Variable Speed Induction Motors' Fault Detection Based On Transient Motor Current Signatures Analysis: A Review

Version of Record: https://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S0888327022008056
Manuscript_58a63021805026a32168f34ea1a33632
Variable speed induction motors’ fault detection based on transient motor

current signatures analysis: A review ⋆
Mohammad F. Yakhnia,b,c,∗, Sebastien Caueta , Anas Sakoutb , Hassan Assoumc , Erik Etiena , Laurent
Rambaulta , Mohamed El-Goharyc,d
a LIAS-Université
de Poitiers, 86000 Poitiers, France.
b LASIE-CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, 17000 La Rochelle, France.
c Mechanical Department, Beirut Arab University, Lebanon.
d Mechanical Department, Alexandria University, Egypt.
Abstract
Induction motor is a major component in the industrial sector. It is experiencing great development concern-
ing size, market share, and technological design. Any sudden failure in this element may lead to great damage.
Condition monitoring is a fast emerging technology for the online detection of induction motor incipient faults.
It avoids unexpected failure of a critical system, by increasing the life expectancy of the concerning elements
while reducing operation and maintenance costs. This paper presents the condition monitoring techniques used
with these machines, focusing on the Transient Motor Current Signatures Analysis method that has proven
its effectiveness in diagnosing faults of electrical rotating machines, gathering a review on the most important
applications that can be used with this technology, and how to process these signals to find out the type and
cause of the fault. What distinguishes this paper is that it focuses on applications with variable speeds, so two
promising techniques that will be effective in non-stationary signals frequency estimation are presented, which
are the Adaptive Notch Filtering method and the Adaptive-Observer approach. Challenges and future goals
are also discussed to guide researchers wishing to delve into this field.
Keywords: Induction motor, condition monitoring, fault detection, Transient Motor Current Signature
Analysis, Adaptive Notch Filtering and Adaptive Observer approach.
1. Introduction
There is a growing demand to improve the reliability and availability of industrial systems. Any sudden
failure can result in costly downtime, damage to surrounding equipment, and even danger to people. For
example, bearings are a very critical part of machines; they are inexpensive, but they are the primary source of
mechanical system failure. Bearing faults can affect other machine components, causing them to fail, resulting
in increased maintenance costs. Thus, early detection of bearing errors is a major concern in the industry.
Autonomous online Condition Monitoring (CM) systems with built-in fault detection algorithms give early
warnings of mechanical and electrical faults to prevent damage. A survey talks in detail about this topic was
published in 2017 by Vishwakarma et al. [1]. The types of faults differ depending on the system involved. In
this article, we will focus on faults that can affect the electrical installations of compression and ventilation
systems, or in another sense, faults in Induction Motors (IM). The main faults in these installations can broadly
classified as shown in Table 1, while their work environments are presented in Table 2, and the percentage
contribution of each type of error is illustrated in Figure 1 [2].
Table 1: Common faults in IM

Fault Type References
Stator Faults Electrical [3, 4, 5, 6]
Unbalanced Voltage Electrical [7, 8, 9, 10]
Broken rotor bar or cracked rotor end-rings Mechanical [11, 12, 13, 14]
Static and/or dynamic air-gap irregularities Mechanical [15, 16, 17, 18]
Bent shaft which can result in a rub between the rotor and stator, causing serious damage to Mechanical [19, 20, 21]
stator core and windings
Bearing and gearbox failures Mechanical [22, 23, 24, 25]
Shorted rotor field winding Electrical [26, 27]
⋆ Research
reported in this publication was supported by The French Embassy in Lebanon
∗ Correspondingauthor: at LIAS-Université de Poitiers, 86000 Poitiers, France
Email address: mohammadyakhni@gmail.com (Mohammad F. Yakhni )
Preprint submitted to Journal of LATEX March 30, 2022
© 2022 published by Elsevier. This manuscript is made available under the Elsevier user license
https://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/
Table 2: IM work environment
Phases Power(KW) References
Single-phase 0.12 [3, 27]
Three-phases 2.2 [4, 17, 24]
Three-phases 0.74 and 1.48 [5]
Three-phases - [6, 11]
Three-phases 0.75 [7, 12]
Three-phases 10 and 100 [8]
Three-phases 1.1 [9, 13, 15, 25]
Three-phases 4 [10]
Three-phases 7.5 [14]
Three-phases 1200 [19]
Three-phases 3 [22]
Figure 1: Types and percentage contribution of various faults in an IM
This paper will be structured as follows: Section 2 goes through the CM techniques dealing with IMs. Section
3 mentions the Motor Current Signatures Analysis (MCSA) and its basis, process, and approach, followed by
a literature review about applications of this technology in section 4. Section 5 discusses different frequency
estimation techniques, focusing on two methods to deal with non-stationary signals. Section 6 will interpret
and conclude on the material mentioned throughout the article.
2. Condition Monitoring Techniques
After knowing the types of faults affecting these machines, the following will be discussed about the tech-
niques that can be used to predict these errors.
CM methods differ depending on the nature of the system, and since this paper deal with IM, Table 3 shows
the different techniques used with this type of system.
Table 3: IM condition monitoring techniques

Method References
Vibration analysis [28, 29, 30]
Acoustic emission [31, 32, 33]
Motor current signature analysis [34]
Infrared thermography [6, 35, 36]
Electromagnetic field monitoring [37]
In addition to the above techniques, faults can be diagnosed using the Supervisory Control and Data Ac-
quisition (SCADA) system. An intelligent approach to predictive maintenance requires human intelligence as
well as machine learning, which can acclimate maintenance requirements to different operating environments, as
demonstrated by Choudhary et al. in their review [38]. Thus, to improve the performance of CM and predictive
maintenance, some of the most common techniques have been developed and presented in Table 4.
As shown above, there are several techniques, but the most common approach to CM is vibration analysis,
and since vibrations result in acoustic noise, so noise monitoring is a possible approach. However, these methods
are expensive as they require additional expensive transducers, their use only makes sense for large machines
or highly critical applications such as wind turbines, where many publications are dealing with this topic, like
that of Liu et al. who presented a structural health monitoring and fault diagnosis method for this type of
systems [58], another paper, showing a technique for advanced wind turbine CM, was published by [59]. Wang
2
Table 4: IM SCADA condition monitoring techniques
Method References
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) [39, 40, 41, 42]
Fuzzy Logic (FL) [43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48]
Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) [49, 50, 51, 52]
Support Vector Machines (SVM) [53, 54, 55, 56, 57]
et al. used vibration signals to detect bearing faults in Direct-Drive wind turbine [60], while an experimental
study of Acoustic Emission methodology for CM of the turbine blades is presented by [61]. Another major
application, where these two techniques are applied, is milling and grinding processes [62], machining processes
[63], and other applications such as CM for low-speed journal bearings [31] etc. Therefore, it was necessary
to look for a method easier to use and less expensive than the previous techniques. An effective alternative is
Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA), as a current measurement is easy to implement [34]. MCSA has
shown high efficiency in fault diagnosis and ease of use compared to other strategies used to perform the same
function, as it only requires two current sensors at least (concordia) for the ONLINE. Moreover, they have
recently been classified as online or offline and mono or multi dimensional (one or two currents) [64]
3. Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA)
The MCSA method is considered one of the most popular fault diagnosis techniques for detecting common
faults in electrical rotating machines. This method is part of the overall rubric called Electrical Analysis, which
has emerged as a unique and effective approach since current and voltage signals are easy to monitor. This type
of signal allows for a reduction in the number of sensors installed since current and voltage sensors are already
installed for control, safety, and energy reasons, etc. Electrical signals have been used to detect and locate not
only electrical faults but also mechanical faults in the system components [65]. Knowing that faults occurring
in these components can cause torque and eccentricity fluctuations, due to variations in currents and voltages
[66, 67]. In the following, we will introduce two approaches to study these variations, the first and most popular
is the power spectrum analysis of the modulation signal, and the second is the bispectrum analysis.
3.1. Power spectrum analysis

Fluctuations in torque and eccentricity cause phase modulations (PM) of the current in case of torque
variations and amplitude modulations (AM) in case of dynamic eccentricity variations [68]. The general form
of the stator current can be expressed as shown in Equation (1):
I(t) = A(t)cos(θ(t)) (1)
where A(t) and θ(t) represent, respectively, the instantaneous amplitude and the instantaneous phase. In the
case of sinusoidal perturbations, the expressions of the modulated current are given as follows:
A(t) = I.[1 + αcos(2πfAM t + ΦAM )] (2)
θ(t) = 2πfs t + βcos(2πfP M t + ΦP M ) + ΦI (3)

where α, fAM , and ΦAM represent, respectively, the modulation index, the frequency of the modulating signal,
and the initial phase for AM modulation, as well as β, fP M , and ΦI for PM modulation, while fs is the
fundamental frequency.
We would therefore be tempted to classify the different faults concerning the type of modulation generated
according to the references [69, 70], which show the causes, consequences, and modulation of mechanical faults
in the current of electrical machines.
This analysis has since been extended and show some limitations, because the eccentricity variations could
also cause torque perturbations, also the study of [69] considered a constant electromagnetic torque equal to
the average load torque. In [71] a dynamic model of the machine is used, that confirms the presence of phase
modulations of the stator current. However, amplitude modulation is highlighted for low-frequency torque
oscillations. A simple analysis of the modulus of the spectrum does not allow distinguishing an AM modulation
from a PM modulation in the case of a modulation index. In some cases, most of the side bands due to a
machine fault have a rather low amplitude. Therefore, they are often hidden by the harmonics resulting from
the motor structure and noise. Therefore, these disturbances must be eliminated to obtain better readings and
detect all faults; one of the solutions that can be used to achieve this goal is to use a ban-pass filter [72].
As a preamble, we recall that historically, strategies have consisted in analyzing the current globally without
trying to extract the AM and PM modulations. At a fixed electrical frequency, this treatment is simply done
by spectral analysis. The spectrum obtained then allows highlighting the frequency components related to the
fault. The relationship between the type of fault and the spectral components of the current analysis has been
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well documented for about thirty years. However, in the majority of references, the analysis focuses on the
modulus of the spectrum. As mentioned previously, the study of this modulus can provide information on the
presence of modulation without allowing to decide on its nature (AM or PM). A summary of mechanical faults
in the electrical machine current can be found in Table 5, with references that have used spectral analysis and
the fault signature method to detect these faults.
Table 5: Mechanical faults in the current of electrical machines
Fault References
Eccentricity [73, 74]
Rotor bar [75, 76]
Rolling, Bearing [77, 78]
Load variation [79, 20]
MCSA has undergone a great deal of development over the past thirty years [80]. Many studies and works
have been published, such as the book of Saad et al. and Thomson which deal with CM of IM using electrical
signature analysis [81, 82], or the case study, published by [83], that talks about CM for doubly-fed induction
generator of wind turbine using MCSA. In 2018, an electro-mechanical model of the wind turbine was taking
into consideration by [84] to study the performance of electrical signature analysis for diagnosing faults in this
type of system. MCSA is used for gearbox CM under transient speed by [85], while this technique is used by [86]
to diagnose an in-service wind turbine drive train. In general, the measured current signal is extracted from the
motor and then processed to produce its power spectrum profile to determine the cause of the fault [87]. MCSA
monitors the stator current (specifically the supply current) of the motor [88]. A single stator current monitoring
system is commonly used, as shown in Figure 2. The motor’s stator windings are used as transducers, picking
up signals (induced currents) from the rotor (but also revealing information about the stator’s condition). The
motor current is sensed by a current sensor with a resistive shunt at its output and recorded in the time domain
[34]. The sensed current signal is then directed to a spectrum analyzer or specialized MCSA instrument. The
current spectrum of a typical induction motor is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 2: Motor Current Monitoring System
Figure 3: Current spectrum of induction motor
Various electrical and mechanical fault conditions present in the motor further modulate the current signal
and contribute additional sideband harmonics. Motor component faults produce corresponding anomalies in
the magnetic field and alter the mutual inductance and self-inductance of the motor, which appear in the motor
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supply current spectrum as sidebands around the line frequency [89]. The fault signatures provide a means of
identifying motor faults and accessing their severity. It should be noted that the fault signals detected in the
motor supply current can also be influenced by the operation of neighboring motors and the ambient noise of
the system [34]. In an ideal case, the motor current should be a pure sine wave, but in reality, this signal is
affected by noise. Therefore, the use of filters or monitors becomes necessary in processing these signals [89].
The methods of processing current signals differ from one application to another depending on different cases
and the complexity of the system being processed.
3.2. Modulation signal bispectrum analysis

When compared to power spectrum analysis, bispectrum analysis has a variety of advantages, including
nonlinear system identification, phase information retention, and Gaussian noise reduction. Bispectrum is
particularly useful for detecting quadratic phase coupling, which occurs when two waves interact non-linearly
and form a third wave with the same frequency and phase as the first two. As indicated in the equation
below, the current signal is created by a nonlinear combination of only two components: supply frequency and
compressor working component. √
iA = 2Icos(2πfs − αI ) (4)
Note that one of the three phases of the power supply system is examined; here the current iA , shown in
Equation (4) expresses the current at phase A, for a healthy machine [90, 91]. Correspondingly, the magnetic
flux (ϕA ) in motor stator and the electrical torque (T ) produced by the interaction between the current and
flux can be expressed as below: √
ϕA = 2ϕcos(2πfs − αϕ ) (5)
T = 3P ϕIsin(αI − αϕ ) (6)
where I and ϕ denote the root mean squared amplitudes of the supply current and linkage flux, respectively,
αI and αϕ are the phases of the current and flux referring to supply voltage, fs is the fundamental frequency
of electrical supply and P is the number of pole pairs.
If there is a fault occurring in the rotor system including motor rotor and rotational components connected
to the rotor mechanically, there will be an additional torque component (∆T ) oscillating around the electric
torque. The oscillatory torque can be calculated using the following equation:
∆T = 3P ϕIF sin[2πfF t − (αI − αϕ ) − αF ] (7)

Where the frequency of the oscillating torque is denoted fF , the current has an amplitude equal to IF and a
phase angle αF .
The oscillatory torque induces speed and angular oscillation, resulting in phase modulation of the linkage
flux. The flux wave has nonlinear effects, which will produce a comparable electromagnetic force and, as a
result, produce a nonlinear current signal in the stator. References [92, 93] provide a full explanation of how to
obtain the current equations influenced by this torque.
Because it cannot incorporate sideband pairs concurrently and the random changing of sideband phases, the
standard bispectrum is insufficient to represent current signals with AM features. To produce a more precise
and efficient representation of the current signals, a modified bispectrum, i.e. Modulation Signal Bispectrum
(MSB), is subsequently implemented [92, 93].
To clarify the difference between the results and the readings obtained in the case where relying on bis-
pectrum and spectrum analysis, we use the results from Reference [93] to demonstrate Figure 4, which shows
characteristics of the MSB and the Conventional Bispectrum (CB) for the case of two broken bars under 50%
load, where (a) MSB for two broken bars. (b) CB for two broken bars. (c) MSB coherence for two broken
bars. (d) CB coherence for two broken bars (fs : supply frequency, s: rotor slip and fr : rotation frequency). To
perform any kind of current study, we need a sensor that meets our needs and achieves accurate analysis and
information extraction. Below we address this point and talk briefly about the characteristics of these sensors.
3.3. Current Sensor Characteristics

Correct fault detection depends directly on the sensor used to gather information, in our case the sensor used
to measure the stator current of the IM. One of the most important characteristics to consider when choosing
this sensor is the range of frequencies that it can detect.
The frequencies resulting from the defect that appears in the current vary depending on the nature of each
system. For example, it is not appropriate to use a sensor whose maximum capacity is to measure frequencies
up to 1000 Hz to detect a malfunction with a higher frequency. To make the point clearer, we present the
following example.
Suppose a motor with supply frequency (fs ) of 50 Hz, and rotation frequency (fr ) of 49.1667 Hz (sliding
equal to 0.0167), is used to operate a certain system, that has several defects. Table 6 shows those failures with
their signatures in the electric current.
5
Figure 4: Results obtained from bispectrum analysis [93]
Table 6: Frequency signatures of defects in the IM stator current

Defect Signature
Bearing Inner Ring |fs ± 0.6 × nb × fr |
Bearing Balls |fs ± 0.4 × nb × fr |
Belts |fs ± (2 × π × R)/L × fr |
Broken Rotor Bar |fs ± 2 × (fs − fr )|
Notch Harmonics (Stator Fault) |fs ± (Nn /p) × fr |
Eccentricity or Load Effects |fs ± fr |
Let nb =12 (number of balls in the bearing),R=0.08 m (radius of belt pulley),L=2.3 m (length of the
belt),Nn =28 (number of notches in the stator) and p=1 (number of pole pairs). Table 7 presents the value of
each particular frequency signature, while Figure 5 shows the FFT of the stator current in the proposed case.
Table 7: Defects frequencies for a particular system

Defect Signature Value
Bearing Inner Ring 304 and 404
Bearing Balls 186 and 286
Belts 39.2 and 60.7
Broken Rotor Bar 48.3 and 51.6
Notch Harmonics (Stator Fault) 1326.6 and 1426.6
Eccentricity or Load Effects 0.83 and 99.17
The above analysis shows that some defects frequencies appear in the region of 1 to 500 Hz in addition
to other frequencies near 1400 Hz. Therefore, to get an accurate analysis, we need a current sensor that can
extract all these pieces of information from the current signal. However, as an example, but not limited to, the
characteristics of current measurements by a particular sensor that can achieve this goal are presented in Table
8.
Table 8: Defects frequencies for a particular system [94]
Calibre (Current) 3A 30 A 300 A 3000 A
Measuring range in use 0.08. . . 3 A AC 0.5. . . 30 A AC 0.08. . . 300 A AC 0.5. . . 3000 A AC
Specified measuring range 0.5. . . 3 A AC 2. . . 30 A AC 5. . . 300 A AC 50. . . 3000 A AC
Output/input ratio 1 mV/mA 100 mV/A 10 mV/A 1 mV/A
Bandwidth at -3 dB 10 Hz. . . 10 Khz 10 Hz. . . 20 Khz 10 Hz. . . 20 Khz 10 Hz. . . 20 Khz
Phase shift at 50 Hz <1 <1 <1 <1
4. Literature Review on MCSA and Transient MCSA
We mentioned earlier that MCSA has undergone great development over the past thirty years. In this part,
we will review the most famous researches published since 2010 until the date of writing this paper, focusing on
Transient MCSA. All of these references indeed use MCSA, but each one of them has its method for treating the
current signal and employing it to perform the required purpose. Table 9 shows the errors that each reference
deal with, while Table 10 shows these references in their chronological order and the MCSA application that
achieve successful results in the detection of the fault.
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Figure 5: FFT of the stator current in the presence of some system defects
Table 9: Summary for faults detected using MCSA

Fault References
[87, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106]
Broken rotor bar and load variation
[107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116]
Bearing [78, 98, 117, 111, 118, 113, 114, 119]
Eccentricity [95, 98, 99, 102, 117, 113]
Stator fault [97, 98, 99, 102, 117, 107, 120]
Inter-turn short circuit [97, 7, 102, 121, 117, 122]
Unbalanced Supply [98, 99, 107]
Table 10: Summary for MCSA methods for IM fault detection

Method Reference Year
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) [95] 2010
A novel transform demodulation algorithm [96]
Partial Relative Indexes (PRI) technique [97]
Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) neural network as fault classifier [98]
Fuzzy Min–Max Neural Network and Classification and Regression Tree (CART) [99] 2011
Sliding windows that involves the Hilbert transform [100]
MCSA associated with a neural technique [101]
A convolution of wavelet-based functions and motor currents. [102]
A quantification technique based on the wavelet transform [103] 2012
Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) [104]
Dual-tree complex wavelet transform [121]
A time pre-processing methodology using MCSA [105] 2013
Fuzzy Min–Max Neural Network (FMMNN) [117]
A field programmable gate array based methodology [106]
A hybrid soft computing model comprising the FMMNN and the CART [107]
MCSA and prognosis with interval type-2 fuzzy logic [108] 2014
The empirical mode decomposition [109]
FFT and DWT [122] 2015
FFT and DWT in non-stationary condition [110]
Motor Square Current Signature Analysis (MSCSA) [120]
FFT and the Independent Component Analysis (ICA) [111] 2016
A novel pattern recognition approach [118]
MCSA, MSCSA, and Principal Component Analysis [112]
Continuous Wavelet Transform [87] 2017
MCSA based on a matched subspace technique [113]
Statistical analysis named Kolmogorov Smirnov Test [78] 2018
A novel hybrid approach based on Optimized Stationary Wavelet Packet Transform and Artificial Immune [114]
System (AIS) nested within SVM
Tooth FFT [115]
ICA is applied over the Fourier domain spectral signals [116] 2019
FFT and DWT and a new indicator based on the MCSA-DWT [119]
Georgakopoulos et al. [95] utilized FFT and DWT in inverter input current signal, while Hu et al. [96]
proposed a novel transform demodulation algorithm for the incipient fault detection. A PRI technique to the
MCSA method was applied by [97] and Ghate et al. [98] Used MLP neural network as fault classifier.
Seera et al. [99] described a hybrid model comprising the FMMNN and the CART. In the same year
Aydin et al. [100] proposed a method to detect faults based on information entropy of sliding windows that
involves the Hilbert transform of specified periods of one-phase current, and a novel practical detection and
classification method, using MCSA associated with a neural technique was developed to detect rotor broken bar
faults by [101], while Cusido et al. [102] presented an improved MCSA method for IMs fault detection under
7
non-constant torque and speed conditions. The method is based on a convolution of specifically developed
wavelet-based functions and motor stator currents.
In 2012, Siddiqui et al. [103] investigated the detection of rotor faults by analyzing the starting current using
a newly developed quantification technique based on the wavelet transform, the technique applies the wavelet
transform to the envelope of the starting current, whereas Bacha et al. [104] proposed the implementation of
broken rotor bar fault detection in an inverter-fed induction motor using MCSA and prognosis with fuzzy logic,
while Seshadrinath et al. [121] used Dual-tree complex wavelet transform to design a condition monitoring
technique that achieves better performance compared to the DWT.
A time pre-processing methodology to enhance detectability for broken bar detection using MCSA and
mathematical morphology was presented by [105], whereas, Seera et al. [117] described an application of the
MCSA method and the FMMNN to detection and classification of faults. Still, in 2013, Rangel-Magdaleno
et al. [106] analyzed the use of MCSA and mathematical morphology to detect broken bars under different
mechanical load conditions. MCSA is applied to form a database containing stator current signature under
different motor conditions, then a hybrid soft computing model comprising the FMMNN and the CART for
motor fault detection and diagnosis is described by [107].
In the next year, Shukla et al. [108] presented the implementation of broken rotor bar fault detection
using MCSA and prognosis with interval type-2 fuzzy logic, whereas by [109] the MCSA was done with the
empirical mode decomposition, from which a set of Intrinsic Mode Functions (IMFs) has obtained, for broken
bar detection on squirrel cage induction motors.
Kechida et al. [122] utilized the FFT and DWT for stator inter-turn short circuit fault detection, and Casta
et al. [110] presented a comparison between FFT and DWT for the detection of rotor bar faults in induction
cage motor in non-stationary condition. Pires et al. [120] detected the stator winding fault using a Motor
Square Current Signature Analysis (MSCSA). These three pieces of research have published in 2015.
In 2016, Yang et al. [111] built a feature knowledge database for online fault detection by analyzing the stator
current using FFT, then FFT results were further analyzed by the Independent Component Analysis (ICA)
method to obtain independent components and signature features that are referred to as FFT-ICA features of
stator currents. Based on MCSA, a novel pattern recognition approach for bearing fault detection was presented
by [118], combining Stationary Wavelet Packet Transform (SWPT) and Directed Acyclic Graph Support Vector
Machines (DAG SVM). A comparative study based on the electrical signal analysis was presented by Pireset
al. [112] The comparison was done between three methods, the first one is MCSA, and the second is MSCSA,
while the third is based on Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The performance of the methods is tested
under different fault and load conditions.
Granda et al. [87] proposed an alternative approach based on the Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT)
for broken bar diagnosis in squirrel cage induction motors, while Elbouchikhi et al. [113] designed a new MCSA
fault detector based on a matched subspace technique, that is based on three steps, which are the estimation
of the interference-free signal, the estimation of the fault-related angular frequency, and the application of a
matched subspace detector.
In 2018, Morales-Perez [78] et al. developed a technique to detect Bearing fault via a statistical analysis
named Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test (KS test), and Abid et al. [114] presented a novel hybrid approach for bearing
fault detection based on Optimized Stationary Wavelet Packet Transform (Op-SWPT) for feature extraction
and AIS nested within SVM for fault classification, where the current signals were collected under various
bearing conditions and load levels, while a methodology based on a new technique named Tooth FFT to detect
both incipient and consolidated broken rotor bar conditions during the startup transient was proposed by [115].
A novel approach for MCSA for broken bar fault detection, using one current measurement, where ICA is
applied over the Fourier domain spectral signals obtained from the input and its auto-correlation function was
developed by [116] in 2019, whereas, to detect bearing faults, Bessous et al. [119] used MCSA based FFT and
DWT. In addition, this reference developed a new indicator based on the MCSA-DWT which has the advantage
of expressing itself in the quantity and quality form.
All of these previous references relied on the traditional method, which works only on the steady state
current. However, MCSA implies significant drawbacks in industrial applications in which the machine does not
operate under ideal stationary conditions (e.g. presence of pulsating load torques, supply unbalances, noises. . . ).
In order to overcome some of these problems, a novel transient-based methodology (Transient Motor Current
Signature Analysis, TMCSA) has been proposed. The analysis consists of applying a certain mathematical tool
to the transient stator current, usually a signal analysis technique able to characterize non-stationary signals
such as the Wavelet Transform (WT) [123].
We now move on to the newer and relatively more advanced method, the TMCSA, and as we did with the
previous one, we review the latest research published recently in this field. Table 11 shows the method used
with each reference and the error that deals with.
Pons-Llinares et al. [123] proposed an approach based on obtaining a two-dimensional time-frequency plot
representing the time-frequency evolution of the main components of the transient current of an electric machine,
this work uses FBS wavelets. It is shown that these wavelets allow an efficient filtering in the region near the
8
Table 11: Summary for TMCSA methods for IM fault detection
Method Error Reference Year
Frequency B-spline (FBS) wavelets Rotor Bar [123] 2010
Hilbert-Huang Transform, sustained on the Empirical Mode Decomposition process Rotor Bar [124] 2011
Wigner–Ville distribution (WVD)-based algorith Eccentricity [125]
Short-time multiple signal classification (MUSIC) method Rotor Bar [126]
Gabor analysis of the current via the chirp z-transform Eccentricity [127] 2012
Continuous Complex Wavelet Transform (CCWT) of the line current Rotor Bar [128] 2013
Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) and the Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT) Rotor Bar [129] 2015
Nonstationary conditions of the harmonic order tracking approach (HOTA) Rotor Bar [130] 2016
Optimized Slepian window Rotor Bar [131] 2019
main frequency, as well as a high level of detail in the time-frequency maps.

A new algorithm for the automatic diagnosis of rotor bar failures is presented by Antonino-Daviu et al
[124]. It is based on the application of the Hilbert-Huang transformation, supported by the empirical mode
decomposition process, for feature extraction, and on the subsequent application of the scaling transformation
(ST) for invariant feature selection.
Roger-Folch et al. [125] proposed the use of WVD for time-frequency decomposition of the starting current
signals, as this is a tool that shows a good compromise between time and frequency resolution for both low and
high frequency ranges. In his paper, a comparison is made with the DWT, which has been successfully used in
the past for tracking the low-frequency eccentricity-related components; the comparison shows the disadvantages
of the DWT in tracking higher-order harmonics due to the low frequency resolution of the corresponding wavelet
signals.
The MUSIC method is used by [126] which provides a high-resolution, time-frequency pseudo-representation
of the signals, where the defect-related frequencies and their evolution in the time-frequency spectrum are
obtained.
The method proposed by [127] addresses both problems using Gabor analysis of the current via the z chirp
transform, which can be easily adapted to generate high-resolution time-frequency patches of different types of
defects.
Pineda-Sanchez et al. [128] presented a method to perform a motor transient current signature analysis
(TMCSA) based on the line current CCWT.
A detailed comparison is presented by [129] between the two main groups of transforms that are used in
transient analysis: the DWT, which continues to generate interesting results nowadays, and the STFT.
Sapena-Bano et al [130] introduced a new approach to improve fault diagnosis in induction motors under
time-varying conditions. The proposed method is an extension to non-stationary conditions of HOTA.
A methodology for fault diagnosis of induction machines operating in transient regime is proposed by [131],
when time-frequency analysis tools are used. The method is based on the use of the optimized STFT of the
stator current signal.
After this brief review of all these applications, which led to effective results in IM faults diagnosis, we realize
that the most important step at the beginning of achieving this goal is to properly treat the signal. When talking
about signal processing, we mean the correct frequency estimation of the concerning signal, which is the major
element in detecting and determining the type of fault. The MCSA and TMCSA application differs from
one reference to another, as mentioned before, but all are centered on accurate frequency prediction. Various
techniques have been adopted for this purpose, but all have to deal with stationary signals or time-constant-
frequency. Since most real-life applications are non-stationary in terms of frequency, the mentioned technique
in all the above references will not succeed or most likely will be inefficient in performing the task, as was the
case with the mentioned articles. Therefore, it was necessary to go through other techniques that allow the
accurate estimation of non-stationary signals or that deal with variable speed applications. This point will be
taken in the following, showing two promising methods to meet this challenge.
5. Non-Stationary Signals Frequency Estimation for IM Fault Detection
The problem of determining the unknown amplitudes, frequencies, and phases (AFP) of the components of
a multi-sinusoidal signal represents a fundamental challenge in many engineering fields, including active noise
and vibration control, periodic disturbance rejection, power quality monitoring, and more. To achieve this,
researchers have relied on a variety of techniques, which have evolved with the development of science and
advances in technology.
The Fourier transform has served as a bridge between the time domain and the frequency domain [132]. The
FFT is the most widely used signal processing technique when dealing with stationary signals [133], but this
conventional technique has several deficiencies [134], one of which may be the loss of temporal information when
transforming into the frequency domain. When one looks at the Fourier transform of a signal, it is impossible
to tell when a particular event has taken place. In the case of a stationary signal, this drawback is not very
9
important [135], but it is known that its accuracy deteriorates in the presence of time-varying frequencies. These
weaknesses have prompted researchers to adapt this algorithm so that many techniques have emerged, such as
the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) [136, 137], the local polynomial Fourier transform (LPFT) [138, 139]
and the enhanced fast Fourier transforms (e-FFT) [140].
In addition to FFT, several methods have been developed for this purpose, such as frequency trackers based
on Kalman [141], Extended Kalman [142], and Uncentered Kalman filters [143, 144], phase-locked loops (PLL)
[145] and enhanced PLL [146], etc.
The conventional steady-state MCSA techniques have focused on the detection of faults during steady-state
machine operation. The accuracy of these approaches depends on the machine’s loading, the assumption that
the machine speed is constant, and the signal-to-noise ratio of the spectrum components under investigation.
The assumption of steady-state speed has a basic disadvantage in condition monitoring because there are
numerous applications where constant speed operation is not possible, such as wind generating or motor-operated
valves. Furthermore, steady-state algorithms only focus on low slips, but high slips can benefit from enhanced
detection.
Examining the machine’s starting transient provides an alternative strategy to detecting IM defects. As a
result, it is required to shift from old approaches to TMCSA methods. The advantages are that the transient
has a high slip and high signal-to-noise ratio, allowing the spectral components to be separated more easily.
The amplitude of the transient during startup is unaffected by loading. The load does not affect the starting
transient’s duration time. This means that, unlike steady-state approaches, the detection can be done at low
loading conditions [147].
The frequency, as mentioned before, is the main element that will be used to predict the errors. Many refer-
ences have been shown, each using their own method, but all revolving around the area of correctly estimating
the signal frequency.
Based in all the above, and since the IM is AC powered and operates at different speeds, the correct
prediction of the incoming signal frequency is our goal, so we will introduce two main topics, the ANF and the
Adaptive-Observer approach, which include many applications that we can use for online IM fault detection,
and at transient regime.
The ANF structure is simple, can implanted easily in embedded controllers. It has the ability to extract
harmonics and all useful information embedded in a signal such as frequency, amplitude, and phase angle. The
ANF can estimates directly the signal frequency and its multiple without using linearization processes or other
simplifying assumptions, and has adjustable accuracy and good response speed. In addition, it can be used
even if we do not have a piece of knowledge about the nature and the components of the dynamic system [148].
Despite all of the strengths mentioned, the ANF has some limitations. For example, when a frequency
appears near the notch frequency and has amplitude equal to or greater than the value of the latter, the
controller’s response is affected so that it estimates an imaginary frequency between the two frequencies or
follows the one with the higher value. Also, in the case that the notch frequency does not exist, or in other
words, the specific defect does not appear in the system, the response of the ANF, in this case, is random.
Therefore, another approach has been proposed, namely, the adaptive observer, discussed in a specific section
below. It overcomes the limitations of the ANF, has durability with nonlinear systems, and can track a wideband
frequency, but it has a shortcoming that should be familiar with the dynamic system.
5.1. Adaptive-Notch-Filtering method (ANF)

5.1.1. Introduction to ANF
In signal processing, the goal is to control data using advanced mathematical techniques; in adaptive filtering,
unknown signals or data are found and separated from a noisy environment, and adaptation is required if the
signal is uncertain or time-varying. ANFs, in particular, find, extract, and track sinusoid signals from a sampled
data source, as shown in Figure 6, that presents the signal immersed in noise, the filter, and then the frequency
of the signal, which corresponds to the notch frequency.
Currently, all-pass functions like [149, 150, 151] are employed to synthesize ANFs, while Direct Coefficient
Scaling implementations like [152] have also been utilized previously. Figure 7 shows the implementation of a
notch filter, which is built from an all-pass function A(z); herein the band-pass output is denoted as b(n), and
the notch output is denoted as e(n).
Where:
Hnotch (z) = 1/2(1 + A(z)) (8)
Hbp (z) = 1/2(1 − A(z)) (9)
wile the primarily form of A(z) is shown in the equation below, where β controls the notch frequency, and α
controls the notch bandwidth [148].
A(z) = (z −1 β − α)/(1 − αz −1 β) (10)
10
Figure 6: A conventional ANF simulation
Figure 7: The implementation of a notch filter
ANF has been around for decades, and Finite Impulse Response (FIR) structures and their implementation
are well established; nevertheless, the application of Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) structures is still limited
and little understood. Because an IIR structure uses feedback from its output, it requires a lower filter length,
resulting in a more efficient response per computation; however, if the feedback is not appropriately regulated,
it can cause instability, whereas FIR filters are unconditionally stable. As a result, creating a new form of
IIR structure will result in a useful piece of signal processing research. Many structures for ANF have been
developed to make tracking a single or multiple time-varying real sinusoidal signals, as shown in the next section.
5.1.2. Literature review on ANF

Based on the above, this technique has received researchers’ attention. Hereafter, we will present the most
important methods that have been adopted in principle on ANF, discussing the recently published research
from 2015 until the date of writing this article. Table 12 presents these methods and the type of validation used
in each one.
Table 12: Summary of ANF methods for frequency estimation
Method Reference Validation Year
Non-sinusoidal Back EMF Using ANF [153] Simulation 2015
An RLS-Based Lattice-Form Complex ANF [154] Simulation
ANF based on Normalized Lattice Structure [155] Simulation
ANF for Tracking Multiple Complex Sinusoid Signals [148] Simulation
A gradient-adaptive lattice-based complex ANF [156] Simulation 2016
Power system Frequency estimation Based on ANF [157] Simulation
Cascaded ANF for frequency estimation of multiple sinusoids [158] Simulation
Analysis on the adaptive filter based on LMS algorithm [159] Simulation
Adaptive Frequency Estimation based on Interpolation FFT and Improved ANF [160] Simulation 2017
Unbalance vibration suppression for AMBs system using ANF [161] Experimental
ANF design under multiple identical bandwidths [162] Experimental
ANF for Prediction of Narrow Band Signals [163] Experimental 2018
Detect and Mitigate the CWI for GNSS Receivers based on ANF [164] Experimental
Frequency estimation algorithm based on parallel ANF [165] Experimental 2019
Variable step-size ANF using combined gradient algorithm [166] Experimental
Frequency Estimation Based On WLS-Constrained ANF [167] Simulation 2020
Amirian et al [153] used ANF as a current estimator, which can separate the required current components.
11
It was used to extract the current components to track their optimized quantities through a multiple reference
frame controller. Matlab simulations show that ANF was about eight times faster than the multi-reference
estimator.
Zhu et al [154] presented a new lattice-form complex adaptive Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) notch filter
to estimate and track the frequency of a complex sinusoid signal. Results show that the proposed techniques
achieve faster convergence and better tracking performance than existing methods.
In [155] an Affine Combination Lattice Algorithm (ACLA) as a new lattice-based ANF algorithm was pro-
posed. The ACLA makes use of the affine combination of Regalia’s Simplified Lattice Algorithm and Lattice
Gradient Algorithm. ACLA is shown to have a faster convergence speed than conventional lattice-based algo-
rithms.
Four ANF structures were proposed by [148]. One of these structures is developed further, to facilitate
the ability to track complex sinusoid signals. This original structure gives superior performance over the other
structures under certain conditions, which has been proven by simulations and results.
Zhu et al. [156] developed a new complex ANF to estimate and track the frequency of a complex sinusoidal
signal. The gradient-adaptive lattice structure instead of the traditional gradient one is adopted to accelerate
the convergence rate.
A method for estimating the power system frequency based on the second-order ANF is presented by [157].
Simulation results show that the proposed method estimates the power system frequency accurately. The
proposed techniques take advantage of stochastic optimization and Newton’s method, and it is not only easy to
implement, but also converge quickly in a global manner.
Dai et al. [158] developed a new-cascaded structure in a notch filter for detecting multiple complex sinusoids.
The notched frequency of each level filter is updated adaptively with a simpler gradient-based algorithm. Results
show that the proposed cascaded structure has close variances of estimated multiple frequencies under conditions
of Gaussian noise and a similar performance in tracking both the linear chirp sinusoids and frequency-hopping
sinusoids, compared to another structure taking into consideration in this study.
The paper presented by [159] focused on the application of adaptive filter based on the LMS (Least Mean
Square) algorithm, which is used to meet the optimum norm of error between estimated signal and expected
signal. The analysis on ANF shows that the interference signal with two different known frequencies can be
eliminated effectively by the filter.
The convergence rate and the continuous tracking precision are two main problems of the existing adaptive
notch filter (ANF) for frequency tracking. To solve the problems, Ting-ao et al. [160] detected the frequency
by interpolation FFT at first, which aims to overcome the convergence rate of the ANF. Then, referring to
the idea of negative feedback, an evaluation factor is designed to monitor the ANF parameters and realize
continuously high-frequency tracking accuracy. Simulation results verified that the proposed algorithm obtains
a fast estimation of the signal frequency, higher accuracy, and better universality qualities when compared with
original algorithms. Also, it is more universal, which can apply to other types of ANF.
Chen et al. [161] presented a novel modified ANF with phase shift and applied it to suppress the syn-
chronous vibration for the active magnetic bearings (AMB) rotor. Simulation and experiments demonstrate the
effectiveness and the adaptive characteristics of the proposed ANF on the elimination of synchronous controlled
current in a wide operating speed range.
A novel design method of an ANF with identical bandwidths is proposed by [162] to suppress multiple
sinusoidal interference components in digital signals. The designed ANF can track and suppress multiple non-
harmonic interference components simultaneously.
M’Sirdi et al. [163] developed an efficient structure of ANF implemented as constrained Autoregressive
with Mean Average (ARMA) models. This ANF suits very well for fast frequencies tracking and evolutionary
spectrum analysis for narrowband and sinusoidal signals in additive noise.
A novel ANF based on direct form structure is presented by [164], which is constructed of the second-order
infinite impulse response (IIR) notch filter with constrained poles and zeros in detection and mitigation of
continuous wave interference (CWI) for Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers. Experiments
show the effectiveness of the proposed method under certain conditions, mentioned by this paper.
Wang et al. [165] developed a parallel ANF algorithm to obtain an accurate estimation of frequency which
is used for generating reference signal in a sinusoidal form. The proposed algorithm shows accurate estimation,
which improves the noise reduction system performance.
To improve the performance of ANF, a variable step-size ANF using a combined gradient algorithm is
presented by [166] for frequency estimation. Coriolis mass flow meter is taken as an application to test the
proposed method. Simulation results and CMF application both confirm the effectiveness of the proposed
method.
Punchalard [167] introduced a constrained IIR ANF using a weighted least square algorithm for frequency
estimation of a single real tone embed in Gaussian noise. As compared with some previous techniques, the
proposed algorithm exhibits better performance in terms of both convergence rate and steady-state mean square
error. Computer simulation results are provided to assert the claim.
12
All these references were related to the first method, which is the ANF, and as we mentioned above, this
paper deals with two methods for performing the same goal. Therefore, and as we did with ANF, in the next
section, we discuss the adaptive observer approach.
5.2. Adaptive-Observer approach

5.2.1. Introduction to Adaptive-Observer approach
We frequently come across a dynamical system when analyzing and modeling real-life systems in which we
can record the input-output relations as functions of time but are unable to fully control the input the system
gets throughout time. Assume we know enough about the system to specify its equations, but we need to
recover the values of the internal system variables and parameters that are not available for direct observation
to complete its description and predict system behavior over some time interval. Adaptive Observer Design is a
powerful way for doing so in this scenario. In summary, we can say that an observer is a tool through which we
can simulate the work of a real system to obtain the same results or estimate certain variables, and this depends
on the method of modeling and determining the inputs and outputs of the observer. Therefore, to deal with
frequencies estimation problem, the Observer is a useful tool and allows the direct adaptation of the parameter
estimates. This approach has shown effectiveness in many areas, such as control purposes, disturbances and
noise cancellation, etc. Adaptive-Observer is a comprehensive heading; it has many applications that can be
used to accomplish the same goal. Let us present an Observer structure shown in Figure8, as an example, which
can be used to estimate the rotation speed and the angular position of a dynamical system through the error
between the measured and estimated currents [168, 169].
Figure 8: Block diagram of Adaptive Observer [170]
Where us , is and iˆs represents respectively the vectors of stator voltages, the measured currents, and the
estimated currents, while i˜s is the error between the estimated and measured currents. The block PI represents
a Proportional Integral Controller and ŵ represents the estimated angular speed. More details are found in
[170].
5.2.2. Literature review on Adaptive-Observer approach

To shed light on this technology, and as we did with the MCSA and ANF, we will present the researches
published recently that deal with the frequency estimation and rely on this technique as its basis. Table 13 shows
the observers’ algorithms that have been implemented in each research and their types, while the applications
in which this approach have been used for in each reference are presented in Table 14.
Table 13: Adapttive-Observer algorithms

Algorithm Type References
Adaptive observer-based estimator characterized by a low dynamic order Linear [133]
Adaptive back stepping control Linear [171]
Adaptive Internal Model and a PI controller Linear [172]
Sliding-mode observer based equivalent-input-disturbance Nonlinear [173]
Adaptive observer based on specialized kernel functions Nonlinear [174]
Nonlinear functional observers Nonlinear [175]
Dynamic compensator and coordinate transformation Nonlinear [176]
Adaptive technique and linear matrix inequality Linear [177]
Excitation-based switching logic Nonlinear [178]
Second order sliding-mode based adaptation Linear [179]
A new observer-based adaptive estimator to address the problem of determining the unknown amplitudes
is proposed by [133], frequencies and phases of the components of a polarized multi-sine signal, characterized
by a direct adaptation mechanism for the squares of the frequencies with a low dynamic order equal to 3n or
3n+1 with bias elimination. Several comparative simulation examples verified the effectiveness of the developed
methodology.
13
Table 14: Summary of Adaptive-Observer applications for sinusoidal signals frequency estimation
Application Reference
Direct frequency estimation and identification of multi-sinusoidal signals [133]
Torsional vibration control in offshore rotary oil drilling systems [171]
Adaptive cancellation of an unknown sinusoidal disturbance [172]
Disturbance suppression for a quadrotor using a sliding mode observer [173]
Finite time estimation of multiple sinusoidal signals with exponential damping [174]
Nonlinear observers for parameter estimation of biased multi-sinusoidal signals [175]
Adaptive tracking control of uncertain Euler–Lagrange systems with external disturbances [176]
Adaptive control based on disturbance observation for stochastic systems with multiple heterogeneous disturbances [177]
Multi-sinusoidal Signals parameters estimation [178]
Estimation of damped sinusoidal signals [179]
Wang et al. [171] presented an adaptive recoil control design for a one-dimensional wave partial differential
equation used in torsional vibration suppression for an offshore oil drilling system, where the drill bit is affected
by stick-slip instability and disturbances that have an anti-dumping term with unknown coefficient and a
harmonic disturbance of unknown amplitudes. Oscillations of the angular displacement and velocity of the
drill bit, as well as the delineation of all states of the closed-loop system, are proved by a Lyapunov analysis.
Numerical simulations verify the effectiveness of the presented controller.
An adaptive controller is designed by [172] that combines an adaptive internal model (AIM), based on the
robust frequency estimator, installed in parallel with a proportional-integral (PI) controller to cancel an unknown
sinusoidal disturbance in a stable time-invariant linear system to achieve both asymptotic stability under many
low-frequency disturbances and fast convergence speed under high-frequency disturbances. Simulation results
approve the designed method and show its efficiency in transient convergence and anti-noise performance in
steady-state.
Cai et al. [173] developed a new control scheme for attitude control and disturbance suppression for a quad-
rotor unmanned aerial vehicle, which is the Equivalent-Input-Disturbance (EID) approach that incorporates a
sliding mode observer (SMO) in the EID estimation. The combination of this approach with the Proportional
Integral Derivative (PID) method shows good control performance during both transient and stable responses.
The dynamic model of the quad-rotor is divided into two cascaded subsystems: fully actuated and underactu-
ated. The PID method is used to converge rapidly the fully actuated subsystem, and the SMO-EID approach is
used to implement nonlinearity compensation and disturbance suppression. Simulations and comparisons (with
five other methods) demonstrate the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed method.
Chen et al. [174] proposed a finite-time estimation scheme for parametric identification of multiple polarized
and damped sinusoidal signals. This estimator uses bi-variate linear non-asymptotic kernels (BL-NK), which
is a Volterra operator with original kernel functions, to estimate the frequencies and initial phase angle, ampli-
tudes, damping factors, and constant bias exactly in a very short time interval. Numerical examples including
comparisons with some published results show the efficiency of the proposed algorithm.
A new functional global observer to perform robust parameter estimation of a polarized multi-sinusoidal
signal with intrinsic measurement noise is introduced by [175]. These parameters are bias, frequencies, and
amplitude. The estimation can be performed when the noise measurement is missing. An intriguing robustness
property has been developed concerning both the integral input-state stability (iISS) and the local input-state
stability (LISS) as for the external measurement noise. The results show that the proposed estimator is verified;
furthermore, the robustness has been carefully characterized for the intrinsic measurement noise regarding a
combined iISS in addition to LISS characterization.
Lu et al. [176] investigated the adaptive path-following problem of uncertain Euler - Lagrange frameworks
subject to external disturbances, to design an adaptive control law that is sufficiently smooth to solve the path-
following problem of these systems subject to external disturbances, and to asymptotically follow the prescribed
path by rejecting a large class of external disturbances with unbounded energy. To achieve this goal, several
challenges must be overcome. To overcome these challenges, a dynamic compensator has been constructed and
a coordinate transformation has been defined, which converts the adaptive control problem into an adaptive
stabilization problem. Using the robust control approach, the adaptive stabilization problem was solved, giving
the solution to the original problem. The convergence of the estimated parameters was discussed based on some
consistently exciting conditions and demonstrated the effectiveness of the new controller.
Wei et al. [177] designed an observer-based adaptive disturbance control (ADOBC) scheme by combining
the adaptive technique and linear matrix inequality (LMI) to estimate the disturbance of a modeled uncertain
with unknown frequencies and amplitudes, reject and mitigate these multiple heterogeneous disturbances. Two
simulation examples, including a wind system, are given to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed
scheme. The results show that ADOBC can achieve higher anti-disturbance control accuracy when compared
with conventional H∞.
Chen et al. [178] presented an observer-based adaptive robust estimation technique to address the prob-
lem of estimating amplitudes, frequencies, and phases of polarized multi-sinusoidal signals in the presence of
14
bounded additive perturbations on the measurement. The proposed algorithm allows the direct matching of the
frequencies to the square of the sinusoidal components, where their parameters are estimated in real-time. The
presented estimator adopts an n-dimensional excitation-based switching signal to separately control multiple
frequencies matching in all directions through appropriate matrix decomposition algorithms. Simulations, real-
time experiments, and comparisons with other existing methodologies show the effectiveness of the proposed
scheme.
A novel observer-based method for estimating the parameters of an exponentially damped sinusoid is devel-
oped by [179], including frequency, amplitude, phase, and damping factor. A second-order sliding mode-based
matching law is designed to estimate the frequency and damping factor, while the amplitude and phase can be
obtained from said parameters by a simple algebra. The robustness analysis of the proposed estimator shows
the asymptotic convergence of the estimation errors to a residual set whose size is related to the amplitude of the
measurement disturbance. Numerical examples are presented to show the efficiency of the presented approach
and the improvement of the performance compared to recent techniques.
6. Discussion and Conclusion
Condition monitoring of machinery used in industrial processes and other applications is an advanced area.
In which researchers, operators, and companies focus on improving the efficiency of approved systems. To
achieve this goal, the average life expectancy of each component must be increased. Induction motors cause a
large part of the malfunctions of these systems, which they are used in, and which are the basic element in their
operation, meaning that any fault affecting this component may lead to significant damage, so it is necessary
to continuously monitor the condition of these motors to avoid this scenario.
Induction motors condition monitoring can be done through a wide variety of methods and techniques.
Vibration analysis and acoustic emission are still the most used approach, but they are two expensive tech-
nologies in terms of complexity and sensors used in this process. Therefore it was necessary to find an effective
technique to perform this task. MCSA is a relatively simple method, only needs a current sensor, despite its
simplicity, it has proven its effectiveness in monitoring the condition of electric rotating machines, also it is being
used for fault detection of different mechanical components such as bearings, rotors bar, and gearboxes.This
method showed defects in case of transient or non-stationary signals, for example in the startup period, so this
technology was developed to have the TMCSA, that achieves good results in these cases.
Within this paper, A brief review of how to use this technology in identifying and detecting the type of
fault has been presented, in addition to a summary of the most important researches published in recent years,
which mainly rely on this method in induction motors fault detection, as well as, the application adopted by
each researcher in processing this type of signals and analyzing them to achieve the desired goal. All these
researches have proven the effectiveness of the MCSA technique, but still, the most important challenge facing
those wishing to delve into this field is to know the correct method to process the current signal, in a way that
matches the nature of the system that is being dealt with, or in other sense, the accurate estimation of signal
frequencies.
Based on all the above, we found that the most important component of this type of signal is the frequency,
which plays the primary role in detecting and determining the type of error. Therefore, frequencies estimation
of these types of sinusoidal signals is an important challenge. By reviewing previous researches, the FFT is
the most used technique and still used widely to this day, due to its effectiveness and simplicity in processing
signals. However, this technology has weaknesses that cannot be ignored, the most prominent of which is that
it is unable to track non-stationary frequencies, and since most of the applications in real life are of variable
frequencies, it was necessary to find alternative and effective methods to perform what the mentioned technique
failed to do.
This paper offered two techniques for multi sinusoidal signals online frequency estimation, the ANF, and the
Adaptive Observer approach. A review of recently published researches showed that these two methods achieve
good results in frequencies tracking, and as this parameter plays a key role in detecting faults in induction
motors, so these two techniques can be adopted with the TMCSA, to track and estimate the frequencies of
these sinusoidal signals.
induction motors are used to drive systems such as compression and ventilation systems, future research has
to take into consideration the application of the TMCSA adopted with one of the two proposed techniques, to
detect the overall system failures, at constant and variable speed, and finally in some devices an active control
allowing the rejection of unwanted disturbances can be applied.
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Variable Speed Induction Motors' Fault Detection Based On Transient Motor Current Signatures Analysis: A Review

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Variable Speed Induction Motors' Fault Detection Based On Transient Motor Current Signatures Analysis: A Review

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Variable speed induction motors’ fault detection based on transient motor

Table 1: Common faults in IM

Preprint submitted to Journal of LATEX March 30, 2022

Figure 1: Types and percentage contribution of various faults in an IM

2. Condition Monitoring Techniques

Table 3: IM condition monitoring techniques

3. Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA)

3.1. Power spectrum analysis

I(t) = A(t)cos(θ(t)) (1)

A(t) = I.[1 + αcos(2πfAM t + ΦAM )] (2)

θ(t) = 2πfs t + βcos(2πfP M t + ΦP M ) + ΦI (3)

Figure 2: Motor Current Monitoring System

Figure 3: Current spectrum of induction motor

3.2. Modulation signal bispectrum analysis

∆T = 3P ϕIF sin[2πfF t − (αI − αϕ ) − αF ] (7)

3.3. Current Sensor Characteristics

Table 6: Frequency signatures of defects in the IM stator current

Table 7: Defects frequencies for a particular system

4. Literature Review on MCSA and Transient MCSA

Table 9: Summary for faults detected using MCSA

Table 10: Summary for MCSA methods for IM fault detection

main frequency, as well as a high level of detail in the time-frequency maps.

5. Non-Stationary Signals Frequency Estimation for IM Fault Detection

5.1. Adaptive-Notch-Filtering method (ANF)

A(z) = (z −1 β − α)/(1 − αz −1 β) (10)

Figure 7: The implementation of a notch filter

5.1.2. Literature review on ANF

5.2. Adaptive-Observer approach

Figure 8: Block diagram of Adaptive Observer [170]

5.2.2. Literature review on Adaptive-Observer approach

Table 13: Adapttive-Observer algorithms

6. Discussion and Conclusion

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[94] C. Aroux, Ma130 miniflex (2022-03-22).

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[127] M. Riera-Guasp, M. Pineda-Sanchez, J. Perez-Cruz, R. Puche-Panadero, J. Roger-Folch, J. A. Antonino-Daviu, Diagnosis of induction

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