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Distribution Network Types and Configurations: 1.1 Power System Structure
Distribution Network Types and Configurations: 1.1 Power System Structure
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CHAPTER
1 DISTRIBUTION
NETWORK TYPES AND
CONFIGURATIONS
The main components of an electric power system include generation, transmission, and distribution
networks. Distribution networks and power generation stations are connected via transmission lines.
Usually, transmission lines transmit a high amount of power through high-voltage links between main
load centers. A brief description of each system is given below (Mariam et al., 2013).
Traditionally, various technologies have been used to generate bulk electric energy, such as nuclear,
natural gas, coal, hydro, etc. The existing power systems were owned by one company. However, due
to lower costs and the economies of scale, they were allowed to build such bulk power plants large,
and some of them are still profitable.
Voltage reduction is needed because of the voltage level differences in transmission network. Bulk load
demands, such as big industries, can be directly connected to the subtransmission network.
https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735422339_001 1-1
Future Distribution Networks: Planning, Operation, and Control, Geev Mokryani
© 2022 AIP Publishing, published by AIP Publishing
Principles
End users are connected to the substations via overhead lines and underground cables. In urban areas
with high load density, underground cables are used for feeders while in rural areas overhead lines are
used. Several switching components are required to be installed in distribution feeders to enhance the
supply security through (a) quick faults isolation, (b) the number of disconnected users’ reduction,
and (c) the reduction of interruption duration.
Switches are used to interrupt the load current and reconfigure power flow in the network. However,
the fault current can be interrupted by the breakers, and in order to detect faults and trigger breakers
to break fault current, breakers can be combined with protection relays.
Generation
BSP 132/33 kV
33/11 kV
Primary substations
33/6.6 kV
Commercial
MV networks
industrial
LV networks
FIG. 1.1
Distribution system structure in UK.
19 20 21 22
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Source
1 23 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
23 24 25
FIG. 1.2
33-bus radial distribution network (Taher and Afsari, 2012).
This configuration has a simple circuit protection scheme in terms of design and coordination and it
is simple to find the rating requirement of the system (Bayindir et al., 2014).
Another benefit of this configuration is voltage compensation techniques, such as reactive power
compensator, that can be simply implemented.
Radial configuration is well known for its simple structure and low initial cost which is useful for low
voltage generation. This configuration is also beneficial once the substation is located near the loads,
which will make the analysis and operation of the system easy (Willis, 2004). One of the disadvantages
of this configuration is the limited flexibility in terms of planning perspective of new generators
installation and/or additional loads that will require new cables or other components installation,
thus leading to an increase in the cost. In this configuration, users rely on a single feeder or distributor
and any fault in the network will cause an interruption in power supply to all users connected to the
feeder (Isermann, 2006).
The availability of power for each load might be lower than other configurations, which is caused
due to the complexity of the maintenance of operation. In order to address this issue, an alternative
route should be implemented which has redundant circuits, i.e., at least two circuits need to operate
simultaneously from the sources to specific loads (Prakash et al., 2016).
Load Load
Solar
Open
Close
FIG. 1.3
One-line diagram of the meshed distribution network (Islam et al., 2017).
Utility can supply power to the loads in any direction in this configuration; therefore, any possible
faults can be isolated with no failure in load supply (Park et al., 2013).
In the multi-loop configuration, various paths for the power transfer might be available, which will bring
substantial flexibility to the network in the case of maintenance or fault in the system. However, various
or multiple paths will make the network protection complicated, where it might not be easy to determine
the fault location and take proper action for minimum customer interruption (Sortomme et al., 2010;
Saleh, 2014; and Haj-Ahmed and Illindala, 2015). Multiple decisions could be made to isolate a fault;
however, optimal decision making will depend on the operating conditions (Plesnick et al., 2000).
Ring configuration can mainly be used in residential areas as electric current can flow in several directions,
which will lead to lower power losses and improve voltage stability (Reed et al., 2012). This configuration
is recognized to form a closed loop through joining buses to each other, which will lead to the creation
of several protection zones in the network. Ring configuration has a better performance compared with
radial configuration as it will not be affected by adding extra devices to the network, and if there is a
3-phase 3 wire
primary
3 phase-4 wire secondary network networks 11 kV
N
L1
L2
L3
380/220 V
400/230 V
415/240 V
L3 L2 L1
380/220 V
FIG. 1.4
Typical European distribution network layout (Al-Jaahfreh and Mokryani, 2019).
Table 1.1
Catachrestic of LV feeders in the UK (Csanyi; and Al-Jaahfreh and Mokryani, 2019).
In this layout, each MV/LV distribution substation can supply numerous three-phase four-wire LV
feeders. Moreover, the LV feeder can carry the power efficiently up to approximately 300 m (Taylor,
1990). In other words, at a low voltage level (400 V), each substation can supply an area corresponding
to a radius of 300 m from the substation, which makes it suitable for high load density areas (Al-Jaahfreh
and Mokryani, 2019).
The LV feeders can be underground cables or overhead lines extended from the secondary distribution
substation. Most LV feeders in the UK are designed as multi-phase feeders, which consist of four wires
(three phases and neutral) (Taylor, 1990). Table 1.1 summarizes the catachrestics of LV feeders in the
UK in both urban and rural areas (Al-Jaahfreh and Mokryani, 2019).
13.8/2.4–4.16 kV
2.4 kV/120–240 V
1 phase-3 wire 3 phase-4 wire
transformer MV primary
N
L2
N L3 L2 L1
FIG. 1.5
Typical American distribution network layout (Schneider Electric, 2009; and Al-Jaahfreh and Mokryani, 2019).
As a result, the capacity rating of the single-phase MV/LV secondary transformer is much smaller
than those in the European network and the LV feeders are minimized (Al-Jaahfreh and Mokryani,
2019). The main advantage of this layout is that the load density supplied by each substation and its
installation capital cost is lower than that in the European layout. However, the LV level (120 V) at the
secondary side of the single-phase transformers is about half of the European single-phase secondary
voltage (240 V), which results in some technical issues. For instance, it limited the extension of the
single-phase feeder, which only has the ability to carry the power efficiently up to 60 m from the
substation (Navarro-Espinosa et al., 2014). In addition, the power losses and voltage drop in the single-
phase LV feeder are much higher than that in the three-phase LV feeders (Li and Crossley, 2014a).
Both “European” and “American” layouts are widely adopted in many countries around the world outside
Europe, Central America, and North America (Navarro-Espinosa et al., 2014). Moreover, in some
regions, the distribution network layout is a mixture of the European and American ones (Navarro-
Espinosa et al., 2014). Table 1.2 and Figs. 1.6 and 1.7 provide a summary of the voltage level of LV
Table 1.2
The voltage level in LV distribution networks in different countries.
Country Domestic (V) Commercial (V) Industrial (V)
Australia 415/240[a]* 415/240[a], 440/250[a] 415/240[a], 440/250[a]
240[b]
Austria 230[b] 380/220[a] 380/220[a]
220[b]
a b
FIG. 1.6
Circuit diagram of LV networks around the world (associated with European layout): (a) three-phase star four-wire earthed
neutral, (b) one-phase two-wire earthed end of phase (Schneider Electric, 2009; and Al-Jaahfreh and Mokryani, 2019).
distribution networks and their associated layout in different countries around the world (Schneider
Electric, 2009). It is seen that the European layout is the most adopted layout. However, the American
layout is adopted in North America, Latin America, and a few countries in Asia and the Middle East,
such as Saudi Arabia. Moreover, some countries mixed the European and American layouts, such as
a b
c d
FIG. 1.7
Circuit diagram of LV networks around the world (associated with American layout): (a) three-phase delta three-wire, (b)
three-phase delta four-wire earthed mid point of one-phase, (c) one-phase three-wire earthed neutral mid point, (d) three-
phase open delta four-wire earthed mid point of one-phase (Schneider Electric, 2009; and Al-Jaahfreh and Mokryani, 2019).
The most common LV networks are radial networks due to the simplicity of analysis and protection
system design (Taylor, 1990). However, due to the advantages of the loop or ring or mesh configuration
to mitigate some of the technical issues, such as voltage variations and reverse power flow, the use of
mesh configuration is becoming more common (Csanyi; Navarro-Espinosa et al., 2014; Aydin et al.,
2015; and Al-Jaahfreh and Mokryani, 2019). As mentioned in Sec. 1.4, most LV networks are following
the European layout. So, the three-phase 400 LV secondary circuit is designed based on the circuit
diagram as shown in Fig. 1.6(a), which is a three-phase four-wire circuit with underground cables or
overhead lines suspended from concrete, metal, or wooden poles (Lee Willis, 2004). Due to the high
load density in urban areas, the underground cables are mainly used in LV networks (Al-Jaahfreh
and Mokryani, 2019). Therefore, interconnecting the surrounding substations to each other is called
a looped or meshed or ring network arrangement as those shown in Fig. 1.8(a) (Lee Willis, 2004; and
a b
MV/LV MV/LV
substation substation MV/LV
MV/LV
MV/LV Loads
substation
substation
c MV/LV d
substation
MV/LV MV/LV
substation Substation
FIG. 1.8
LV network topologies: (a) loop or ring mesh arrangements, (b) radial arrangement, (c) open loop arrangements,
(d) parallel interconnected arrangements.
Navarro-Espinosa and Ochoa, 2016). Also, loop or ring topology has proven its ability to improve
the system hosting capacity for Distributed Generators (DGs), such as photovoltaic systems, which
helps us to mitigate the technical issues, such as voltage rise and reverse power flow (Lee Willis, 2004).
However, in rural areas, the radial arrangement could be the most economical one with a simple
protection system, as shown in Fig. 1.8(b) (Al-Jaahfreh and Mokryani, 2019). Despite the fact that the
radial topology is widely used in 400 V three-phase four-wire LV networks, it has the lowest level of
supply security and reliability, with the absence of flexibility.
In order to increase the reliability level of two adjacent radial networks, the feeders can be
interconnected via a normally open point to the supply in order to ensure the radial operation of
each feeder, where the location of the normally open point can be moved following the occurrence
of the fault to isolate the faulty section while maintaining the supply for the rest of the faulty feeder
(Taylor, 1990). Such an arrangement is also known as ring open loop topology, as shown in Fig. 1.8(c)
(Chen et al., 2004). Moreover, a parallel interconnected configuration or spot topology can be used
by interconnecting two adjacent LV radial feeders supplied from two different substations, as shown
in Fig. 1.8(d) (EEP). Such a configuration improves the system reliability and flexibility in the case
of a maintenance event, where the loads may still be supplied by the other transformer (Schneider
Based on the above investigation, the main characteristic of the LV distribution network is listed as
follows:
1. Large number of buses: the LV network is to supply many domestic consumers. For example, a
part of the LV distribution network in Netherlands is shown in Fig. 1.9, which has more than 99.6%
of the whole network connections (Nijhuis, 2017).
2. The network is not monitored: a significant part of the metering system, particularly the
household meter, is still without a communication system with the network operators or smart
meters. The advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) is still in the early stage of installation,
which leads to the lack of understanding of the LV networks’ real state and, thus, a high number
of uncertainties.
3. Operated in radial or weakly meshed topology: the majority of LV network configurations is
radial, and this simplifies the power flow analysis.
4. High R/X ratios compared with HV and MV networks: especially in the case of underground
cables, which makes resistance a very important factor in determining the voltage, where the
voltage angle is approximately constant at the LV network.
5. Highly violated load pattern: the load pattern is unbalanced with a high level of uncertainty.
10 kV network
MV/LV substation
0.4 kV network
LV-customer
FIG. 1.9
Part of LV network in the Netherlands (Nijhuis, 2017).
For different reasons related to the operation and planning of the LV distribution networks, they are
considered as unbalanced or asymmetrical in which the voltages and current magnitudes in the three
phases are also not equal, and the phase shift angle between two adjacent phases is not exactly 120°
(Al-Jaahfreh and Mokryani, 2019).
Figure 1.10 presents a phasor diagram in order to compare the balanced three-phase network and
several unbalanced conditions, where Ua, Ub, and Uc refer to the voltage or current phasors in the
network (Beharrysingh, 2014). The main reason for voltage and current unbalance in LV distribution
networks is the uneven distribution of single-phase loads among the three phases. This might either
happen normally or due to the integration of a high amount of low carbon technologies (LCTs), such
as residential PVs or electric vehicles EVs (Li and Crossley, 2014b).
Ub Ub
Ub Ub
Ua
Ua
Ua Ua
Uc
Uc
Uc Uc
Balanced magnitude Unbalanced magnitude Unbalanced angles Unbalanced magnitude
and angles and angles
FIG. 1.10
Voltage and current phasor diagram for a balanced and unbalanced three-phase network (Beharrysingh, 2014).
In MV and HV distribution networks, the three-phase connected loads are balanced while most
LV networks’ loads are single-phase (Taylor, 1990). Network planners have put much effort into the
L1
L2
L3
N
FIG. 1.11
Uneven distribution of single load consumers (Beharrysingh, 2014; and Al-Jaahfreh and Mokryani, 2019).
The voltage unbalance is not significant in MV distribution networks; however, the MV network’s
unbalanced voltages are interpreted through the MV/LV distribution transformers’ windings (Taylor,
1990). Low Carbon Technologies (LCTs) are associated with any kind of technology installed in the
electricity networks and used by end user customers to reduce carbon emission (Li and Crossley,
2014a). LCTs include renewable DGs, such as PVs, EVs, heat pumps, and Combined Heat and Power
(CHP) (Chua et al., 2011). However, the integration of LCTs into LV distribution networks will increase
the current and voltage imbalance levels mainly because of the uneven distribution of single-phase
LCTs. High penetration of LCTs in a specific phase will result in a highly fluctuating demand profile.
Also, the integration of a mix LCT technologies along LV feeders may lead to an unpredicted increase
and decrease in load demand and, thus, a significant increase in the current (Mansor and Levi, 2017).
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