1-1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter we study the basic structure of the operational amplifier (op-amp)
and then analyze a typical operational amplifier circuit. We will also investigate
the op-amp symbol, types of op-amps, different grades of op-amps, and op-amp
development-among other things.

1-2 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

d hi h- ain am lifier usuall consist-
mg o ne or more differential 1er nd usuall followed b a leve s-
2!2:T an an output stage. The output stag~·is genera_lly a_push-pu I or push_-pull
complemehtary-symmetry pair. An operattonal amphfier 1s available as a smgle
integrated circuit package.
The operational amplifier is a versatile device that can be used to amplif~ de
as well as ac input signals and was originally designed for perforimng,_ma he-
riiatical operations such as addition subtraction, multi lication and inte ration.
Thus e name o erational amplifier stems from its ori inal use for tJiese math-
ematica..._ operations and is abbreviated to op-amp. With the addition o smta e
external 1eedback components, the modem day op-amp can be used for a variety
of applications, such as~ and de signal amplification, active filters, oscillators,
comparators, regulators, and otners.

I3 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF A

J- !!flQL OP-AMP
Since an op-amp is a multistage amplifier, it can be represented by a block dia-
gram as shown in Figure 1- l.
The input stage !s the dual-input, balanced-output differential amplifier. This
s_tage gen~rally pr~v1des most of the voltage gain of the amplifier arid also estab-
b~hes th~ mput resistance of the op-amp. The intennediate stage is usually another
differential amplifier, which is driven by the output of the first stage. In most -am-

inverting
nput ,

Level Output
Input Intermediate Output
shifting
stage stage stage
stage

Inverting
input
Dual-input, Dual-input, Such as Complementary
' balanced-output unbalanced output emitter follower symmetry
differential differential using constant push-pull
amplifier amplifier current source amplifier

FIGURE 1-1 Block diagram of O typical op-amp.

2 Introduction to Operational Amplifiers

 117
Inverting l'll,,_ - - I
input
~ - - - o Output
FIGURE 1-3 Schematic symbol for the Noninverting 0------1
inout 11
op-amp. 1

1-5 SCHEMAnc SYMBOL

· . . . • F re 1-2 we can save time

Given an op-amp schematic diagram hke ~he o~e I~ i~u I _'3 shows the most
by using a schematic symbol for the. ent!re ~1rcmt._ ~1gur; nd one output. For
widely _used of such symbols for a c_1rcmt wit~ two . mp~~i:ied. Since the input
simplicity, power supply and other pm co~nect1~ns are rated in the dif-
differential amplifier stage of the op-amp is ~esigned to be ope _ nota-
ferential mode, the differential inputs. are. designated by_ the ( + ) and ( ) )
tions. The ( + ) input is the noninvertmg mput. An ac s~gnal _( or de voltage ap-
lied to this input produces an in-phase·_(or s~me _polanty) signal at th~ output.
bn the other hand, the ( - ) input is the mvertmg mput because an ac s1g~al (or
de voltage) applied to this input produces an 180° out-of-phase (or opposite po-
larity) signal at the output.
In Figure 1-3,
v 1 = voltage at the noninverting input (volts)
v2 = voltage at the inverting input (volts)
v0 = output voltage (volts)
All these voltages are measured with respect to ground.
A = large-signal voltage gain, which is specified
on the data sheet for an op-amp

,
· 1-6 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

The circuit shown in Figure 1-2 is an integrated circuit (IC), meaning that all the
components in this circuit are fabricated on the same "chip." ICs have becom~ a
vital part of modem electronic circuit design. They are used in the computer in-
dustry, automobile industry, home appliances, communication, and control sys-
tems, where they permit miniaturization and superior performance not possible
with discrete components. ICs are now being used in all types of electronic equip-
ment because of the long, trouble-free service they provide. In addition, they are
economical because they are mass produced.
Classified according to their mode of operation, ICs are of two basic types:
digital or linear.
Digital /Cs are complete functioning logic networks that are equivalents of
basic transistor logic circuits. They are used to form such circuits as gates, coun·

8 Introduction to Operational Amplifiers