sattras (Vaishnava maths or
monasteries), this dance style has been named Sattriya.
Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly laid down principles
in respect of hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music etc.
This tradition, has two distinctly separate streams - the Bhaona-
related repertoire starting from the Gayan-Bhayanar Nach to the
Kharmanar Nach, secondly the dance numbers which are independent,
such as Chali, Rajagharia Chali, Jhumura, Nadu Bhangi etc.
Among them the Chali is characterized by gracefulness and elegance, while the Jhumura is
marked by vigor and majestic beauty.

Manipuri (Manipur)
The origin of Manipuri dance can be traced back to ancient times that
go beyond recorded history.
The dance in Manipur is associated with rituals and traditional
festivals, there are legendary references to the dances of Shiva and
Parvati and other gods and goddesses who created the universe.
Lai Haraoba is the earliest form of dance which forms the basis of
all stylised dances in Manipur.
Literally meaning - the merrymaking of the gods, it is performed as
a ceremonial offering of song and dance.
The principal performers are the maibas and maibis (priests and
priestesses) who re-enact the theme of the creation of the world.
The popular Rasleela dances of Manipur originated in the reign of
18th century King Bhagyachandra.
Manipur dance has a large repertoire, however, the most popular forms are the Ras, the
Sankirtana and the Thang-Ta.
The Kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies the dance which is known as Sankirtana
in Manipur.
The male dancers play the Pung and Kartal while dancing.
The dancers do not wear ankle bells to stamp out the rhythms in a theatrical display, as this
interferes with the delicate body movements.

14. PAINTINGS
Indian painting has a rich history that goes back thousands of

years. Over the centuries, Indian painting has been influenced
by various religious, cultural, and political factors, resulting in
a wide range of styles and techniques.
Here are some of the most prominent forms of painting in India:

1. Madhubani Painting: Originating in the Mithila region of Bihar, Madhubani painting is
known for its bright colors and intricate patterns. It is traditionally done by women using
natural dyes and pigments.Initially it was done on the walls .
2. Miniature Painting: This form of painting originated in the courts of the Mughal emperors in
the 16th century. Miniature paintings are characterized by their intricate details and vivid
colors, and typically depict scenes from court life, mythology, and religious texts.
3. Warli Painting: Originating in the tribal regions of Maharashtra, Warli painting is known for
its simple, geometric patterns and use of white paint on a red ochre background. It is
traditionally done by women and is used to depict everyday life in the villages.
4. Tanjore Painting: Originating in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, Tanjore painting is known
for its use of gold leaf and semi-precious stones to create a three-dimensional effect. It
typically depicts religious themes and is often used to adorn temples and shrines.
5. Rajasthani Painting: This form of painting originated in the princely courts of Rajasthan in
the 16th century. Rajasthani painting is known for its bold colors and intricate details, and
typically depicts scenes from court life, mythology, and religious texts.
6. Bengal School of Art: This art movement emerged in the early 20th century in Bengal and
was led by artists such as Abanindranath Tagore and Nandalal Bose. The Bengal School of
Art was characterized by its focus on traditional Indian art forms and its rejection of Western
styles.
7. Folk Art: There are many different forms of folk art in India, each with its own distinct style
and techniques. Some of the most well-known forms of folk art include Pattachitra from
Odisha, Phad painting from Rajasthan, and Gond art from Madhya Pradesh.
These are just a few examples of the diverse and vibrant painting traditions that exist in India.

15. INDIAN MUSIC
Indian music is a diverse and complex art form that has

evolved over thousands of years. It is deeply rooted in Indian
culture, religion, and spirituality, and is considered to be a
form of worship and devotion.
There are two main traditions of Indian classical music: Hindustani music and Carnatic music.
1. Hindustani Music: Hindustani music originated in the northern regions of India, and is
characterized by its use of ragas (melodic frameworks) and talas (rhythmic patterns). It
includes a wide range of instruments, including the sitar, sarod, tabla, and harmonium, and is
known for its improvisation and emotional expressiveness.
2. Carnatic Music: Carnatic music originated in the southern regions of India, and is
characterized by its use of complex rhythms and intricate melodies. It includes a wide range
of instruments, including the veena, mridangam, and ghatam, and is known for its precision
and mathematical structure.

Hindustani music is a broad term that encompasses a wide range of musical styles and genres. Some
of the main types of Hindustani music include:
1. Dhrupad: Dhrupad is one of the oldest forms of Hindustani music, and is known for its slow,
meditative style. It features long, sustained notes and complex rhythmic patterns.
2. Khayal: Khayal is a more popular form of Hindustani music that emerged in the 18th
century. It is characterized by its improvisational nature, and features complex melodic and
rhythmic patterns.
3. Thumri: Thumri is a lighter, more romantic form of Hindustani music that originated in the
19th century. It features a more free-flowing style and is often used to express love and
longing.
4. Tappa: Tappa is a lively, fast-paced form of Hindustani music that originated in the Punjab
region. It features intricate melodic patterns and is often used to express joy and celebration.
5. Ghazal: Ghazal is a form of poetry that is often set to music in the Hindustani tradition. It
features a highly emotive, expressive style, and is often used to express love and longing.
6. Qawwali: Qawwali is a form of devotional music that originated in the Sufi tradition. It
features a highly energetic style, with call-and-response singing and repetitive rhythms.
These are just a few examples of the many different types of Hindustani music that exist, each with
its own unique style and history.
16. COINAGE
Punch Marked Coins:
The first documented coinage is deemed to start with 'Punch Marked' coins issued between
the 7th-6th century BC and 1st century AD.
These coins are called 'punch-marked' coins because of their manufacturing technique. Mostly
made of silver, these bear symbols, each of which was punched on the coin with a separate
punch.
They are broadly classified into two periods:
The first period is attributed to the Janapadas or small local states.
The second period is attributed to the Imperial Mauryan period.
The motifs found on these coins were mostly drawn from nature like the sun, various animal
motifs, trees, hills etc.

Dynastic Coins:
The earliest of these coins relate to those of the Indo-Greeks, the Saka-Pahlavas and the
Kushans. These coins are generally placed between the 2nd century BC and 2nd century AD.
Indo Greeks:
Hellenistic traditions characterise the silver coins of the Indo-Greeks, with Greek gods and
goddesses figuring prominently, apart from the portraits of the issuers.
Sakas:
The Saka coinage of the Western Kshatrapas are perhaps the earliest dated coins, the dates
being given in the Saka era which commences in AD 78.
The Saka era represents the official calendar of the Indian Republic.
Kushans:
Kushans, who hailed from the Central Asian region depicted Oesho (Shiva), moon deity Miro
and Buddha in their coinage.
Earliest Kushan coinage is generally attributed to Vima Kadphises.
The Kushan coins generally depicted iconographic forms drawn from Greek, Mesopotamian,
Zorastrian and Indian mythology.
Siva, Buddha and Kartikeya were the major Indian deities portrayed.
Satavahana:

The dates of their coming into power are contentious and are variously put between 270 BC to
30 BC.
Their coins were predominantly of copper and lead; however, silver issues are also known.
These coins carried the motifs of fauna like elephants, lions, bulls, horses, etc. often
juxtaposed against motifs from nature like hills, tree, etc.
The silver coins of the Satavahanas carried portraits and bilingual legends, which were
inspired by the Kshatrapa types.
Western Kshatrapa:
The legends on the coins were generally in Greek and Brahmi, Kharoshti too was used.
The Western Kshatrap coins are reckoned to be the earliest coins bearing dates.
The common copper coins are the 'bull and hill' and the 'elephant and hill' types.
Gupta:
Gupta coinage (4th-6th centuries AD) followed the tradition of the Kushans, depicting
the king on the obverse and a deity on the reverse; the deities were Indian and the legends
were in Brahmi.

The earliest Gupta coins are attributed to Samudragupta, Chandragupta
II and Kumaragupta and their coins often commemorate dynastic succession as well as
significant socio-political events, like marriage alliances, the horse sacrifice, or for that matter
artistic and personal accomplishments of royal members (Lyrist, Archer, Lion-slayer etc.).
South Indian Coinage:

Cheras:
Chola:
Alupas of Udupi:
Foreign Coins:
British Coins:

The British East India Co. at Madras Presidency minted coins labelled as the Three Swamy
Pagoda, which depicts Lord Balaji flanked by Sridevi and Bhudevi on either side.
Other Coins:
Ancient India had considerable trade links with the Middle East, Europe (Greece and
Rome) as well as China. This trade was carried out over land partly along what came to be
alluded to as the silk route and partly through maritime trade.
In South India, which had a thriving maritime trade, Roman coins even circulated in their
original form, albeit slashed at times as a gesture disclaiming intrusions of foreign sovereignty.
17. PUPPETRY
Puppetry is a traditional form of storytelling and

entertainment that has been practiced in India for centuries.
There are many different styles and types of puppetry in
India, each with its own unique history and techniques.
Some of the most well-known styles of puppetry in India include:
1. String puppetry (Kathputli): String puppetry is one of the oldest and most popular forms of
puppetry in India. It involves controlling puppets with strings, and is often accompanied by
music and singing.
2. Shadow puppetry (Togalu Gombeyaata): Shadow puppetry is a traditional form of puppetry
that originated in the southern state of Karnataka. It involves projecting shadow images onto
a screen, using puppets made from leather or paper.
3. Rod puppetry (Kundhei): Rod puppetry is a traditional form of puppetry that originated in
the eastern state of Odisha. It involves controlling puppets with rods, and is often
accompanied by music and singing.

4. Glove puppetry (Pava Kathakali): Glove puppetry is a traditional form of puppetry that
originated in the southern state of Kerala. It involves using puppets made from cloth or
leather, which are worn on the hands like gloves.
5. Marionette puppetry: Marionette puppetry is a style of puppetry that involves controlling
puppets with strings, much like string puppetry. However, the puppets themselves are often
more intricate and detailed, with more moving parts.
These are just a few examples of the many different styles of puppetry that are practiced in India.
Puppetry continues to be an important part of India's cultural heritage, and is still performed in
many parts of the country today.

18. THEATER
India has a rich tradition of theater, with many different styles

and forms of theater being practiced across the country. Some
of the most well-known theaters of India include:
1. Sanskrit Theater: Sanskrit theater is one of the oldest forms of theater in India, dating back
over 2,000 years. It involves plays written in the Sanskrit language, and often deals with
mythological themes and characters.
2. Yakshagana: Yakshagana is a traditional form of theater that originated in the southern state
of Karnataka. It involves music, dance, and drama, and often features elaborate costumes
and makeup.
3. Kathakali: Kathakali is a traditional form of theater that originated in the southern state of
Kerala. It involves elaborate makeup and costumes, and often deals with mythological
themes and characters.
4. Jatra: Jatra is a popular form of theater in the eastern state of West Bengal. It involves a mix
of drama, music, and dance, and often deals with social and political issues.
5. Nautanki: Nautanki is a popular form of theater in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh. It
involves music, dance, and comedy, and often features improvisation and audience
participation.
6. Tamasha: Tamasha is a popular form of theater in the western state of Maharashtra. It
involves music, dance, and drama, and often features themes of social and political satire.
These are just a few examples of the many different theaters of India. Each style of theater is
unique, with its own history, techniques, and themes, but all share a common goal of entertaining
and enlightening audiences.

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COMPILATION OF ART AND CULTURE, ANCIENT AND

1. PREHISTORY/ Stone Age

• Paleolithic/old stone age (5,00,000-10,000BC)

• Mesolithic/Microlithic/later stone age (10,000-4,000BC)

• Neolithic/ New Stone Age (6000-1000BC)

o Prehistoric Findings =>

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2. INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

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FOUNDER KARMAYOGI IAS (ADITYA)

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Chalcolithic Period - used copper as well as stone

Monarchical form of government with a king known as Rajan.

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The four Vedas are: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.

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▪ Aryans defeated Dasyus (natives)

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iv. Important Inscriptions- (deciphered by James Princep in 1837)

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FOUNDER KARMAYOGI IAS (ADITYA)

SATAVAHANAS (60BC - 225AD) - 30 kings

v. Satrap System of govt

KUSHANS (1st to 3rd century AD)

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▪ Hero worship prevalent - Viragals - stone slabs with hero's inscriptions

i. Patronized Sangam assembly at Madurai

TAMIL LITERATURE- secular

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Sri Gupta - founded dynasty

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Kumargupta Founded Nalanda Mahavihara - Mahayana Buddhism

Skandagupta (455-467 AD)

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5 major powers emerged in North India -

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Harshavardhan (606-647 AD)

Welfare of people - Mahamoksha Parishad -> distributed wealth to poor

10. Powerful kingdoms in Deccan

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iv. Art and Architecture

b. Amatyas - looked after revenue matters

Pallavas of Kanchi (550-850 AD)

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KANNAUJ TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE (8th century AD)

The Kannauj Triangle

Modern International Boundary

Mi 100 200 300

Mansurah PRATIHARAS Gwalior

23.5 º Mount Abu S

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