Clsu Comparative Anat Notes

VANA 2205.
Comparative Veterinary Anatomy
1
Errol Jay Y. Balagan, DVM, MSc
SKELETAL SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
The skeletal system can be divided into three parts: axial,

appendicular, and splanchnic skeleton. As a review, the axial skeleton
includes the bones of the skull, vertebrae, ribs, and sternum. The
appendicular skeleton is composed of the bones of the thoracic and
pelvic limbs while the splanchnic skeleton is those bones present in
the soft tissues or visceral organs. As animals’ physiques vary, their
skeletal framework differs as well. For example, the presence of horns
in horned ruminants suggests a bony process unique in their frontal
bone. As the bird’s body is designed for flight, some of its bones were
fused or reduced to lighten its overall weight. As carnivores need to
have very powerful muscles of mastication, deep fossae are present
in their mandible to accommodate the bulk of well-developed
temporalis muscle. In short, this module will highlight the major
comparative features of each structure per animal both for
identification purposes and a bit of their physiological function.
TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 hours
OBJECTIVES:
1. Identify the animal based on the present morphological features

of their bones.
2. Compare the modifications present in the thoracic and pelvic limbs
of different domestic animals.
3. Identify the vertebral formula, number of sternal and asternal rib
pairs and number of sternebrae of different domestic animals.
1
VANA 2205. Comparative Veterinary Anatomy
Dog
Cat
2
Pig
Cattle
3
Horse
4
Chicken
5
SKULL
Pig
Dog
Cattle Horse
Animal Skull
Dog Three types of skulls relative to the proportion of the facial bones and cranial vault
(craniometry):
Dolicocephalic - has larger facial compartment (Collie)
Mesaticephalic - average conformation (Beagle)
Brachcephalic - shorter facial compartment (Pug)
Supraorbital foramen is absent; bony orbit is incomplete, completed by the orbital ligament
Cattle Frontal bone forms the roof of the cranium; has facial tuber in the maxilla; orbit is complete;
horned animals have cornual process; median sagittal crest is absent
Horse Has facial crest in the maxilla; orbit is complete

Pig Has a unique bone in the nose called os rostri; frontal bone forms the roof of the cranium; orbit
is incomplete
Bird With large incomplete bony orbit, boundaries of individual bones are difficult to identify because
the sutures are lost soon after hatching; single occipital condyle; has beak
6
MANDIBLE
Dog
Horse
Horse
Pig
Cattle
Animal Mandible
Dog Has a deep masseteric fossa, with angular process, short diastema*, long and wide coronoid
process
Cattle Has wide and long diastema*, long and narrow coronoid process, head of condyloid process
is concave
7
Horse Has wide and long diastema*, head of the condyloid process is convex
Pig Short coronoid process (almost the same height with condyloid process) massive body
Cat Has angular process
Birds consists of two thin bones fused rostrally where they are covered by the lower beak
*physiologic gap, space between teeth
HYOID APPARATUS
Cat
Horse
Cattle
Animal Hyoid Apparatus

Dog Epihyoid is the longest; lingual process is absent; stylohyoid is cylindrical; epihyoid is
and cat cylindrical; hyoid apparatus articulates with the skull via the mastoid process of the temporal
bone.
Cattle Basihyoid has a short lingual process; stylohyoid is laterally flattened; hyoid apparatus
articulates with the skull via the styloid process of the temporal bone.
Horse Basihyoid has a long lingual process; stylohyoid is laterally flattened; epihyoid is the
smallest and fused with the stylohyoid; hyoid apparatus articulates with the skull via the
styloid process of the temporal bone.
Pig Epihyoid is represented by a ligament, the ligamentum epihyoideum; hyoid apparatus
articulates with the skull via the nuchal process of the temporal bone.
8
SKULL FORAMINA
Openings Bones Transmitted Structures Comparative Notes

Hypoglossal canal Occipital Hypoglossal nerve, condylar Often double in the ox;
vein and artery foramen in the horse
Optic canal Presphenoid Optic nerve Lies above the sphenoidal sinus
Orbital fissure Presphenoid Ophthalmic nerve, CN III, IV, In carnivores and horse
and VI
Foramen rotundum Presphenoid Maxillary nerve Foramen orbitorotundum in
ruminants and pig
Caudal alar foramen Basisphenoid Maxillary artery In dog and horse
Rostral alar foramen Basisphenoid Maxillary artery In dog, also the maxillary nerve
Small alar foramen Basisphenoid Rostral deep temporal artery Only in the horse
Foramen lacerum Basioccipital, Internal carotid artery, In the horse and pig
temporal, mandibular nerve,
basisphenoid middle meningeal artery
Jugular foramen Basioccipital and CN IX, X and XI; Foramen lacerum as the caudal
temporal Dog: Internal carotid artery part
Oval foramen Basisphenoid Mandibular nerve In the horse, the oval notch lies
in the foramen lacerum
Carotid canal Basisphenoid Internal carotid artery (except In the horse, carotid notch and
dog; Internal carotid nerve foramen lacerum
Spinous foramen Basisphenoid Trochlear nerve, middle In the horse, spinous notch and
meningeal artery foramen lacerum
Supraorbital foramen Frontal Frontal nerve, vein and artery Lacking in carnivores
Ethmoidal foramen Frontal Ethmoidal nerve, vein and
artery
Infraorbital foramen Maxilla Infraorbital nerve, vein and
artery
Mandibular foramen Mandible Mandibular nerve, vein and
artery
Mental foramen Mandible Mental nerve, vein and artery
Greater palatine Palatine Greater palatine nerve and Greater palatine vein only in
foramen artery small ruminants
9
VERTEBRAE
The vertebral column is divided into 5 regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar,

sacral and caudal vertebrae. Aside from the modifications in each
vertebrae, the number varies per species. Here is the vertebral formula of
different domestic animals.
Animal C T L S Cd
Horse 7 18 6 5 15-21
Cattle 7 13 6 5 18-20
Sheep 7 13 6-7 4 16-18
Goat 7 13 7 4 12
Dog 7 13 7 3 20-24
Pig 7 11-15 6-7 4 20-23
Chicken 14-17 5-7 L/S 14 5-6
ATLAS
Pig
Dog
Horse
Cattle
Animal Atlas
Dog Alar foramen is absent, instead there is alar notch or incisure
Cattle Transverse foramen is absent.
Horse Three foramina are present.
Pig Three foramina are present; transverse foramen is situated in posterior border of wing, with
long ventral tubercle.
Birds is a small ring that articulates by a depression in its ventral arch with the single occipital condyle
10
AXIS
Pig
Dog
Cattle
Horse
Animal Axis
Dog Dens are typically tooth-like
Cattle Dens are characteristically spout-shaped, spinous process is like a rectangular bony plate
Horse Dens are characteristically spout-shaped ; Spinous process is bifid
Pig Narrow and high spine directed caudally
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
Dog
Cattle
Horse
11
Animal Thoracic Vertebrae

Dog 1st spine is the tallest; spinous processes gradually decrease in length throughout the whole
thoracic region; T11 is the anticlinal*; wide and compressed dorsoventrally;
Cattle first three vertebrae increase in height, become progressively shorter up to
the 12th – 13th vertebra; T13 is the anticlinal; larger than in the horse
Horse 1st spine is small; first four thoracic vertebrae increase in height and become shorter up to the
13th or 14th vertebra. T16 is the anticlinal; first three or four thoracic vertebrae constitute the
osseous base for the withers
Pig T10 is the anticlinal
Birds Well -developed dorsal spinous process; last vertebrae has very prominent ventral spinous
process ; The vertebrae at the thoracic region of avian are partially fused into notarium. The
notarium is composed of the last cervical vertebra and the first three thoracic vertebrae.
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
Animal Lumbar vertebrae
Dog Spinous process of first four or five lumbar vertebrae become progressively longer;
transverse process has cranioventral inclination; 5th or 6th lumbar vertebra carries the
longest transverse process.
Cattle Spinous process show a caudal inclination; transverse process is oriented horizontally; 3rd
or 4th lumbar vertebra carries the longest transverse process.
Goat/Sheep Spinous process are orientated perpendicular to the long axis of the vertebrae; transverse
process is oriented horizontally; 3rd or 4th lumbar vertebra carries the longest transverse
process.
Horse transverse process is oriented horizontally; 3rd or 4th lumbar vertebra carries the longest
transverse process.
Pig transverse process has cranioventral inclination; 3rd or 4th lumbar vertebra carries the
longest transverse process.
Birds has synsacrum (last one or two thoracic vertebrae fuse with the lumbar, sacral, and first
caudal vertebrae)
Dog
Cattle Horse
12
SACRUM
Horse
Cattle
Dog
Animal Sacrum
Dog Quadrilateral in shape; 3 separate spines
(unfused spinous process)
Horse Triangular in shape; 5 separate spines
(unfused spinous process)
Cattle Triangular in shape; Spinal process are
fused to form the median sacral crest
Pig Spinous process is replaced by indistinct
crest
Birds Fused lumbosacral called synsacrum
The caudal vertebrae varies in number per species and within species. In chicken, there
are 6 free caudal vertebrae. The 4th to 6th caudal vertebrae fused forming the pygostyle.
13
RIBS and STERNUM
Dog Pig Cattle Horse
Animal Ribs
Dog Cylindrical shaft
Horse Narrow shaft and strongly curved in dorsal third

Cattle Wide, flat shaft and long neck
Pig Narrow shaft and distinct angle
Birds First 2 pairs are floating, except for the 1st and last rib; the vertebral ribs
bears a flattened uncinate process which overlaps the succeeding rib
1. There is always one more pair of sternal ribs than there are sternebrae.
2. The head of the rib articulates with the body of the vertebra of the same serial number
and that of the one in front.
3. The tubercle of the rib articulates with the transverse process of the vertebra of the
same serial number.
Animal Rib Pairs Sternal Asternal Sternebrae

Horse 18 8 10 7 Uncinate process
Cattle 13 8 5 7
Sheep 13 8 5 7
Pig 14 7 7 6
Dog 13 9 4 8 keel
The sternum of birds a large unsegmented bone with a well-

developed keel or carina used to anchor large flight muscles.
14
SCAPULA
Animal Scapula
Dog Spine bisects lateral surface; distinct acromion; no coracoid and glenoid notch;
narrow scapular cartilage
Cattle distinctly triangular; unequal fossae (supra is smaller than infra); no notch in
glenoid cavity; broad scapular cartilage
Sheep Coracoid process is absent
Horse Spine fades distally; unequal fossae (supra is smaller than infra); no acromion;
Trapezius tubercle is present; broad scapular cartilage
Pig Rhomboid shape; no acromion; Prominent trapezius tubercle overhanging
infraspinous fossa; narrow scapular cartilage
Cat triangular. Has the suprahamate process
Birds flat rod lying lateral and parallel to the vertebral column
15
HUMERUS
Animal Humerus
Dog radial and olecranon fossae communicate through supratrochlear foramen, greater tubercle is
divided into cranial and caudal parts
Cattle Massive lateral tuberosity overhangs bicipital groove; intertubercular groove is divided by a low-
sagittal ridge; greater tubercle is divided into cranial and caudal parts
Horse Intermediate tubercle is present in the bicipital groove; greater tubercle is divided into cranial and
caudal parts
Pig Lateral tuberosity almost converts bicipital groove into foramen; single intertubercular groove;
greater tubercle is divided into cranial and caudal parts
Cat undivided greater tubercle; supracondylar foramen is present. Has a coronoid fossa
Bird Stout and flat at both ends; pneumatized, has pectoral crest
16
RADIUS AND ULNA
Animal Radius and Ulna

Dog and Cat Ulna is not fused with radius; ulna is
longer than radius
Cattle and Ulna is fused with the radius, with
Goat proximal interosseus space. ulna is
longer than radius
Horse Ulna fused almost 2/3 way down the
shaft of the radius; radius is longer
than ulna
Porcine Ulna is massive; articulates with the
radius and ulnar carpal; ulna is longer
than radius
Birds Ulna is longer and more massive than
radius
17
CARPALS
Carpal Bone Dog Horse Cattle Pig

Radial P P P P
Intermediate A P P P
Ulnar P P P P
Accessory P P P P
1 P A/P A P
2 P P P
FUSED
3 P P P
4 P P P P
TOTAL 7 7/8 6 8
Humerus
In birds, the proximal row of carpal bones is reduced by
fusion to only two separate bones (radial and ulnar
carpal bones; Figure 37–11/6,7); the distal row has
fused with the metacarpus. The number of metacarpal
bones and corresponding digits is reduced to three.
Radius
Ulna
Ulnar carpal
Carpometacarpal
Radial carpal
18
METACARPALS and DIGITAL BONES
Animal Metacarpals
Dog two middle metacarpal bones (Mc III and Mc IV) are the longest, Mc II and Mc V are shorter
and Mc I is most reduced
Ruminant Mc III and IV are united on the proximal and middle part to form the large metacarpal bone,
the distal extremities articulate separately with the proximal phalanges, Mc V is reduced to
become the small metacarpal bone, and Mc I and Mc II are lacking
Horse only Mc III (cannon bone) is fully developed and carries the single digit; only remnants of Mc
II and Mc IV survive as the splint bones, Mc I and Mc V are missing
Pig Mc III and IV are well-developed; Mc II and V are reduced and Mc I is missing
Birds Distal row of carpal bones fused with the proximal end of metacarpals and termed
carpometacarpal bones, of which there are 3
Animal Digits
Dog Has four main weight-bearing digits; 1st digit and 1st metacarpal bone is the dewclaw. Some
dog breeds have double dewclaws.
Ruminant Four digits, 2 weight-bearing digits (3rd and 4th) and 2 non- weight-bearing digits (2nd and 5th).
First digit is missing
Horse 3rd digit only: long pastern, short pastern and coffin bone. Distal sesamoid bone is called
navicular bone
Pig Four digits, 2 weight-bearing digits (3rd and 4th) and 2 non- weight-bearing digits (2nd and 5th).
First digit is missing
Chicken Digit one has two phalanges, digit two has three, digit three has four, and digit four has five.
19
OS COXAE
Cattle Pig
Horse
Dog
Animal Os coxae
Dog Gluteal surface faces laterally; Wing of ilium distinctly concave has more
than one gluteal line; Tuber sacrale is widely separated and higher than the
tuber coxae
Cattle Gluteal surface faces dorsally; Wing of ilium has one gluteal line; Three
prominences on sciatic tuber; obturator foramen is wide and sharp
medially; pelvic symphysis has distinct ventral ridge
Sheep As in bovine; long axis of ilium and ischium form a nearly straight line
Horse Gluteal surface faces dorsally; Wing of ilium has one gluteal line; Tuber
sacrale is higher than the tuber coxae
Pig Gluteal surface faces laterally; Wing of ilium has one gluteal line; Wing of
ilium divided into two fossae by distinct gluteal line; Tuber sacrale is widely
separated
20
FEMUR
Animal Femur
Dog and Shaft is cylindrical; Greater trochanter is
Cat at the same level as the femoral head
Ruminant Greater trochanter is higher than the
femoral head; Third trochanter is
absent
Horse Greater trochanter is divided into
cranial and caudal parts and higher than
the femoral head; Trochlear tubercle is
present; has supracondylar fossa
Pig Shaft distinctly quadrilateral; Greater
trochanter is at the same level as the
femoral head
Bird Resembles mammalian femur; has
patella
Patella
21
TIBIA AND FIBULA
Animal Tibia and Fibula

Dog Tibia and fibula are not fused; Fibula is
as long as the tibia; short prominent
tibial crest marked with impression
Fibula is vestigial, no interosseous
Ruminant space; lateral malleolus articulates
separately; malleolar bone is present
Horse Only proximal half of the fibula remains
(reduced to the head and shaft only);
lateral malleolus of fibula is fused with
the tibia
Pig Tibia and fibula are not fused; Fibula is
as long as the tibia; tibial crest is long
and distinct
Bird Tibia fused with dorsal tarsal bone
forming tibiotarsus (making it longer
than femur); fibula is thin and splint-
like
22
TARSALS
Tarsal Bone Dog Horse Cattle Pig

Talus P P P P
Calcaneus P P P P
Central P P FUSED* P
w/ 4
1 (Medial P FUSED P P
Cuneiform) w/ 2
2 (Middle P FUSED FUSED P

Cuneiform) w/ 1 w/3
3 (Lateral P P FUSED P
Cuneiform) w/ 2
4 (Cuboid) P P FUSED* P
w/
central
TOTAL 7 6 5 7
METARSALS and DIGITAL BONES
The pattern is the same as in the thoracic limb of horse and pig. In carnivores, the first
metatarsal bone is even more reduced than in front limb and the first digit (dewclaw) is often
absent. In ruminants, the 5th metatarsal bone is absent. A metatarsal sesamoid bone is
present and is often called the small metatarsal or metatarsal II.
23
In birds, the central tarsal bone and the distal tarsal bones fused with the metatarsal II, III
and IV forming the tarsometatarsal bone. This means that there is no individual tarsal
bone in birds. The 1st metatarsal bone remains a separate structure while the 5th
metatarsal bone is missing. The tarsometatarsus bears a bony process for the spur
(calcar), which is more developed in males than in females.
Distally, the tarsometatarsus articulates with the phalanges of the digits. Digit 1 bears 2
phallanges, Digit II bears 3 phalanges, Digit III bears 4 phalanges and Digit IV bears 5
phalanges.
24
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Which structure is present in the humerus b. Mc II

of dog but absent in the humerus of pig? c. Mc III
a. Greater tubercle d. Mc IV
b. Olecranon process
c. Supratrochlear foramen 6. Which foramen is missing in dogs?
d. Intermediate tubercle a. Supraorbital foramen
b. Rostral alar foramen
2. In comparing the mandible of a dog and a c. Oval foramen
goat, which of the following anatomical d. Infraorbital foramen
structure should be considered?
a. Presence of coronoid process in 7. In the following animals, the radius is
the mandible of dog more massive than the ulna, EXCEPT:
b. Absence of condyloid process in a. Dog
the mandible of goat b. Chicken
c. Presence of angular process in c. Horse
the mandible of dog d. Pig
d. Same height of the condyloid and
coronoid process in the mandible 8. The cornual process is present in which
of goat bone of horned ruminants?
a. Nasal bone
3. How many occipital condyle/s is/are b. Parietal bone
present in the skull of chicken? c. Frontal bone
a. 1 d. Occipital bone
b. 2
c. 3 9. Which is the anticlinal vertebra of cattle?
d. 4 a. T10
b. T11
4. Uncinate process are unique anatomical c. T12
structures present in the ribs of which of d. T13
the following animals?
a. Goat 10. Which of the following statements about
b. Pig the ribs of domestic animal is FALSE?
c. Chicken a. Cattle has flat ribs
d. Horse b. Chicken has fused ribs called
notarium
5. What is the functional metacarpal bone of c. The rib of dog is cylindrical
the horse? d. None of the above
a. Mc I
ANS KEY
25
REFERENCES:
• Dyce, K. M., and C. J. G. Wensing. 2010. Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy. 4 th Ed.

Saunders Elsevier. St. Louis, Missouri
• Frandson, R. D., W. L. Wilke, and A. D. Fails. 2009. Anatomy and Physiology of
Farm Animals. 7th ed. Wiley– Blackwell. USA
• König, H. E. And H G. Liebich. 2020. Veterinary Anatomy of Domestic Animals.
Textbook and Colour Atlas. 7th Ed. Thieme. Stuttgart, Germany
• Pasquini and Spurgeon. 1987. Anatomy of Domestic Animals: Systemic and
Regional Approach. 5th ed. Sudz Publishing Co. USA
26
2
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
The general feature of the muscular system is the same for most
domestic animals. However, some modifications are present to fit
the locomotory behavior of the animals. For the quadrupeds, the
muscular system is designed to support the lack of a true joint
connecting the thoracic limb with the trunk. Likewise, differences
in the feeding behavior suggest morphological differences in the
masticatory muscles. In birds, the muscles were designed for
flight thus some of the well-developed muscles in mammals were
either reduced or modified. A quick review of the basic anatomy of
the muscular system is very essential to understand the concepts
and information presented in this module. Take note that only the
comparative features in the muscular system of different domestic
animals will be highlighted in this module.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Review the anatomy of the muscular system.

2. Identify the differences or modifications present in the
muscular system of domestic animals.
1
MUSCLES OF THE THORACIC LIMB

Muscle Origin Insertion Primary Action Innervation
Trapezius Ligaments of the Scapular spine Lifts, advances Accessory nerve
dorsal midline and retracts
scapula
Rhomboideus Ligaments of the Medial side scapular Lifts and advances Cervical and
dorsal midline cartilage scapula, lifts neck thoracic nerve
Serratus ventralis Transverse process Medial side of scapula Supports trunk, Cervical spinal
of caudal and cranial and scapular cartilage lifts neck, and long thoracic
thoracic vertebrae, advances and nerve
first 8 or 9 ribs retracts scapula
Omotransversarius Fascia of shoulder Transverse process of Advances limb, Cervical spinal
and arm cranial cervical lateral neck nerve
vertebrae flexion
Brachiocephalicus Occipital bone, Medial fascia of arm Lateral neck Cervical spinal,
Cleidobrachialis transverse processes and forearm, lateral flexion, shoulder accessory nerve
Cleidocephalicus of cervical vertebrae side of humerus, extension,
Cleidomastoideus* deltoid tuberosity advances limb
Latissimus dorsi Spinous processes of Medial humerus Limb retraction, Thoracodorsal

the thoracic and shoulder flexion nerve
lumbar vertebrae
Pectoralis Sternum and cranial Medial humerus and Limb adduction Cranial and
superficialis costal cartilages fascia of arm and caudal pectoral
forearm nerve
Pectoralis Sternum, ribs, Craiomedial humerus Adduction and Cranial and
profundus (deep) abdominal fascia retraction of limb, caudal pectoral
advances trunk nerve
when limb is
weight-bearing
Subclavius Cranial sternum and Epimysium of Support of trunk, Cranial pectoral
costal cartilage supraspinatus shoulder nerve
stabilization
Supraspinatus Supraspinous fossa Greater tubercle of Stabilization and Stabilization and
of scapula humerus extension of flexion of
shoulder shoulder
Infraspinatus infraspinous fossa of Greater tubercle of Stabilization and Stabilization and
scapula humerus flexion of shoulder flexion of
shoulder
Subscapularis Subscapular fossa Medial humerus Shoulder Subscapular
stabilization nerve
Teres major Caudal border of Medial humerus (teres Shoulder flexion Axillary nerve
scapula major tuberosity)
2
Teres minor Caudal border of Proximal to deltoid Shoulder flexion Axillary nerve
scapula tuberosity
Deltoideus Scapular spine Deltoid tuberosity Shoulder flexion Axillary nerve
Coracobrachialis Coracoid process of Medial humerus Shoulder Musculocutaneo
the scapula extension us nerve
Biceps brachii Supraglenoid Cranial aspect of Elbow flexion, Musculocutaneo
tubercle proximal radius and shoulder us nerve
ulna extension
Brachialis Caudal aspect of the Medial aspect of Elbow flexion Musculocutaneo
proximal humerus proximal humerus us nerve
Triceps brachii Caudal border of Olecranon process Elbow extension, Radial nerve
scapula, proximal shoulder flexion
humerus (long head only)
Anconeus Caudolateral Olecranon process Elbow extension Radial nerve
humerus
Tensor fascia Caudal border of Olecranon process, Elbow extension Radial nerve
antibrachii scapula (via deep fascia of tensing of forearm
epimysium of antebrachium
triceps)
Extensor carpi Lateral humeral Cranial aspect of Carpal extension Radial nerve
radialis epicondyle proximal metacarpus
Extensor carpi Craniolateral radius Medial metacarpus Carpal extension Radial nerve
obliquus
Common digital Lateral humeral Distal phalanx Digital extension, Radial nerve
extensor epicondyle carpal extension
Lateral digital Lateral collateral Dorsal aspect of digit Digital extension, Radial nerve
extensor ligament of elbow, carpal extension
proximal radius and
ulna
Extensor carpi Lateral humeral Lateral metacarpus, Carpal flexion Radial nerve
ulnaris epicondyle accessory carpal bone
Pronator teres Medial humeral Medial aspect Elbow flexion Median nerve
epicondyle proximal radius
Flexor carpi Medial humeral Palmeromedial aspect Carpal flexion Median nerve
radialis epicondyle of proximal
metacarpus
Flexor carpi ulnaris Medial humeral Accessory carpal bone Carpal flexion Ulnar nerve
epicondyle ,
olecranon
Flexor digitorum Medial humeral Middle phalanx Digital flexion, Ulnar nerve
superficialis epicondyle carpal flexion
Deep digital flexor Medial humeral Palmar surface of Digital flexion, Median and ulnar
epicondyle , caudal distal phalanx carpal flexion nerves
radius, medial
3
olecranon
MUSCLES OF THE PELVIC LIMBS

Muscle Origin Insertion Primary Action Innervation
Biceps fermoris Sacrum, Patellar ligament, Extension of hip Caudal gluteal
(gluteobiceps in sacrosciatic patella and tibia via and stifle (cranial and tibial nerve
ruminants) ligament, ischial femoral and crural part); flexion of
tuber fascia, calcaneal tuber stifle and
extension of hock
(caudal part)
Semitendinosus Sacrum and caudal Cranial tibia, crural Extension of hip, Caudal gluteal
vertebrae, fascia, calcaneal tuber stifle and hock and tibial nerve
sacrosciatic (when weight-
ligament, ischial bearing )flexion of
tuber stifle (when limb
off ground)
Semimembranosus Caudal vertebrae, Medial distal femur, Extension of hip Caudal gluteal
sacrosciatic medial proximal tibia and stifle (when and tibial nerve
ligament, ischial weight-bearing);
tuber flexion of stifle
(when limb off
ground)
Iliopsoas Ventral aspects of Lesser trochanter of Flexion of hip Ventral branches
lumbar vertebrae, femur of lumbar spinal
ilium, sacrum nerve
Sartorius Ilium Medial fascia of stifle Flexion of hip, Femoral nerve
extension of stifle
Quadriceps femoris Proximal femur Patella Extension of stifle, Femoral nerve
Rectus femoris (vastus) body of flexion of hip
Vastus lateralis ilium (rectus (rectus only)
Vastus femoris)
intermedius
Vastus medialis
Tensor fascia latae Tuber coxae Fascia lata Flexion of hip, Cranial gluteal
extension of stifle nerve
Gluteus superficialis Gluteal fascia Third trochanter of the Abduction of hip Cranial and
femur caudal gluteal
nerve
Gluteus medius Wing of ilium, Greater trochanter of Extension of hip Cranial gluteal
tuber coxae, femur
sacrum,
sacrosciatic
ligament
4
Gluteus profundus Body of ilium Greater trochanter of Abduction of hip Cranial gluteal
femur
Gracilis Pelvic symphysis Medial aspect tibial Adduction of limb Obturator nerve
crest
Pectineus Pubis Medial aspect Adduction of limb, Obturator nerve
proximal tibia flexion of hip
Adductor Ventral pelvis Medial femur Adduction of limb Obturator nerve
Quadratus femoris Ventral sacrum Caudal proximal femur Outward rotation Sciatic nerve
of hip, hip
extension
External obturator Ventral pelvis, Trochanteric fossa of Outward rotation Obturator nerve
covering obturator proximal femur of hip, limb
foramen adduction
Internal obturator (absent in Trochanteric fossa of Outward rotation Sciatic nerve
ruminant) covering proximal femur of hip, hip
obturator foramen extension
inside pelvic canal
Gemelli Ischium Trochanteric fossa of Outward rotation Sciatic nerve
proximal femur of hip, hip
extension
Popliteus Lateral aspect of Caudoproximal tibia Stifle flexion Tibial nerve
lateral femoral
condyle
Gastrocnemius Caudal aspect of Tuber calcanei Hock extension Tibial nerve
femoral condyle
Superficial digital Caudodistal femur, Tuber calcanei, plantar Hock extension, Tibial nerve
flexor between heads of aspect of middle digital flexion
gastrocnemius phalanx
Tibialis cranialis Craniolateral Medial tarsus and Flexion of hock Peroneal nerve
aspect proximal metatarsus
tibia
Peroneus tertius Extensor fossa of Cranial aspect of distal Flexion of hock Peroneal nerve
distolateral femur tarsus and proximal
metatarsus
Peroneus longus Head of fibula and Plantar aspect of distal Flexion of hock Peroneal nerve
lateral femoral tarsus and metatarsus
condyle
Long digital Extensor fossa of Middle phalanx Flexion of hock, Peroneal nerve
extensor distolateral femur (artiodactyls) tendon extension of digits
of long digital extensor
(equine)
Deep digital flexor Proximocaudal Plantar aspect distal Extension of hock, Tibial nerve
tibia phalanx flexion of digits
5
BRACHIOCEPHALICUS AND STERNOCEPHALICUS MUSCLE
Animal Brachiocephalicus
Dog Cleidobrachialis, cleidocervicalis and cleidomastoideus
Ruminant Cleidobrachialis, cleidooccipitalis and cleidomastoideus
Horse Cleidobrachialis and cleidomastoideus
Pig Cleidobrachialis, cleidooccipitalis and cleidomastoideus
Animal Sternocephalicus
Dog sternooccipitalis and sternomastoideus
Cattle and Goat sternomandibularis and sternomastoideus
Sheep sternomastoideus
Horse sternomandibularis
Pig sternomastoideus
6
PECTORALIS MUSCLE
Animal Pectorals
Dog narrow, band-shaped descending pectoral muscle is hardly discernable from the
thicker transverse pectoral muscle; deep pectoral can be divided into a major deep
portion and a minor superficial portion. subclavius muscle is absent
Ruminant With a narrow and poorly developed subclavius
Horse descending pectoral muscle forms a distinct prominence cranial to the sternum, which
is visible under the skin in the living animal; with well-developed subclavius
Pig With well-developed subclavius
7
DELTOIDEUS MUSCLE
Horse
Cat
Animal Deltoideus
Dog There are acromial and scapular parts
Ruminant There are acromial and scapular parts
Horse Two parts are fused, without a distinct acromion
Pig Two parts are fused, without a distinct acromion
TRICEPS BRACHII
Dog
Horse
Animal Triceps brachii

Dog With lateral, long, medial and accessory heads
Ruminant With lateral, long and medial heads.
Horse With lateral, long and medial heads.
Pig With lateral, long and medial heads.
8
COMMON DIGITAL EXTENSOR
Animal Common Digital Extensor

Dog Has 5 tendon of insertion (inserted at all 5 digits)
Ruminant Has 2 tendon of insertion. (inserted at functional digit which is digit 3 and 4)
Horse Has 1 tendon of insertion (at the cannon bone)
Pig Has 4 tendon of insertion. (inserted at digits 2, 3, 4 and 5)
LATERAL DIGITAL EXTENSOR
Animal Lateral Digital Extensor

Dog Inserts on digits 3, 4 and 5
Ruminant Inserts of digit 4 only
Horse Inserts on the lateral side of cannon bone
9
OTHER MUSCLES
Anconeus – short but strong muscle situated deep to the triceps brachii muscle. It blends with
the lateral head of the triceps brachii in horse and cattle but remains as a separate muscle in
other animals.
Pronator Teres – small muscle in carnivores from medial epicondyle of humerus to the radius.
It pronates the paw. In other animals, the muscle is lost, reduced or became vestigial because
of the fusion of ulna and radius
Supinator – present in carnivores and sometimes in pig. It extends from the lateral epicondyle
of the humerus to the radius. It supinates the paw. Absent in animals with fused radius and ulna.
Brachioradialis – small muscle in the superficial fascia over the extensor carpi radialis in
carnivores. It runs with the cephalic vein and can be mistaken for venipuncture.
INTERNAL OBTURATOR
Dog
Animal Internal Obturator

Dog present
Horse present
Cattle absent, a similar muscle is present called intrapelvic part of external obturator muscle
and Pig
10
BICEPS FEMORIS
Dog
Pig
Cattle
Horse
Animal Biceps femoris

Dog Not fused with superficial gluteal muscle
Ruminant In cattle, fused with superficial gluteal muscle forming gluteobiceps; in sheep and goat, it is
partly fused
Horse Not fused with superficial gluteal muscle
Pig Fused with superficial gluteal muscle forming gluteobiceps.
11
SARTORIUS
Cattle
Dog
Dog
Dog
Animal Sartorius
Dog Has two bellies, a cranial and caudal part
Ruminant Divided cranially
Horse Undivided
Pig Divided cranially
Cat Undivided
Soleus
Dog
SOLEUS
Animal Soleus
Dog Absent
Ruminant Present but narrow
Horse Present but narrow
Horse
Pig Present and well-developed Dog
Cat Present
*two heads of the gastrocnemius and the soleus are

collectively called Triceps surae.
12
BIRD MUSCULATURE
The most obvious variation in the musculature of the bird is the one associated with the
wing. The pectoral muscle produces the downbeat of the wings that is essential to
provide lift during flight. The supracoracoid muscle is for the upbeat of the wings.
Pectoral muscle is more developed than the supracoracoid muscle.
13
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Where is the insertion of supraspinatus d. Medial head

muscle?
6. Aside from the horse, which animal has
a. Supraspinous fossa undivided Sartorius muscle?
b. Greater tubercle a. Dog
c. Lesser tubercle b. Pig
d. Deltoid tuberosity c. Cattle
d. Cat
2. What is the innervation of the gemelli
muscle? 7. Aside from pig, what other animal lacks
the acromial part of the deltoideus?
a. Tibial nerve a. Dog
b. Sciatic nerve b. Cat
c. Obturator nerve c. Horse
d. Peroneal nerve d. Cattle
3. What structure divides the 8. What is the muscle formed by the fused
cleidobrachials from cleidocephalicus? biceps femoris and superficial gluteal
muscle?
a. Scapular spine
b. Clavicular intersection a. Supracoracoid muscle
c. Deltoid tuberosity b. Glueobiceps muscle
d. Olecranon process c. Triceps surae
d. Pectoral muscle
4. Which animal has an undivided
cleiocephalicus? 9. Which animal lacks soleus?
a. Dog
a. Dog b. Pig
b. Pig c. Horse
c. Horse d. Cattle
d. Cattle
10. Which animal lacks subclavius?
5. Which head of the triceps brachii muscle a. Dog
is missing in horse? b. Pig
a. Long head c. Horse
b. Lateral head d. Cattle
c. Accessory head
ANS KEY
14
REFERENCES:

15
3
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
As different animals have different feeding behavior, modification in

their digestive tract is very evident. There is a huge difference
between the morphology of the digestive tract of herbivores and
carnivores. Canine teeth are very prominent in carnivores while it is
missing in some of the herbivores. In exchange, herbivores are
provided with very strong cheek teeth and wide incisors. In the case
of the stomach, animals can be classified either as simple or with
the compound stomach. Most are monogastric like carnivores, pigs,
and horses, while ruminants have their unique stomach with
compartments. Birds, on the other hand, have two sets of stomach,
one for mechanical and one for chemical digestion. Carnivores have
a short and simple intestinal tract while herbivores needed a much
complicated intestinal tract for the fermentation of the ingested feed.
In this module, we will highlight the major differences in the anatomy
of the digestive tract as well as the accessory digestive organs of
OBJECTIVES:
1. Identify the dental formula of different domestic animals.

2. Compare the anatomy of a simple and a compound stomach.
3. Identify the modifications present in the small and large
intestines of different domestic animals.
4. Compare the appearance of the salivary glands and lobation
of the liver and pancreas of different domestic animals.
1
LIPS
Pig Dog
Goat
Cat
Horse Cattle
Cat Cat
Animal Lips
Dog upper lip is pendulous and presses on the lower one. The general looseness of the lips creates a
large vestibule- an advantage in administering liquid medicines. Upper lip has philtrum
Cat lips are less mobile and reduced.

Cattle less mobile; upper lip blends with nose to form nasolabial plate (muzzle) which is moist and
glandular
Sheep soft and ﬂexible and aid in picking up food; upper lip is deeply grooved with a midline philtrum
Horse mobile upper lip, used for collecting food and introducing it to the mouth. The lips are sensitive
Pig less mobile; upper lip blends with the nose to form rostrum (snout),which contains the bone, os
rostrale, lower lip is noticeably smaller than the upper lip
Bird lip is absent. Has beak used for prehension and for aerodynamics. Beak is a modification of the
jaw. Beak also serves as a sense organ (bill tip organ) via sensory corpuscles (touch papillae)
embedded in the keratinised tissue of the beak and associated lamellae. Gallinaceous birds have
pointed beaks Anseriformes have a flattened, spoon-shaped beak that is somewhat more
flexible and is adapted for straining through water for foodstuffs.
2
PALATE
Dog
Cattle
Animal Hard palate

Dog widest at the 4th cheek tooth and median raphé usually replaced by a ridge
Ruminant cranial portion forms the prominent dental pad. The rugae extend only 2/3 of the length
of the palate and all but the last few are serrated on their free borders
Sheep the rugae are not serrated; The openings of the naso-palatine ducts form a prominent V
on either side of the central incisive papilla.
Horse divided into two equal portions by the median raphe and the palatine rugae extend the
whole length of the palate
Pig has long and narrow hard palate with equal width throughout. Both rugae and median
raphé are well marked. Incisive papilla is prominent anteriorly
Chicken Lacks soft palate
3
TONGUE
Cat
Dog
Animal Tongue
Dog Wide, thin and mobile; dorsum marked by median groove; long backward pointing papillae on the
root; inferior part of the tip has cord of fibrous tissue— the lyssa.
Cattle Posterior half of dorsum is prominent bulge, torus linguae, and marked off by transverse depression,
transverse lingual fossa. Paplliae on the torus lingua are distinct and are termed conical papillae
Sheep As in bovine but tip is more blunt and posterior prominence is not so well-marked. No conical
papillae but less keratinized filiform papillae are numerous at the tip.
Horse Shaped like a spatula; 2 distinct vallate papillae on posterior part of the dorsum, flanking the midline
Pig Narrow and pointed with thin apex. Long, backward-pointing papillae on the root
Cat mucous membrane is very thick and highly cornified (conical papillae)
Chicken Lacks musculature and has a entoglossal bone covered with a thick, cornified mucous membrane
4
DENTITION
Dog
Horse
Pig Cattle
Animal Dental Formula (Temporary)

Dog 2 ( I 3/3 C 1/1 P 4/4 M 0/0) = 32
Ruminant 2 (I 0/4 C 0/0 P 3/3 M 0/0) = 20
Horse 2 (I 3/3 C 0/0 P 3/3 M 0/0) = 24
Pig 2 ( I 3/3 C 1/1 P 4/4 M 0/0) = 32
Cat 2 (I 3/3 C 1/1 P 3/2 M 0/0) = 26
Birds No teeth
Carnassial (sectorial) teeth is a large shearing teeth of both dog and cat. These teeth have 3 roots.
They are the upper 4th premolar and lower 1st molar in dogs.
Wolf tooth is the horse’s rudimentary upper 1st premolar. They are
usually absent.
Needle teeth refers to the pig’s deciduous 3rd incisor teeth and
deciduous canine. These are often nipped off in newborn pigs for the sow’s
benefit during suckling. Tusks refer to as the canine teeth of pig. The lower
tusks are larger than the upper, and they are larger in boar than in sow.
Ruminants lack upper incisors. They have dental pad. Cattle dental pad
5
DENTITION
Modified Triadan System - provides a

consistent method of numbering teeth across
different animal species.
This naming is more efficient in identifying

the specific teeth.
6
SALIVARY GLAND
Major salivary glands include the parotid, mandibular and sublingual gland. These are located at
a distance from the oral cavity and drain through ducts. These glands produce a more watery
(serous) fluid, Small or minor salivary glands are present in the mucosa of the lips, cheeks,
tongue, palate and the sublingual oral floor. These glands produce a mucous secretion.
Animal Salivary Gland

Dog has zygomatic gland (large buccal glands medial to the zygomatic arch); sublingual gland has
caudally located monostomatic part and rostrally located polystomatic part; parotid duct
opens at across from the upper carnassial teeth; parotid duct crosses the lateral surface of
the masseter muscle
Ruminant sublingual gland has rostrally located monostomatic part and caudally located polystomatic
part; cattle parotid duct opens at across the last cheek teeth, goat and sheep opens across
the 3rd upper cheek teeth; Cattle can produce 110-180 L of saliva/day
Horse Sublingual gland has only polystomatic part; parotid duct opens across the 3rd upper cheek
teeth; can produce 40 L of saliva/day
Pig Parotid is triangular, drains at the opposite of the upper 3rd or 4th cheek tooth; can produce
15 L of saliva/day
Cat has zygomatic gland; parotid duct opens across the 2nd upper cheek teeth and crosses the
lateral surface of the masseter muscle
Birds salivary glands are conspicuously well developed in birds. Mixing of food with saliva is
particularly important in granivores. Salivary glands are present in the upper and lower jaw,
at the angle of the mouth and in the tongue.
7
PHARYNX
Horse
Common passageway for food and air. Divided into:
1. nasopharynx – dorsal to the soft palate; respiratory channel
2. oropharynx – ventral to the soft palate; digestive channel
3. Laryngopharynx - part where the air from nasopharynx crosses to reach the larynx and
the food and water from the oropharynx crosses into the esophagus thus it is considered
as both respiratory and digestive channel
Pyriform recess - continuation of the floor of oropharynx on either side of the larynx. This is the
site in dogs where the bones may become lodge and close the laryngeal opening of the airway.
Pharyngeal diverticulum - blind pouch in the nasopharynx of pigs. It is above the opening of
esophagus and can be mistaken as esophagus when pilling pigs.
Five openings in the pharynx
1. Pharyngeal opening (isthmus of fauces) - the opening from the oral cavity to the oropharynx
2. Caudal nares (choana) - the osseous opening between the caudal nasal cavity and
nasopharynx
3. Pharyngeal openings of the auditory tubes - the slits in the lateral walls of the nasopharynx
leading to the middle ear.
4. Laryngeal opening (aditus laryngeus) is the opening to the larynx surrounded by rostral
laryngeal cartilage
5. Esophageal opening (aditus esophagi) is the opening at the caudal end of the laryngopharynx
into the esophagus.
8
ESOPHAGUS
Animal Esophagus
Dog Striated throughout. Constricted ventrally at the origin by thick layer of the mucus glands
known as the isthmus esophagi
Ruminant striated throughout; lumen of the esophagus narrows at the thoracic inlet and the esophageal
hiatus of the diaphragm, which predisposes them to choke at those site
Horse only the first 2/3 is striated (as far as the base of the heart); the caudal third is smooth; lumen
of the esophagus narrows at the thoracic inlet and the esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm,
which predisposes them to choke at those site
Pig striated until the last few inches near the cardia; smooth muscle in the most caudal part
Cat only the first 2/3 is striated (as far as the base of the heart); the caudal third is smooth
Birds Features a distensible dilation called crop or ingluvies
9
STOMACH
Classification:
a. Glandular (with glandular only)- dog, cat
b. Composite (with glandular and non-glandular)– horse, pig and ruminants
Animal Stomach
Dog pear shaped and distensible; lined entirely by glandular epithelium; with funnel-shaped and
wide cardia*
Horse small stomach relative to the size of the animal; Non-glandular mucus membrane is
separated form glandular by an irregular ridge called margo plicatus; the fundus is extended
forming the saccus caecus
Pig the left extremity has a blind pouch termed diverticulum ventriculi; a prominence of fat
and fibrous tissue projects into the pylorus from the wall of the lesser curvature, the torus
pyloricus
Bird has the glandular stomach known as proventriculus and non-glandular stomach, the
ventriculus or gizzard. The gizzard is lined by a yellowish keratinized layer called koilin
membrane
Cat Same with dog but with distinct angular notch**
*may be related to the ease of the dog in vomiting

**making some difficulties in gastroscopy in some breeds of cats
10
RUMINANT STOMACH
Omasum Reticulum
Rumen
Reticulum
Omasum
Abomasum
Abomasum Rumen
The ruminant stomach is compound as compared to the simple stomach of the other domestic
animals. It consists of four parts:
1. Rumen (paunch) - largest compartment in adult ruminants (at birth, the abomasum is the
largest); with papillae
2. Reticulum (honeycomb) - the smallest and the most cranial compartment in large
ruminants; however, in small ruminants, the omasum is smaller than the reticulum; with
grooves; Involved in traumatic gastritis (hardware disease)
3. Omasum (manyplies) – sometimes called butcher’s bible or book because of the page
appearance of its muscular laminae
4. Abomasum (true stomach) – same as with the non-ruminant stomach with glandular
mucosa and rugae; has torus pyloricus (same with the pig)
The rumen, reticulum and omasum are in fact dilatations in the wall of the abdominal esophagus.
They are termed proventriculi.
11
Left lateral
Right lateral
Important external and internal features of the rumen
Grooves- external depression in the rumen; left and right longitudinal grooves, cranial groove,
caudal groove, dorsal and ventral coronary grooves, rumenoreticular groove, reticular groove
Pillars - correspond to the externally located grooves; left and right coronary pillars, cranial pillar,
caudal pillar, dorsal and ventral coronary pillars and rumenoreticular pillar
Left and Right longitudinal grooves -divide the rumen into the dorsal and ventral sac; the
cranial end of the dorsal sac is called the cranial sac (Atrium ruminis) while the cranial end of
the ventral sac is called the ruminal recess
Dorsal and ventral coronary grooves -constrict the caudal ends of the dorsal and ventral sacs
forming the caudodorsal and caudoventral sacs
Rumenoreticular groove - separates the cranial sac of the rumen from reticulum
Parts of the ruminant’s gastric groove:
Reticular groove - has a great physiological importance because it serves as a shortcut for liquid
substances from the esophagus to the omasum. Thus suckling animals swallowed milk. This is
being stimulated by the hormone vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
12
SMALL INTESTINE
Small intestine is grossly similar in all domestic species. Here are some of the modification.
Animal Jejunum
Dog Occupies the ventral part of the abdominal cavity between stomach and urinary bladder
and is covered by greater omentum
Ruminants Found on the right half of the abdominal cavity because the rumen occupies the left side;
position of the jejunal coils depends on the fullness of the rumen and the size of the
uterus
Pig Found on the ventral part of the right half of the abdominal cavity
Horse Most of the jejunum is found within the left dorsal part of the abdomen.
Birds The jejunum and ileum (jejunoiliem) are arranged in loops in the right quadrants of the
body cavity. Located at the mid-point of the jejunoileum is Meckel’s diverticulum
(diverticulum vitellinum), a remnant of the embryonic yolk sac. This is often lacking in
chickens and pigeons and is found only infrequently in ducks and geese.
Sigmoid loop – the “s” shaped curve of the cranial part of the duodenum in the horse, ruminant
and pig. It is located against the visceral side of the liver.
Duodenal ampulla – the dilated cranial part of the horse’s duodenum
Flange – present in the small intestine of large ruminant. This is part of the small intestine with
the longest mesentery. The proximal and middle parts of the jejunum have a short mesentery.
The flange is consisting of the distal end of the jejunum and the proximal end of the ileum.
Ileocecal opening – into the cecum of the horse

Ileocolic opening – into the ascending colon of the carnivores and ruminants.
13
Dog
Pig
14
Ruminant
Horse
15
Chicken
Chicken, glandular (proventriculus) and non-glandular (gizzard) stomach
16
CECUM
Dog
Horse
Animal Cecum
Dog Located on the right side; cecum is small and has a spiral twist; does not have a direct
communication with the ileum unlike the rest of the animals.
Cat Located on the right side; shorter than in dog; comma-shaped
Ruminant Located on the right side; oriented caudally and is non-sacculated (no taenia or haustra)
Horse Located on the right side; it is large (has a capacity of 30 L and 1 m long), comma-shaped,
oriented cranially, sacculated because of the presence 4 longitudinal bands (dorsal, ventral,
lateral and medial); both medial and lateral bands contain blood vessels
Pig Located on the left side; oriented caudally and sacculated because of the presence of 3
longitudinal bands; cecum is cylindrical
Birds There are 2 ceca present
Taenia - longitudinal bands

Haustra - sacculation caused by the constriction of the tenia
17
COLON
Divided into ascending, transverse and descending colons. Most of this variation results from
modiﬁcations of the ascending colon. See page 13 and 14 for images of the ascending colon.
The anatomical arrangement which forms the base of this division is only found in dogs and cats.
In these species the short ascending colon passes cranially on the right; the transverse colon
runs from right to left, cranial to the root of the mesentery. The long descending colon passes left
of the mesenteric root caudally, where on reaching the pelvic cavity it continues as the rectum.
In birds, the large intestine is composed only of the cecum and the rectum. The colon is missing.
Animal Ascending Colon

Dog Simple and short, located on the right side of the median plane; non-sacculated
Ruminants Well-developed but are non-sacculated. It is composed of:
a. Proximal loop (ansa proximalis)
b. Spiral colon (ansa spiralis) (centripetal and centrifugal coils, separated by the central
flexure)
c. Distal loop (ansa distalis)
Horse Horse-shoe -shaped; Also known as the large or great colon; well-developed and consists of 4 parts:
a. Right ventral colon
(4 longitudinal bands)
b. Left ventral colon The right dorsal colon is the widest part of
(3 longitudinal bands) the colon and thus referred to as the
c. Left dorsal colon ampulla coli.
d. Right dorsal colon
(3 longitudinal bands)
Pig Made up of the centripetal* and centrifugal** coils; spiral loop is arranged in cone shape
Birds Lacks the entire segment of the colon.
*Centripetal – clockwise, the larger (outer) and sacculated parts (because of 2 bands)
**Centrifugal – counterclockwise, the smaller (inner) and non-sacculated part
In horse:
RV and LV colons
- separated from each other by
sternal flexure
LV and LD colons
- separated from each other by
pelvic flexure
LD and RD colons –
separated from each other by
diaphragmatic flexure
Horse
18
RECTUM and ANAL CANAL
RECTUM - the distal portion of the large intestine, beginning at the pelvic inlet and ending at the
anal canal. It is held close to the body wall by connective tissue and muscles.
ANAL CANAL - terminal part of the alimentary canal, which opens to the outside with the anus ;
the anus is controlled by internal anal sphincter (smooth mm) and external anal sphincter
(striated mm).
In carnivores the mucosa of the anal canal is divided into three consecutive anular zones
1. Columnar zone - the first zone following the rectum, the division of the two marked by the
indistinct anorectal line. I
2. Intermediate zone - has the form of a sharp-edged scalloped fold, which is divided into
four arcs. It ends at the anocutaneous line. The anal glands are tubuloalveolar glands,
which produce a fatty secretion and open to the outside in the columnar and intermediate
zones.
3. Cutaneous zone - surrounds the anus and its extent varies with the size of the underlying
circumanal glands, which grow throughout life. The excretory ducts of anal sacs open on
the surface of the cutaneous zone.
Anal sacs - pea-to-marble-sized sacs located between the inner smooth and the outer striated
sphincter
muscle of the anus. Their walls contain the glands of the anal sac. These glands discharge their
foul-smelling, serous-to-pasty secretion into the anal sacs, which functions in territorial scent
marking
Animal Rectum
Dog Anal glands are found at the
junction of anus and rectum; further
back the skin are the circumanal
glands, Has ampulla recti
Ruminant Has ampulla recti
Horse Extends from the pelvic inlet to the
anus its termination has a flask-
shaped dilation, has ampulla recti*.
Pig Has ampulla recti*
Birds Have cloaca Dog
*dilated (flask-shaped) terminal part of the rectum
19
BIRD CLOACA
Birds
In birds, the cloaca receives the end-products of digestion as well as urine and products of the
reproductive tract. Two mucosal folds divide the cloaca into three segments:
Coprodeum – dilated region that temporarily holds feces
Urodeum - contains the openings of the ureters and, in males, the deferent ducts. In females, the
left side of the urodeum receives the left oviduct.
Proctodeum – last portion; unpaired bursa of Fabricius (important for the bird’s immune system)
opens in this part. In males, the floor of the proctodeum is occupied by the copulatory organ
(phallus).
The anus of the bird is often referred to as the vent. It presents as a horizontally oriented
slit on the exterior of the body.
20
LIVER
Pig
Dog
Cattle
Horse
Chicken
Animal Liver
Dog Right and left lobes are divided into lateral and medial; the caudate lobe is divided into caudate
process and papillary process; left lateral lobe is the largest; parietal surface is extremely convex;
gall bladder is visible on parietal surface
Ruminants like in dog, except that neither right or left lobe is divided; the rumen moved the liver to the right
side; deep umbilical notch on right border; well-marked renal notch; caudate process is visible
from the parietal surface; left lateral ligament is absent
Horse right lobe is the largest because it is not divided; papillary process is missing; no gall bladder
Pig Same as dog, but papillary process is absent, left lateral lobe is the largest; parenchyma has a
morocco leather (cobblestone) appearance; caudal vena cava embedded in parenchyma; no renal
impression; gall bladder is sunk in a fossa; caudate, right and left triangular ligament s are absent
Birds lies over a large portion of the sternum; 2 lobes are present; depending on species, lobes may be
further subdivided to smaller processes; gall bladder absent in most pigeon and parrot species.
21
BILE DUCTS
The bile is produced by the sheets of hepatocytes and discharged into the bile canaliculi, also
termed bile capillaries, that lie between these cells without having a wall of their own. These
capillaries unite to form the interlobular ducts which lie in the interstitial tissue between the
lobules together with the branches of the hepatic artery and the portal vein. The interlobular ducts
unite to form the lobar ducts.
The extrahepatic bile ducts consist of the hepatic ducts (right and left hepatic ducts) from the
liver, the cystic duct to the gallbladder and the common bile duct to the duodenum.
Animal Bile ducts

Dog each hepatic sublobe has its own lobar duct, which drains into the cystic duct. These species do
not have left, right or common hepatic ducts.
Ruminants lobar ducts unite to form a left and a right hepatic duct, which again unite to form the common
hepatic duct
Horse lobar ducts unite to form a left and a right hepatic duct, which again unite to form the common
hepatic duct
Pig lobar ducts of the left hepatic lobes unite to form the left hepatic duct, while the ducts of the right
lobes drain separately into the common hepatic duct.
Birds each liver lobe is drained by a dedicated bile duct (left and right bile duct);
22
PANCREAS
Minor
Major
Duodenal papillae in horse
Pancreas is an irregularly lobulated organ that lies adjacent to the proximal duodenum and
frequently abuts the stomach, the caudal vena cava, and caudal part of the liver as well. It has a
left and right lobe and a body which connects the two lobes.
Pancreatic duct (Ventral duct or Duct of Wirsung) - the more cranial and usually the smaller ducts,
opens onto a small elevation within the duodenum (major duodenal papilla) in common with the bile duct
from the liver.
Accessory Pancreatic Duct (Dorsal duct, Duct of Santorini) - despite the name, it is the main conduit
of the gland, and is constant. This is larger and opens on the minor duodenal papilla.
Animal Pancreas
Dog Both ducts are present; V-shaped; left lobe is smaller, right lobe is longer; has right and left
branches which meet at an acute angle behind pylorus
Cat Pancreatic duct only
Cattle Right lobe is larger; Accessory pancreatic duct only that enters the duodenum one foot after
the bile duct; quadrilateral in shape
Sheep/Goat Pancreatic duct only
Horse Triangular in shape; compact body with short right and long left lobes; Both ducts are
present; pancreatic duct enters duodenum accompanied by bile duct at the diverticulum
duodeni; accessory duct ends on papilla opposite the diverticulum duodeni
Pig Accessory pancreatic duct only; large body and left lobe with small right lobe; tri-radiate in
shape
Birds sandwiched between descending and ascending parts of the duodenum (duodenal loop);
communicates with the lumen of the ascending duodenum through three ducts in
gallinaceous birds and usually via two (sometimes three) in Anseriformes.
23
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Which of the following is the largest 6. What is the blind pouch in the
compartment in the adult ruminant nasopharynx of pigs?
forestomach? a. Torus linguae
a. Reticulum b. Pyriform recess
b. Rumen c. Palatine rugae
c. Omasum d. Pharyngeal diverticulum
d. Abomasum
7. What is the replacement of the missing
2. What is the first segment of the bird’s upper incisors in ruminants?
cloaca after the rectum? a. Palatine rugae
a. Proctodeum b. Incisive papillae
b. Coprodeum c. Dental pad
c. Urodeum d. Torus linguae
d. Anus
8. What is the bulge at the dorsal root of
3. Which of the following is the glandular the large ruminant tongue?
stomach of bird? a. Palatine rugae
a. Gizzard b. Incisive papillae
b. Ventriculus c. Dental pad
c. Proventriculus d. Torus linguae
d. Margo plicatus
9. Which segment of the colon has the
4. Which of the following animals has only most modification among domestic
glandular stomach? animals?
a. Cat a. Ascending colon
b. Horse b. Transverse colon
c. Cattle c. Descending colon
d. Goat d. Cecum
5. What is the structure that separates the 10. In cats, which duct is present connecting
glandular from the non-glandular the pancreas and the duodenum?
stomach of horse? a. Both accessory and pancreatic
a. Torus pyloricus duct
b. Margo plicatus b. Pancreatic duct only
c. Torus linguae c. Accessory pancreatic duct only
d. Angular notch d. Neither of the two ducts are
present
ANS KEY
24
REFERENCES:

25
4
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
The respiratory organs located within the head (nose, paranasal

sinuses, nasopharynx) are termed the “upper respiratory tract”,
while the “lower respiratory tract” consists of the larynx, the trachea,
and the lungs. The cranial end of the larynx serves as the boundary
between the upper and lower respiratory tract. With few
comparative notes on the nasal plane, arrangement of the
trachealis muscle, and lobation of the lungs, the structures of the
respiratory system are almost the same among domestic mammals.
However, there is one big modification in the birds which is the
addition of air sacs. In this module, we will compare and describe
the organs of the respiratory system with emphasis on their major
morphological feature.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Compare the morphology of nose of different domestic animals.

2. Compare the number and arrangement of the tracheal rings.
3. Compare the lobation of the lungs.
4. Identify the different air sacs of birds.
1
NOSE
Dog Cat Pig
Cattle Goat Horse

The apex of the nose and the rostral portion of the mandible and maxilla forms the muzzle. The
form and size of the muzzle and the nature of the integument show considerable species
differences. The integument around the nostrils is hairless and sharply demarcated from the
unmodified skin in all domestic mammals other than the horse, where unmodified skin with some
tactile hairs surrounds the nostrils.
Animal Nose
Dog Planum nasale; divided by the philtrum, which continues ventrally to divide the upper lip;
surface is moistened by secretion of the lateral nasal gland
Cat Planum nasale; philtrum is present but not as distinct as in the dog; surface is moistened by
secretion of the lateral nasal gland,
Cattle Planum nasolabiale; lacks philtrum; integument of the rostral region is modified to form the
smooth hairless nasolabial plate; oval-shaped nostrils
Sheep/Goat Planum nasale; nostril is shaped like a narrow slit; deep and extended philtrum
Horse Lacks planum; consists of normal skin covered with a coat of short hair interspersed with
tactile hair; semi-lunar shaped nostrils; has a nasal diverticulum (false nostrils); lacks
philtrum
Pig Planum rostrale; oval-shaped nostrils; lacks philtrum
Bird nares at the base of the beak are overhung by a horny flap (operculum) or surrounded by a
thick cere as in psittacines.
2
Horse
Cross section of nasal cavity
Operculum
3
LARYNX
Dog Horse
Chicken
Horse
Animal Larynx
Dog Epiglottis has free apex points rostrally and is sharp-pointed

Ruminants Epiglottis has free apex points rostrally and is more rounded
Horse Epiglottis has free apex points rostrally and is sharp-pointed
Pig Epiglottis has free apex points rostrally and is more rounded
Birds Composed of arytenoid, cricoid and procricoid. Unlike in mammals, larynx does not
contribute to phonation.
4
TRACHEA
Animal Trachea
Dog Tracheal rings (42-46) are slender; the ends of the rings do not meet dorsally so that the
trachea has a membranous dorsal wall; trachealis muscle is located outside the ring.
Ruminants The ends of the tracheal rings (48-60) are in apposition, forming a dorsal ridge in thoracic
region. In cervical region, they are incomplete dorsally; there is a trachea or epibronchus
given off to the cranial lobe of the right lung; trachealis muscle is located inside the ring.
Horse Tracheal rings (48-60) incomplete dorsally in thoracic region. In cervical region, they overlap
dorsally from right to left; trachealis muscle is located inside the ring.
Pig Tracheal rings (29-36) overlap dorsally both in thorax and neck; there is a trachea or
epibronchus given off to the cranial lobe of the right lung; trachealis muscle is located inside
the ring.
Birds Tracheal rings (120) are complete cartilaginous circles joined by annular ligament; it can be
palpated on the right side; the syrinx is formed by the terminal part of the trachea and first
parts of the primary bronchi
Syrinx - situated at the level of the

bifurcation of the trachea into the
primary bronchi. In the chicken, the last
four tracheal rings are considered to be
part of the syrinx. The subsequent rings
are incomplete and are joined at one or
both ends to the pessulus, located in
the midline.
5
LUNG Dog
Pig
Cattle
Animal Left Lung Right Lung

Dog 1. Divided cranial 1. Cranial lobe
lobe 2. Cardiac lobe
2. Caudal lobe 3. Accessory lobe
4. Caudal lobe
Ruminant 1. Divided cranial 1. Divided Cranial
lobe lobe Horse
2. Caudal lobe 2. Cardiac lobe
3. Accessory lobe
4. Caudal lobe
Pig 1. Divided cranial 1. Cranial lobe
lobe 2. Cardiac lobe
4. Caudal lobe
Horse 1. Cranial lobe 1. Cranial lobe
3. Caudal lobe
Birds Not lobed Not lobed
Cranial lobe = Apical lobe; Caudal lobe = Diaphragmatic lobe;

Middle lobe = cardiac lobe; Accessory Lobe = Intermediate lobe
6
Pig
Pig
In ruminants and pigs the right cranial lobe is ventilated by the tracheal bronchus or
epibronchus which arises independently from the trachea cranial to its bifurcation.
In the lungs of birds, deep impressions (sulci costales) in the dorsomedial portion of the lung give
rise to distinct transverse segments (tori intercostales) between the ribs. The ventral surface of
the lung is fused with the septum horizontale and contains openings that communicate with the
air sacs. In chickens, the lung is approximately rectangular.
7
AIR SACS
Air sacs are deformable, plastic like, thin-walled cavities attached to the lungs. They provide
mechanical ventilation of the lungs by acting as a bellows. The air sacs are fused by connective
tissue to adjacent organs or muscles. In some sections, they may be covered by a serosa. By
penetrating the bones, the air sacs also act to pneumatize the skeleton. Normally, there are 8 air
sacs in domestic chicken as follows:
an unpaired cervical air sac
an unpaired clavicular air sac
paired cranial thoracic air sacs
paired caudal thoracic air sacs
paired abdominal air sacs
8
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Philtrum is present in the following a. Horse

animals, EXCEPT: b. Pig
a. Dog c. Cattle
b. Sheep d. Dog
c. Pig
d. Goat 7. In general, which structure dictates the
shape of the nostrils?
2. Which of the following lung lobes is a. Nasal alae
missing in horses? b. Nasal cartilage
a. Right cranial lobe c. Choanae
b. Right cardiac lobe d. Philtrum
c. Right accessory lobe
d. Right caudal lobe 8. How many air sacs are present in
chicken?
3. Which of the following animals have a. 6
tracheal bronchus? b. 7
a. Dog and horse c. 8
b. Cattle and pig d. 9
c. Dog and cat
d. Pig and horse 9. Which of the following statements about
the bird respiratory system is not
4. When present, which lung lobe is being correct?
ventilated by the tracheal bronchus? a. Birds have larynx
a. Right cranial lobe b. Birds have air sacs but lack
b. Right medial lobe lungs
c. Right accessory lobe c. Unlike mammals, birds have
d. Right caudal lobe complete tracheal rings
d. Birds have paired abdominal air
5. Which animal has a nasal diverticulum? sacs
a. Horse
b. Pig 10. Which of the following air sacs of
c. Cat chicken is unpaired?
d. Sheep a. Cervical
b. Cranial Thoracic
6. Which animal has a trachealis muscle c. Abdominal
located external to the tracheal ring? d. Caudal Thoracic
ANS KEY
9
REFERENCES:

10
5
URINARY SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
The urinary system is composed of the kidneys, ureters, urinary

bladder, and urethra. Among the organs, the kidneys show variation
among species. Kidneys can be classified as unilobar, multilobar
with smooth surface, and multilobar with the lobated surface.
Unilobar kidneys are described to have a smooth surface and a
single renal papilla as found in cats, dogs, horses, and small
ruminants. Multilobar kidneys with smooth surface and multiple
papillae are present in pigs while multilobar kidneys with a lobated
surface and multiple papillae are present in large ruminants. Birds,
on the other hand, have kidneys divided into cranial, middle, and
caudal lobes. Mammals have a urinary bladder where the formed
urine can be stored. However, this is absent in birds. As variation is
present only in the kidneys, this module will focus only on the gross
comparative notes of the kidneys, the renal portal system, and a
comparison of the mammalian and reptilian-type nephron.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Compare the morphology of the kidneys of different domestic

animals.
2. Discuss the renal portal system of birds.
3. Identify and compare mammalian-type and reptilian-type of
nephrons.
1
KIDNEYS
Animal Kidney
Dog Bean shaped; renal pyramids fused into renal crest and projects into distinct renal pelvis; right
is higher than the left
Cattle Lobated and no renal pelvis; Minor calyces embrace the renal papillae; lead into major
calyces and so into ureter
Sheep Bean shaped; renal papillae fused to form renal crest; renal crest has 2 projections, dorsal and
ventral buttresses
Horse Right is heart shaped, has terminal recess*; left is bean shaped; renal papillae fused to form
renal crest; the wall of renal pelvis has glands**
Pig Bean shaped; same with others having smooth kidney due to fused cortex, but the medulla
is unfused; minor calyxes embrace papillae, lead into major calyxes and then to ureters
Bird lie on the ventral surface of the synsacrum. divided into cranial, middle, and caudal lobes;
there is neither renal pelvis nor renal calyces
Cat Has a subscapular renal vessel called capsular veins
*Terminal recess- long tube-like extensions that collect and carry urine from the kidney poles to the small
renal pelvis.
**secrete mucous which gives the horse’ s urine a turbid appearane.
2
Dog
Cat kidney, with capsular veins
Dog
The following is the summuarized present/absent structure per species of domestic animals:
Animal Papillae Renal Calyces Pelvis
Crest
Dog + +
Horse + +
Sheep + +
Cattle + +
Pig + + +
3
Cattle
4
Horse
Right Left
Right
5
Pig
6
RENAL PORTAL SYSTEM
The separation of the kidneys of birds into divisions results from the formation of impressions in
the parenchyma by the passage of vessels and nerves. Renal lobules may be visible on the
surface of the kidney. These appear macroscopically as small, dome-shaped bulges. Collecting
ducts empty directly into the ureter adjacent to the cranial lobe of the kidney; there is neither renal
pelvis nor renal calyces as in other domestic species. Right and left ureters terminate in the dorsal
part of the urodeum.
Uniquely, birds possess a renal portal system in addition to the expected renal arterial blood
supply (one renal artery per lobe) and renal venous return. This system, consisting of cranial and
caudal renal portal veins, receives venous blood from the caudal body and distributes it into a
second capillary system in the interlobular spaces.
The system has been used as a justification for avoiding the caudal body as a site for injection of
medications in birds. One reason for this avoidance is that the drugs may be more rapidly excreted
when injected here than is desirable due to their being immediately transported to and removed
by the kidney. Another concern is that drugs that are potentially nephrotoxic (damaging to the
kidneys) may be more so when they are first distributed undiluted to the kidneys via the portal
system.
7
NEPHRON
The functional units of the kidney are the nephrons or renal tubules. The nephrons are responsible
for urine production, while the subsequent collecting tubules convey the urine to the renal pelvis.
Each nephron is composed of several segments:
● glomerular capsule
● proximal convoluted tubule
● loop of Henle
○ descending limb
○ ascending limb
● distal convoluted tubule
● collecting duct
Birds nephron contain two different

types of nephrons, mammalian-type
and reptilian-type nephron. The
reptilian – type lacks Loop of Henle.
8
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is the shape of the right kidney of 7. The following statements are correct
horse? about the urinary system of chicken,
a. Bean EXCEPT:
b. Heart
c. Round a. The kidneys are attached to the
d. Ellipsoidal synsacrum
b. Urinary bladder is missing
2. Which kidney structure is missing in c. Their nephron lacks collecting
large ruminants? duct
a. Renal cortex d. None of the above
b. Renal pelvis
c. Renal medulla 8. Renal crest is present in all animals,
d. Renal papilla EXCEPT in:
a. Horse and dog
3. In general, the kidneys of birds are b. Cattle and pig
divided into how many lobes? c. Cattle and goat
a. 2 d. Dog and cat
b. 3
c. 4 9. Among the choices, which pair has
d. 5 almost the same kidney feature?
a. Dog and goat
4. Among the domestic animals being b. Cattle and goat
studied, which animal has a renal portal c. Horse and cattle
system? d. Dog and cattle
a. Dog
b. Cattle 10. Which of the following animals lack renal
c. Chicken papillae but with renal crest?
d. Pig a. Dog, horse, cattle
b. Dog and cattle
5. The right kidney is always higher than c. Dog, horse and sheep
the left kidney in the following animals, d. Dog, pig, cattle and sheep
EXCEPT:
a. Pig
b. Dog
c. Horse
d. Cat
6. Which animal has a distinct capsular

vein in the kidney?
a. Pig
b. Dog
c. Horse
d. Cat ANS KEY
9
REFERENCES:

10
6
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
The cardiovascular system is composed of the heart and all the

vessels that serve as a highway for the transport of blood (arteries,
veins, capillaries, arterioles, and venules) and lymph (lymphatic
vessels). The heart served as the pump contracting rhythmically to
bring appropriate pressure and maintain the flow of blood. In
general, the morphology of the heart among domestic animals is the
same. Both mammals and birds have a heart with four chambers
and perform the same function. The heart is located within the
mediastinum with around 60% lying to the left of the median plane.
Variation is obvious in the size as larger animals need a larger heart
to compensate for the demand for higher pumping pressure. Most
of the gross modifications are seen at the branching of the arterial
system, especially the larger vessels close to the heart. In this
module, we will identify the distinguishing characteristics of the
heart of a particular animal and will compare the branching of the
major blood vessels.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Compare the morphology of the heart of different domestic

animals.
2. Identify the variation in the branching of major arteries.
3. Review the major arterial and venous system.
1
HEART
Dog Pig
Sheep
Horse
RA
LA
RV
LV
Chicken
2
HEART
Carabao heart, longitudinal section
Carabao heart
Goat heart Goat heart, longitudinal section
To identify the orientation of the heart, note that the apex is directed downward (caudoventral) in
a living animal. The cranial and caudal sides can be oriented by looking for the aorta which is
arching caudally. The auricles together with the pulmonary trunk are pointing to the left.
3
Animal Heart
Dog heart is ovoid in shape; Apex blunt and rounded; contributes about 0.7% of the body
weight; located between the 3rd and 7th rib**
Cat Located between the 3rd or 4th and 6th or 7th ribs
Cattle very fatty; pointed apex; extends from the 2nd intercostal space (or following rib) to
the 5th space; with os cordis*
Sheep Pointed apex; located between the 3rd and 6th rib
Horse Heart is like a laterally compressed cone; lies in the ventral part of the middle
mediastinum, directly cranial to the diaphragm and largely covered by the forelimbs;
most commonly the heart extends between the planes of the 2nd to 6th intercostal
spaces, which places the apex directly caudal to the level of the point of the elbow.
Pig heart is small, providing as little as 0.3% of body weight; it occupies the ventral half of
the thoracic cavity, extending between the 2nd and 5th ribs; Apex is double***
Chicken Four-chambered like mammals; In shape it is conical, with the apex formed solely by
the left ventricle; dorsal and lateral aspects of the heart lie in contact with the liver;
other surfaces are surrounded by respiratory elements and air sacs. The right atrium
receives the caudal vena cava and a pair of cranial venae cavae. The left atrium
receives oxygenated blood via a single common pulmonary vein. The ventricles are
similar to those of mammalian hearts.
*The coronary groove also marks the separation

of the thinner muscle of the atria from the much
thicker muscle of the ventricle by a fibrous (or
cardiac) skeleton. The cardiac skeleton is formed
by the rings that encircle the four heart orifices
(right and left AV orifice, aortic orifice and
pulmonary orifice). Although these bones occur
most commonly in cattle, they are not confined to
this species and may be found in other domestic
mammals (old horse)
**variation on the location of the heart depends on the reference used but basically within the
same range.
***based on the description provided by Stockoe
4
CORONARY ARTERIES
Horse and Pig

Dog and Ruminants
Animal Coronary Arteries

Dog left coronary artery gives rise to both paraconal and subsinousal interventricular
branches
Cat subsinousal interventricular branch can arise from either coronary artery, but
usually from the circumflex branch of the left coronary artery as in the dogs and
ruminants
Ruminants left coronary artery gives rise to both paraconal and subsinousal interventricular
branches
Horse right coronary artery gives rise to the subsinousal interventricular branch
Pig right coronary artery gives rise to the subsinousal interventricular branch
5
AORTIC ARCH
Animal Branches of Aortic Arch

Dog Brachiocephalic and left subclavian arteries arise separately from the aortic arch
Ruminant Only brachiocephalic artery arises from the aortic arch. Both subclavian arteries arise
from the brachiocephalic trunk
Horse Only brachiocephalic artery arises from the aortic arch. Both subclavian arteries arise
from the brachiocephalic trunk
Pig Brachiocephalic and left subclavian arteries arise separately from the aortic arch
The common carotid arteries can arise separately or via bicarotid trunk. They arise separately
in dogs and cats. The rest (hooved animals) arise from a short common bicarotid trunk
6
SUBCLAVIAN ARTERIES
Branches (vertebral, costocervical, deep cervical, superficial cervical and internal thoracic) vary
in their origin between species.
Dog Pig
Ruminant
Horse
Animal Subclavian Arteries

Dog Vertebral and costocervical arteries arise separately thus they have four branches
Ruminant Vertebral artery arises from the costocervical trunk thus they have only three branches
Horse Same as dog on the right subclavian artery (four branches). On the left, the deep cervical
artery arises from the subclavian artery and not from costocervical trunk thus the left
subclavian has five branches
Pig Vertebral artery arises from the costocervical trunk thus they have only three branches
7
ARTERIAL SYSTEM
VENOUS SYSTEM
8
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Which among the choices has an os d. Cattle

cordis?
a. Cattle 7. Among the following statements, which
b. Pig is anatomically incorrect?
c. Horse a. Ruminants and pigs have the
d. Chicken same branching of the left
subclavian artery
2. In dogs, the left subclavian artery b. In pigs, the right coronary artery
directly arises from which major artery? gives rise to the subsinousal
a. Aortic arch interventricular branch
b. Brachiocephalic trunk c. The branches of the right
c. Right subclavian artery subclavian artery in horse are
d. Ascending aorta the same in the dog
d. None of the above
3. In horse, the left subclavian artery
directly arises from which major artery? 8. How many pulmonary veins are present
a. Aortic arch in chicken?
b. Brachiocephalic trunk a. 1
c. Right subclavian artery b. 2
d. Ascending aorta c. 3
d. 4
4. How many chambers are present in the
heart of a chicken? 9. In horse, what is the branch of right
a. 2 coronary groove?
b. 3 a. subsinousal interventricular
c. 4 branch only
d. 5
b. both subsinousal and paraconal
5. Which of the following best describe the
interventricular branches
apex of the heart of a dog? c. paraconal interventricular
a. Pointed branch only
b. Blunt d. None of the above
c. Double in appearance
d. Irregularly-shaped 10. The heart of a dog is normally located
between which rib?
6. The coronary arteries of the following a. Between 3rd and 4th ribs
animals arise from the bicarotid trunk, b. Between 4th and 7th ribs
EXCEPT: c. Between 3rd and 7th ribs
a. Dog d. Between 1st and 3rd ribs
b. Pig
c. Horse
ANS KEY 9
REFERENCES:
• Dyce, K. M., and C. J. G. Wensing. 2010. Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy. 4th Ed.
• Maguigad, M and E. Y. Balagan. 2021. Gross Anatomy of the Heart of Philippine
Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis L.). CLSU International Journal of Science &
Technology. Vol. 5 No. 1. p. 11-26
• Miranda, J and E. Y. Balagan. 2015. Gross Anatomy of the Heart of Philippine
Raised Goat. Undergraduate Thesis. Central Luzon State University
10
7
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
The male reproductive system is generally composed of the testis

and its gonadal duct system, the male accessory sex glands, and
the penis. The function of the system is the same among animals,
and that is to produce viable spermatozoa that can fertilize an ovum
from the female counterpart for the perpetuation of life. The general
feature is the same but modification can be observed especially in
the gross appearance of the organs. Domestic animals have testes
located outside the main body as part of the thermoregulation
requirement of the male gametes. However, this is in contrast with
the bird as their testes are located within the coelomic cavity inside
their body. This is interesting as birds have higher temperatures
compared to domestic mammals. The size also varies as larger
animals have a lengthier gonadal duct system where the developed
gametes pass through. Differences are also observed in the
accessory sex glands as some are lacking in the picture. Variation
in the general morphology of the penis is also evident as reflected
in the differences in the mating behavior of different male animals.
In this module, we will identify these differences among species.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Compare the morphology of the testes of different domestic

animals.
2. Review the gonadal duct system.
3. Identify the present male sex organs per animal.
4. Identify the type of penis present per animal.
1
MALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT

Male dog
Tomcat
Boar
Bull
Stallion
2
SCROTUM AND TESTES
Stallion
Male Dog
Tomcat
Bull
Buck
Boar
Animal Scrotum and Testes

Male Dog usually pigmented and covered with few hairs; testes are located at the Inguinal region
and are oriented with their long axis horizontally
Bull/Buck/Ram located below inguinal region; testes are oriented with their long axis vertically; Scrotum
is long and pendulous; Divided into left and right halves by a septum; With sparse hair in
large ruminant (densely covered with hair in small ruminants); With a distinct neck above
the testis
Tomcat located subanal angled toward anus; scrotum is covered with hairs
Stallion located at the inguinal region; testes are oriented with their long axis horizontally; the skin
of the scrotum is thin, mostly pigmented, shiny and oily because of the secretions of the
sebaceous and sweat glands; With few fine hairs
Boar located perianal angled toward anus; scrotum is wrinkled in adult boars, with few hairs;
divided by a deep groove into left and right halves
Testes are originally located intraabdominally. In the later stage of embryonic development, the testes
migrate into the vaginal process covered by the scrotum to assume its adult position. This descent of the
testes is guided by a structure called gubernaculum. The descent varies per animal:
Before birth – ruminant and pig

Shortly after birth – carnivores
10 -14 days after birth – horse
3
TESTES
The paired testes of birds are located within the coelomic cavity. They are situated on the left and
right sides of the body, occupying a dorsal position near the cranial renal division and the
abdominal air sac. Adjacent structures include the adrenal glands, aorta and caudal vena cava.
Testicular descent does not occur in birds. The size and development of the testes vary
considerably with season, climatic factors, age and breed. During the breeding season, the
volume of the testes increases substantially.
4
GONADAL DUCT SYSTEM
Bull
*In mammals, the deferent duct enters the urethra. The deferent duct of male birds enters the
urodeum of the cloaca.
Animal Epididymis (length)

Male Dog 5–8m
Bull 40 – 50 m Testis
Stallion 72 – 81 m
Ram 47 – 52 m
Boar 17-18 m
Kidney
Tomcat 4-6 m
Rooster 3-4 mm Kidney
Deferent
duct
Cloaca
Rooster
5
MALE ACCESSORY SEX GLANDS
Tomcat
Male dog
Boar Stallion
Animal Ampullary Vesicular Prostate Bulbourethral
Dog + - + -
Tom - - + +
Boar - + + +
Bull
Stallion + + + +
Bull + + + +
Ram + + + +
Buck + + + +
6
Accessory Sex Gland Comparative Notes
Ampullary Gland Thickened terminal part of the deferent duct
Boar – no distinct ampulla but there is a glandular part at the end of the
deferent duct
Stallion and Bull - deferent duct is joined by the excretory duct of the vesicular
gland near to its termination. The shared passage of these two ducts is
known as the ejaculatory duct
Vesicular Gland In ruminants and the horse, its excretory duct joins the deferent duct shortly
before its termination, and this short, common passage is referred to as the
ejaculatory duct. In the boar, the vesicular glands open separately into the
urethra next to the seminal colliculus.
Stallion - relatively large, hollow organ with a thick muscular wall and a smooth
surface (also known as seminal vesicle because of it has a lumen)
Boar – well developed with pyramidal shape
Bull - can be palpated transrectally.
Prostate Gland Consists of two parts, one diffusely spread within the wall of the pelvic urethra
(disseminated part), the other a compact body (compart part) located external
to the urethra.
Stallion – only compact part; consists of two lateral lobes

Small ruminants – only disseminated part
Bull – both parts present but the compact part is rather small and flat
Dog and cat – disseminated part is vestigial, but the compact part is large and
globular. It is so extensive in these species that it entirely surrounds the urethra
in the dog and almost so in the cat.
The prostate produces an alkaline secretion that gives semen its characteristic
odor.
Bulbourethral Gland lies on the dorsal aspect of the pelvic urethra close to its pelvic exit.
Stallion – the size is like the of a walnut

Bull – like a cherry
Cat - very small and spherical
Boar - very substantial where it is cylindrical and extends along the whole of
the pelvic portion of the urethra. In castrated boars it is considerably smaller,
so that its size can be used an indicator of recent castration.
Male birds do not possess accessory sex glands; the ejaculate is composed of sperm and
scant additional secretions produced by the testes and the walls of the ducts.
7
PENIS
before intromission
after intromission
Post- scrotal
Sigmoid flexure
Pre- scrotal Spines in glans penis of tomcat

Sigmoid flexure
Species Penis Stallion
Dog Vascular with os penis

Tomcat Vascular with os penis* and spines
Bull Fibroelastic with post-scrotal sigmoid flexure
Ram Fibroelastic with post-scrotal sigmoid flexure; has long
urethral process
Stallion Vascular, no sigmoid flexure; mushroom shaped urethral
process
Boar Fibroelastic with cork-screw end glans penis; with pre-scrotal
sigmoid flexure
Avian Phallus is the copulatory organ which is non-protrusible
(except in drakes and ganders)
Duck phallus
(protrusible)
8
PENIS
Dog
Boar
Stallion
Bull
TYPES OF PENIS
VASCULAR FIBROELASTIC
Ram
Stallion Bull
9
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Which of the following animals has a 6. Which of the following best describes
fibroelastic-type of penis? the bulbourethral gland of a bull?
a. Dog a. Like a cherry
b. Stallion b. Pyramidal in shape
c. Tomcat c. Elongated
d. Bull d. Bull lacks bulbourethral gland
2. The following statements about the male 7. Which accessory sex gland is present at
reproductive system of cat is true, the distal end of the deferent duct?
EXCEPT: a. Vesicular gland
a. The glans penis has spines b. Ampullary gland
b. Prostate gland is missing c. Prostate gland
c. The penis is classified as d. Bulbourethral gland
vascular-type
d. Testes are located outside the 8. Among domestic animals, which has the
abdominal cavity least number of male accessory sex
gland?
3. Which of the following animals has a a. Chicken
vascular-type of penis? b. Dog
a. Dog c. Bull
b. Boar d. Boar
c. Bull
d. Buck 9. Which of the following is not correct
about the male reproductive system of
4. Which of the following is the correct term horse?
for the copulatory organ of birds? a. It has a vascular-type of penis
a. Dick b. It has no sigmoid flexure
b. Cock c. It has mushroom shaped
c. Phallus urethral process
d. Cockerel d. It lacks bulbourethral gland
5. Which accessory sex gland is present in 10. Which of the following lacks
dog surrounding its pelvic urethra? bulbourethral gland?
a. Prostate gland a. Stallion
b. Bulbourethral gland b. Dog
c. Vesicular gland c. Boar
d. Cowper’s gland d. Buck
ANS KEY
10
REFERENCES:

11
8
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
The female reproductive system is the part of the female animal

responsible for the production of oocytes. It is generally composed
of the paired ovaries and oviduct, the uterus, and the vagina. As
different animals bear a different number of young, the gross
morphology of the system varies greatly. For instance, large
animals like mares and cows normally bear only one young per
gestation and are classified as monotocous. On the other hand,
other animals like bitch, queen, and sow are birthing multiple
offspring simultaneously and are classified as polytocous. This
makes the ovaries and the uterus of these animals vary in
appearance. In addition, the reproductive tract of a bird differs
greatly as it is designed to produce the egg. Each segment is
specialized to participate in the addition of egg structures like
albumen and eggshell for example.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Compare the morphology of the female reproductive tract of

2. Study the reproductive tract of female birds.
1
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT
Queen
Bitch
Sow
2
Cow
Mare
Chicken
3
OVARY
Bitch
Ovulation
fossa
Bitch
Animal Ovaries
Bitch 1 -1.5 cm; Oval and surface is rough and nodular; lie
caudal to the kidneys in the sublumbar region
Queen 0.8-1 cm; lie caudal to the kidneys in the sublumbar
region
Cow 4-6 cm; Relatively small; lie at the pelvic inlet close to
ventral abdominal wall
Ewe 1.5-2 cm; Spherical but slightly flattened; found in the
pelvic region
Mare 8-12 cm; Largest ovaries; bean-shaped because of
the ovulation fossa (the location of cortex and
medulla is reverse); found in the sublumbar region
Sow Tuberculate surface but more cylindrical; found in
the pelvic region at the middle of the abdomen
Avian Only left ovary is left (except in ducks); located
cranioventral to the corresponding kidney; size varies
with the reproductive status of the bird.
4
Errol Jay Y. Balagan, DVM, MSc Cow
OVIDUCT or UTERINE TUBE
Parts of a Uterine Tube
Infundibulum – funnel-shaped portion

of the uterine tube adjacent to the ovary
that appears to catch the egg during
ovulation.
Fimbria – irregular, finger-like projection

Mare
on the free edge of the infundibulum.
Abdominal ostium of the uterine tube –

opening at the center of the
infundibulum; only opening at the
peritoneal cavity to the outside in the
female genitalia. The distal opening is
called uterine ostium.
Ampulla – actual fertilization takes

place.
Bitch
Isthmus – more convoluted distal part of
the tube.
cm cm cm cm
The uterine ostium marks the site of the uterotubal junction. The junction is gradual in ruminants
and pigs but shows an abrupt junction in the horse and in carnivores, in which the uterine ostium
is located on top of a papilla.
5
UTERUS
Bitch Sow
Caruncle – circular to ovoid

internal specialized
thickening of ruminant’s
endometrium
Cotyledon – fetal
component
Placentome – caruncle +
cotyledon
Sow Mare
Animal Uterus
Bitch Has relatively straight and long horns (Y-shaped); short body and short cervix (internal and
external orifices lie close together)
Cow short body and long uterine horns that is coiled ventrally on itself; the cervix has longitudinal
and transverse folds internally; endometrium presents 70—120 caruncles; cotelydons are
convex; has intercornual ligament*
Ewe body and long uterine horns that form two tightly wound spirals; the cervix has longitudinal
and transverse folds internally; endometrium presents 88–96 caruncles; cotelydons are
umbilicate; has intercornual ligament*
Mare has a wide lumen; body of uterus is relatively large about the length of the horn (T-shaped);
Sow body is short but uterine horns are extremely long and flexuous; in live animals, uterus
resembles coils of intestine; cervix is also long; cervix has pulvini cervicales**
Avian Shell gland in egg formation
*intercornual ligament – can be used to fix the uterus during rectal palpation
**pulvini cervicales – rows of prominences which interdigitate into the lumen of the cervix
resulting to inclusion
6
CERVIX
Mare Cow Sow Bitch Queen
Animal Cervix
Bitch Mucosal folds arranged longitudinally
Queen Mucosal folds arranged longitudinally
Cow lumen is obstructed by circular folds (plicae
circulares
Mare Mucosal folds arranged longitudinally
Sow Circular folds form rows of prominences (pulvini
cervicales) Cow
The most caudal part of the cervix (portio vaginalis) usually projects into the vaginal lumen in the
cow and mare, where it is surrounded by an annular space (vaginal fornix). In the sow and bitch,
the cervical canal simply widens to continue into the vagina. In the queen, the external ostium of
the uterus opens on a small hillock projecting into the vagina.
7
VAGINA and VESTIBULE
Sow
Vagina- extends from the external ostium of the uterus to the entrance of the urethra
Transverse fold cranial to the opening of the urethra represents the remains of the hymen
present in human beings. This is prominent in the mare and sow than in the other domestic
species
Vestibule - extends from the external urethral opening to the external vulva
In the cow and sow, the urethra forms a ventral evagination, the suburethral
diverticulum, which opens together with the urethra into the vagina. This arrangement
can complicate catheterization of the urinary bladder. In the dog, the urethra opens on a
small elevation flanked by two grooves, which should not be mistaken for the fossa of the
clitoris during catheterization.
Vestibular glands - its secretion keeps the mucosa of the vestibule moist and facilitates
coitus and parturition.
Major vestibular glands (Glands of Bartholin) – cow, queen and sometimes ewe
Minor vestibular glands – bitch, ewe, sow and mare
Vestibular bulbs - a concentration of veins forming erectile tissue, regarded as the

homologue of the bulb of the penis
8
VULVA
Bitch
Queen Sow
Cow Mare
Mare
Animal Vulva
Bitch Labia are rounded, often pigmented, covered more or less densely with hair; dorsal commissure
is rounded and the ventral one pointed
Cow Labia are rounded and slightly wrinkled; labia are covered with fine hair but have a tuft of longer
hairs ventrally; there is no fossa clitoridis; dorsal commissure is rounded and the ventral one
pointed
Mare Labia and ventral commissure are rounded; skin is usually pigmented, covered with soft hairs
and contains numerous sweat and sebaceous glands; clitoris is well-developed
Sow The labia are rounded and wrinkled and bear only a few hairs; dorsal commissure is rounded and
the ventral one pointed
9
BIRD FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

During development, birds have paired (left and right) structures. But in
most species, only the left side reaches functional maturity and the
right-sided structures rapidly regress after hatching.
Ovary - the left ovary occupies a craniodorsal position within the
intestinal peritoneal cavity. In the non-laying bird, the ovary is a
relatively small, compact triangular structure. The mature ovary
resembles a bunch of grapes, of various sizes, that is broadly attached
to the cranial division of the left kidney. The mature oocyte of birds is
the largest female gamete in the animal kingdom.
Oviduct – composed of infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, uterus and
vagina
Infundibulum – cranial end; 7-cm-long consisting of fluted and tubular
parts. The oocyte passes through the infundibulum in about 15 minutes.
Fertilization, if it is going to occur, takes place in the infundibulum.
Magnum – measures about 30 cm and is the longest segment of the
duct. Its walls carry massive mucosal folds and are thickened by the
glands that contribute about half the total albumen to the egg. The egg
takes about 3 hours to pass through this part.
Isthmus – about 8 cm long, is demarcated from the Ovary with follicles

magnum by a narrow, translucent glandular zone. It is
thinner and with lower mucosal folds than the magnum,
secretes more albumen and also a material that rapidly
congeals to form the double-layered shell membranes
found between the albumen and the shell. The egg takes
upward of 1 hour to traverse the isthmus.
Oviduct
Uterus – also considered as the shell gland; a thinner-
walled, slightly enlarged chamber, about 8 cm long. Its
mucosa bears many low folds and ridges that flatten
themselves against the egg, which remains here for about
20 hours. Uterus
Vagina – approximately 8 cm long; muscular, S-shaped
tube through which the completed egg.
Sperm host glands may also be found at the Cloaca
uterovaginal junction where sperm can be stored for
many months.
Cloaca
10
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Which structure is unique in the ovary of 6. What is the longest segment of the
mare? oviduct of hen?
a. Follicles a. Magnum
b. Ovulation fossa b. Isthmus
c. Graafian follicle c. Uterus
d. Cortex d. Vagina
2. Among domestic animals, which has a 7. You were asked to identify the animal
uterine horn that resembles and can be based on the ovary presented. The
mistaken as the small intestine? ovaries are described to be like a bunch
a. Mare of small grapes. The ovaries were most
b. Cow likely coming from which domestic
c. Sow animals?
d. Doe a. Mare
b. Ewe
3. Which ovary of a hen is developed? c. Sow
a. Right ovary only d. Bitch
b. Left ovary only
c. Both left and right ovaries 8. Which of the following animals you will
d. Hen does not have ovaries see a placentome?
a. Bull
4. Pulivini cervicales is present in the b. Cow
cervix of which female animal? c. Ewe
a. Mare d. B and C only
b. Cow
c. Sow 9. Which of the following best describes
d. Doe the ovaries of a mare?
a. Bean shape
5. Sperm host gland is a feature of the b. Round with protruding follicles
female reproductive tract of which c. Like a bunch of grapes
animal? d. Heart shape
a. Hen
b. Sow 10. Which female animal has an ovary with
c. Ewe the parenchymatous zone located at the
d. Mare medulla and the vascular zone at the
cortex.
a. Mare
b. Cow
c. Sow
d. Doe
ANS KEY
11
REFERENCES:

12
9
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
The lymphatic system is composed of the lymphatic tissues (tonsil)

or organs (spleen, lymph node, and thymus) and the lymphatic
vessels (lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, and lymph collecting
ducts. The system returns protein-rich fluid into the blood circulation
that escapes from the blood capillaries into the tissue spaces. The
system is also essential in helping the animal’s body by providing
specific and non-specific immune response mechanisms.
Specifically, the system is involved in lymphocyte and antibody
production, phagocytosis of particulate foreign matter, and
movement of fats from the digestive system to the circulation.
There are few variations among mammalian lymphatic organs like
in the shape of the spleen and the presence and location of various
lymph nodes. However, it is in contrast with the bird lymphatic
system as the lymph nodes are missing in most birds like chickens.
In addition, birds have added structures called lymph heart and
Bursa of Fabricius at their cloaca.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Identify the different lymphocenters per animal.

2. Compare the gross appearance of the spleen and thymus of
3. Study the additional lymphatic structures in birds.
1
LYMPH NODES OF THE HEAD and NECK
Pig Cattle
Cattle
Lymphocenters are group of lymph nodes draining the same region of the body in all species.
Lymph node/ Location and description
Lymphocenters
Parotid consists of one or more parotid lymph nodes at the base of the ear close to the
lymphocenter temporomandibular joint and covered by the parotid gland or the masseter muscle. It
drains the dorsal part of the head, including the orbit and parotid gland, then lymph
continues to the retropharyngeal nodes. It is palpable in dog and cattle.
Mandibular Located ventral to the angle of the jaw. Drains the part of the head not drained by the
lymphocenter parotid gland to the medial retropharyngeal node. Present in all species, palpable in
dog, cattle and horse.
Retropharyngeal divided into a medial and a lateral group

lymphocenter
Medial retropharyngeal lymph node - largest lymph node of the head and neck,
present in all species. Lies between the larynx and wing of the atlas and is not
normally palpable.
Lateral retropharyngeal lymph node - usually absent in dog and palpable in cattle.
In the horse, it drains from the guttural pouch
Superficial cervical Located in front of the shoulder joint under the superficial neck muscles. Drains
lymph nodes superficial neck and dorsal thorax along with the proximal limbs. Present in all
species and palpable in dog, cattle and horse.
Deep cervical lymph Composed of cranial, middle and caudal deep cervical lymph nodes located along the
nodes length of the trachea. It drains deep and ventral structures of the neck into the
thoracic duct on the left side or into the lymphatic duct on the right.
2
LYMPH NODES OF THE THORAX AND THORACIC LIMB
Cattle
Lymph from the superficial and proximal parts of the forelimb drains to the superficial cervical
lymphocenter; lymph from the rest of the limb drains to the axillary lymphocenter
The walls of the thoracic cavity are drained by the dorsal and ventral thoracic lymphocenter.
The organs within the thoracic cavity are drained by the mediastinal, bronchial, dorsal and
ventral thoracic lymphocenters.

Lymphocenters
Axillary lymph node Present in all animals and palpable in dog. Located in the axilla, it drains the forelimb
and the thoracic wall, including the first three pairs of mammary glands in dog. The
accessory axillary lymph node is present in cat and not constantly present in dog and
cattle. The horse has a palpable cubital lymph node.
Dorsal thoracic Compose of two groups of lymph nodes:

lymphocenter
intercostal lymph nodes - located within the upper part of some of the intercostal
spaces
thoracic aortic lymph nodes – dispersed along the aorta
Ruminants often have hemal nodes in this region. Hemal nodes have a similar
architecture to lymph nodes, but differ from lymph nodes in that their sinuses do not
contain lymph, but blood and are connected to blood vessels instead of lymph vessel.
3
Ventral thoracic Located dorsal to the sternum and lateral to the transverse thoracic muscle. They are
lymphocenter grouped in a cranial set in all domestic species, with ruminants and some cats
having a second caudal set of ventral thoracic lymph nodes
Mediastinal Composed of cranial, middle and caudal mediastinal lymph nodes, which are located
lymphocenter in the like-named part of the mediastinum. The caudal set is missing in dogs and cats
but are large in ruminants.
Bronchial consists of the tracheobronchial (sometimes called bifurcational) lymph nodes located
lymphocenter above the bifurcation of the trachea. Grouped into a right, middle and left set of lymph
nodes. In ruminants and pigs, which have a tracheal bronchus, there is an additional
cranial tracheobronchial group. These lymph nodes are important for lymphatic
drainage of the lungs.
LYMPH NODES OF THE ABDOMEN

The abdominal cavity and its organs are drained by several groups of lymph nodes along the
abdominal aorta, located in the lumbar region and at the origin of the intestinal arteries. The three
lymphocenters associated with the drainage of the abdominal viscera have tributary territories
broadly corresponding to those of the coeliac, cranial mesenteric and caudal mesenteric arteries.
The efferent vessels of these centers converge to form the chyle cistern.
Pig

Lymphocenters
Lumbar consists of the lumbar aortic and renal lymph nodes.
lymphocenter
lumbar aortic lymph nodes - lie either side of the aorta, between the transverse processes
of the lumbar vertebrae.
renal lymph nodes - associated with the renal vessels and drain the kidneys. This is
missing in carnivores.
This center drains the kidney, loins, adrenal glands and abdominal portion of the urogenital
system including testes, into the cisterna chyli.
Coeliac This includes the lymph nodes located within the region supplied by the coeliac artery.
lymphocenter (coeliac, splenic, gastric and pancreaticoduodenal lymph nodes)
In ruminants the gastric lymph nodes are subdivided in ruminal, reticular, omasal and
abomasal nodes.
Cranial includes the cranial mesenteric, jejunal, caecal and colic lymph nodes. They show
mesenteric considerable interspecies variations with regard to number, form and location. These
lymphocenter nodes drain the small intestines and the large intestines as far distally as the
transverse colon.
Caudal consists of the caudal mesenteric lymph nodes, which receive the lymph from the
mesenteric descending colon
lymphocenter
4
LYMPH NODES OF THE PELVIC CAVITY AND PELVIC LIMB
Cattle

Lymphocenters
Iliosacral medial iliac lymph nodes – main group and are located at the quadrification of the aorta
lymphocenter
lateral iliac lymph nodes - lacking in the dog and cat and are not consistently present in
the other domestic mammals. When present they are found at the bifurcation of the deep
circumflex ilial artery
internal iliac lymph nodes – along internal iliac artery
sacral lymph nodes – ventral to sacrum
anorectal lymph nodes – lateral to the rectum

Iliofemoral comprises lymph nodes located along the course of the external iliac artery or its femoral
lymphocenter continuation
Inguinofemoral superficial inguinal lymph nodes - also called scrotal or mammary lymph nodes.
lymphocenter Present in all species, palpable in dog, ruminants and horse.
subiliac lymph node - missing in the dog, rare in the cat, palpable in ruminants and
horse
Other lymph nodes: coxal lymph nodes, lymph nodes of the paralumbar fossa and
epigastric lymph nodes.
The inguinofemoral lymphocenter drains the flank, the caudoventral part of the abdominal
wall, the scrotum and the mammary glands. Hence the superficial inguinal lymph nodes
should be examined and may have to be removed when mammary tumours are excised.
Popliteal most distal center of the pelvic limb and comprises superficial and deep popliteal lymph
lymphocenters nodes, which are located within the popliteal fossa caudal to the stifle. It is easily palpable
in dog and cat
5
SPLEEN
The spleen is a reddish-brown to grey organ, depending on the species, and is situated caudal to
the diaphragm within the left cranial part of the abdomen. It is located entirely within the
peritoneum in all domestic mammals other than ruminants, where half of the spleen extends into
the retroperitoneal attachment zone between the diaphragm and the dorsal sac of the rumen. The
spleen is attached to the stomach by the gastrosplenic ligament, which is part of the omentum.
Animal Spleen
Dog Boot-shaped
Horse Falciform (hook-like); additional ligament is present between the spleen and the left kidney, the
nephrosplenic or renosplenic ligament creating the nephrosplenic space, in which parts of the
intestines can become trapped, resulting in colic
Cattle Wide strap-shaped
Goat Leaf-shaped
Pig Tongue-shaped
Chicken Spherical; lies medial to the stomach
6
THYMUS
Thymus
Cattle Chicken
Cattle
The thymus is the control organ of the immune and lymphatic systems. Its importance is greatest
in the juvenile animal and accordingly it reaches its maximum development depending on the
animal. After this time, it begins to involute gradually until the animal reaches sexual maturity.
Regression starts at the cranial, cervical part of the organ, so that the thoracic part remains longer.
As it decreases in size and loses its lymphoid structure, it is replaced by fat
Animal Thymus
Dog reaches its maximum development three weeks after birth; cervical part regresses prematurely
and the thymus is represented by the thoracic part only; thoracic part is divided into a larger
right lobe and a smaller left lobe and is located almost entirely in the cranial mediastinum
Horse reaches its maximum development one year after birth; cervical part regresses prematurely and
the thymus is represented by the thoracic part only
Cattle divided into an unpaired thoracic part and left and right cervical parts; the two parts are joined
together by the intermediate part at the thoracic inlet
Pig reaches its maximum development nine months after birth; divided into an unpaired thoracic
part and left and right cervical parts; the two parts are joined together by the intermediate part
at the thoracic inlet
Chicken lobated lymphoepithelial organ situated caudal to the third cervical vertebra.
7
LYMPH HEART
The lymph heart is an elongated, dorsoventrally flattened organ located outside the body cavity.
It is situated at the caudal end of the synsacrum, dorsal to the transverse process of the first free
caudal vertebra.
The function of the lymph heart is dependent upon age and species. In the embryo and fetus, its
sole function is to pump systemic lymph. In species with a well-developed copulatory apparatus
and a protrusible phallus, such as ratites and water birds, the lymph heart is usually integrated
into the specialized lymphatic system of the copulatory organ. After erection, the lymph heart
pumps substantial amounts of lymph from the phallus and directs it towards the venous system.
The lymph heart also has an ancillary role in regulating blood pressure in the internal vertebral
sinus (sinus vertebralis internus) and in the renal portal system of the kidney
CLOACAL BURSA
The cloacal bursa is also known as the Bursa of Fabricius. It is a pedunculated dorsal appendage
of the proctodeum. Bone marrow-derived lymphocytes mature within the cloacal bursa into B
lymphocytes that are subsequently responsible for humoral immunity. The cloacal bursa
undergoes involution at sexual maturity.
8
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Which part of the cloaca can you see 6. In dogs, the thymus is located at which
the Bursa of Fabricius? part of the mediastinum?
a. Urodeum a. Cranial mediastinum
b. Proctodeum b. Middle mediastinum
c. Coprodeum c. Caudal mediastinum
d. Vent d. Dogs lack thymus
2. Which animal has a spherically shaped 7. In horse, the thymus is represented by

spleen? the _____.
a. Dog a. cervical and thoracic parts
b. Chicken b. cervical part only
c. Goat c. thoracic part only
d. Horse d. horse lacks thymus
3. The following lymph nodes belong to the 8. What structure replaces the thymus in
cranial mesenteric lymphocenter, adult animals?
EXCEPT: a. Muscle
a. Splenic lymph node b. Fats
b. Jejunal lymph node c. Become part of the clavicle
c. Cecal lymph node d. Thymus is not replaced in adult
d. Colic lymph node animals
4. Omasal lymph node is a part of what 9. Which of the following is correct feature
lymphocenter in ruminants? of the spleen of a horse?
a. Cranial mesenteric a. Boot-shaped
lymphocenter b. Shape like a hook
b. Caudal mesenteric c. Like a marble
lymphocenter d. Tongue-like
c. Coeliac lymphocenter
d. Lumbar lymphocenter 10. Which of the following lymph nodes is
LEAST palpable in dogs?
5. Among domestic animals, which of the a. Medial retropharyngeal lymph
following lacks lymph nodes? node
a. Dog b. Parotid lymph node
b. Chicken c. Superficial cervical lymph node
c. Cattle d. Mandibular lymph node
d. Horse
ANS KEY
9
REFERENCES:

• König, H. E. and H G. Liebich. 2020. Veterinary Anatomy of Domestic Animals.
10
10
COMMON INTEGUMENT
OVERVIEW
The common integument is consist of the skin, hair, skin glands,

claws, hooves, and horns. Most unrecognized, but it is generally
important for the protection of the body against mechanical,
chemical, physical, and biological factors within the environment.
This is vital in the animal being because it contains receptors for the
perception of pressure, pain, heat, and cold which is important to
determine different environmental cues. Moreover, the integument
can serve as a storage site and excretion of water, electrolytes,
vitamins, and fat and can be used by the animal for
thermoregulation, immunological defense, and communication. It is
obvious that different animals have different gross integument
appearances. In most cases, this depends on the purpose it serves
on the animal. For example, the horn is important in the mating
behavior of sheep thus they have horns. Sow has at least 14
mammary glands as it bears litter that can reach up to more than 10
piglets. Carnivores need sharp claws to capture their prey. Most of
the avian body is covered with feathers that enable flight and
contribute to thermoregulation by providing insulation.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Identify the different skin glands.

2. Compare the different hair types.
3. Compare the mammary glands of different domestic animals.
4. Compare the hoof, claw and horn of different domestic
animals.
5. Identify the features of the integument of birds.
6. Identify the different types of feathers in birds.
1
SPECIALIZED GLANDS OF THE SKIN
Circumoral gland in cat

Anal sac gland in dog
Carpal gland in pig
Gland Location and Description
Carpal glands Present in pigs located proximal to the carpus on the caudomedial
side of the leg. They produce sexual pheromones to sexually
stimulate the mating partner. They also mark the sow during mating
as the boar’s property.
Caudal glands Present in carnivores located at the dorsum of the root of the tail.
Ceruminous Present in all domestic animals, found in the wall of the external
glands auditory canal. They produce ear wax which protects the tympanic
membrane from foreign bodies
Circumoral or Present only in cats. Located in the skin around the lower lip. Their
perioral glands functional significance, although called “cleaning gland” is for
Horn gland in goat marking purposes
Anal Sac glands Present in carnivores. Located in the walls of the anal sacs, they
secrete into the anal sacs for storage.
Glands of the Present in sheep on either side of the udder or scrotum. The odor
inguinal sinus may help the lamb locate the udder.
Glands of the Present in sheep between the digits used as trail markers
interdigital
sinus
Glands of the Present in ruminants and pig in the skin of the nose
nasal skin
Horn glands Present in goat and some sheep. Located caudal to the base of the
horn (similar location in polled animals)
Mental (chin) Present in pig as a wart-like skin eminence on the chin. It has both
gland tactile and secretory (marking) function.
Preputial gland Located in the prepuce. Their secretions mix with degenerated cells
to form a substance called smegma, which is significant in horse.
Subcaudal gland Present in goats as two glands below the tail. This is responsible for
the buck’s distinct smell.
2
HAIR
Tactile hair
Bristle
Guard hair
Wool hair
Types of Hair
Bristle – hair coat of the pig, the cilia,

vibrissae (hair of nostrils) and the beard
(hair of the submandibular region of the
goat)
Guard hair – outer coat (topcoat) of
domestic animals except in sheep and pig
Wool hair – the wavy, fine, short, inner
coat (undercoat). This is the hair type of
the fleece of sheep Long hair
Long hair – long hair of the horse (forelock, mane, tail and “feathers” (behind the fetlock”)
Tactile hair – stiff, sensory hair in some of the domestic animals on the upper and lower lip,
chin, cheek, around the eye and carpus
3
HAIR FOLLICLES
Animal Hair Follicle

Dog Has compound hair follicles with a single primary hair and a group of smaller secondary
hairs
Cat Has a single follicle with a primary guard hair surrounded by clusters of compound
follicles. The compound follicles have three primary hairs with many secondary hairs
Horse Has Single hair follicles
Cattle Has Single hair follicles
Pig Has single hair follicles grouped in cluster
4
MAMMARY GLAND
Mamma
Milk sinus
Teat
Teat opening
Intermammary groove
Teat opening
Cow Cow
Mammary gland is a modified sweat gland that nourishes the young. It

consists of the mamma and the teat. Mamma is the glandular structure
while the teat is the projecting part of the gland. This gland is undeveloped
in both males and female at birth. However, the female mammary gland
begins to develop as secondary sex characteristics at puberty.
Lobes - internal compartments of mamma, separated by adipose tissue.
The lobes are divided into lobules. Lobules consist of connective tissue
containing alveoli, the grape-like clusters of milk -secreting cells of the
mammary gland.
Milk (lactiferous) duct – large ducts conveying milk from the alveoli to the milk sinus.
Milk (lactiferous) sinus – the large milk storage cavity within the teat and the glandular body
Teat - projecting part of the gland containing the milk sinus
Teat canal (papillary duct or streak canal) – duct leading from the milk sinus to the teat
opening.
Teat opening – openings of the teat canal
Sphincter muscle – muscular fibers around the teat opening that prevent milk flow, except
during suckling or milking.
5
MAMMARY GLAND
Bitch Doe
Sow
Mammary gland position
Thoracoabdominal Cat
Thoracoabdomioinguinal Dog and pig
Inguinal Horse and ruminant
Mare
Cow
Animal Mammary Gland

Bitch Usually 10 mammae, 5 (4-6) mammary complexes on each side separated by an
intermammary groove.; teats have 5 – 20 teat openings
Queen 8 mammae, four on each side of the ventral abdominal wall
Sow 14 (10-18) mammae, seven on each side; teats have 2 -3 teat openings
Cow 4 mammae, two quarters on each side, all bound together to form the udder; teats
have one teat opening
Doe and Ewe 2 mammae forming a small udder; teats have one teat opening
Mare 2 mammae forming a small udder; teats have two teat openings; during the last days
of pregnancy, the extremity of the teat has a waxy appearance and is used as an
indicator of impending parturition
6
Crus of frog
HOOF OF HORSE
Central groove of frog
Bars
Heel
Quarters Frog
Angle of sole
Collateral groove
White line
Water line
Sole
Apex of
frog
Toe Wall
Hoof is the horny epidermis covering the digit’s distal end and divided into wall, sole and frog
Wall – visible part of the standing horse’s hoof
Toe – dorsal part of the wall
Quarter – medial and lateral wall parts
Heels (angles) - palmar or plantar aspect of the wall
Bars – extension of the wall from the back of the foot towards the toe. They are seen on either
side of the frog from the ground surface
Sole – concave surface facing the ground between the frog and the walls. The medial and
lateral angles of the sole are located between the bars and quarters
Frog – wedge-shaped structure between the sole, bars and bulb. It points toward the toe. It is
often called the heart of the horse’ foot because its compression forces blood out of the foot
back toward the body. The frog is homologous with other species digital pads.
Bulbs – part of the hoof just proximal and palmar/plantar to the frog
Coronet – junction of the hoof and the skin
White line or zone – junction between the wall and sole on the ground surface of the foot. This
is the external indication of the sensitive internal structures.
7
HOOF OF RUMINANTS AND PIG Cattle
Pig
Cattle
Sheep
Pig
Epidermis of the wall, sole and heels are similar to the horse except that the frog and bars are
missing
Note that ruminants and pig are cloven-hooves animals. The space between the two hooves
is called interdigital cleft.
Hoof pads or bulbs -highly keratinized cushion on the palmar/plantar aspect of the foot
8
CLAW
Dog Cat
Claw is a modification of the epidermis in Dog

the carnivores enclosing the ungual
process of the distal phalanx. The claw is
consist of a wall and a sole growing away
from the underlying dermis. The dermis
nourishes the wall and connects it to the
ungual process.
Wall Sole
Cat
Animal Claw
Dog curved and follows the shape of the unguicular process of the distal phalanx. It can be
compared to a laterally compressed human nail. It is oval to round in diameter, and the
sharpness of the tip depends on its wear
Cat laterally compressed, strongly curved and drawn out to a sharp point. It resembles a sickle,
with a sharp inside curve and a blunt convex surface. Can be actively and fully retracted by
elastic ligaments into the claw fold. This enables the cat to walk silently and without
blunting the claws through ground contact.
9
PADS OF CARNIVORES
Dog
Pad – hairless, cushion-like pads on the palmar/plantar side of the limbs. This is the toughest
skin on the dog. The epidermis is thick and highly keratinized with a rough surface due to the
many papillae. Note that this is the part of the dog where the sweat glands can be located.
Carpal pad – located at the palmar to the carpus. Carnivores lack tarsal pads.
Metacarpal (metatarsal) pad – heart-shaped pad on the palmar/plantar surface at the
level of the proximal metacarpophalangeal joints.
Digital pad – small pad over the distal end of each digit
ERGOT AND CHESTNUTS OF HORSE
Ergot – a small mass of horny material on the palmar/plantar surface of the

Chestnut
fetlock. They are buried in the feathers (long hair behind the fetlock)
Chestnut or night eyes – hornlike growths on the medial sides of horses’
limbs. The front chestnuts are proximal to the carpus, and the hind chestnuts
are slightly distal to the hocks. The chestnuts are thought to be vestigial
metacarpal and metatarsal footpads
10
HORN
Goat
Sheep
Cattle, horn rings
Horn is the covering of the cornual process of the frontal bone in ruminants. They are present
in both sexes. The cornual process starts from the horn bud and grows out as a solid structure
that becomes hollowed out (pneumatized) by about 6 months of age. Horns of the domestic
ruminants are permanent and grow continuously following their first appearance. Horn is
epidermal tissue formed similarly to the hoof wall.
Corium of the horn - completely envelops the cornual process and blends with its periosteum.
Epikeras – ring of soft horn marking the transition between the skin and the horn. Like periople
of the hoof, it grows out and covers the horn with a thin shiny layer.
Cornual rings – circumferential grooves on the horn. More distinct in small ruminants than in
cattle. 9-12 rings are produced per year.
Polled – ruminants that lack horn
Animal Horn
Cattle Horns are located at the caudolateral end of the head
Carabao Horns are located at the caudolateral end of the head; horn is sickle-shaped or curve
backward toward the neck.
Sheep Horns are located behind the orbit; pursue a helical course
Goat Horns are located behind the orbit; grow caudally over the skull
11
BIRD INTEGUMENT
Skin
The skin of bird has many modifications if compared with the mammals. It is
typically very thin. Some modifications can be seen at the skin glands,
accessory structures, presence of patagium and interdigital web.
Skin Glands
Sweat glands are absent in birds.
Sebaceous glands are found in only
three locations:
o Uropygial gland – also known as preen gland.
Present in all chickens and water birds. It is
composed of two lobes, each with an excretory
duct that opens on the unpaired uropygial papilla.
The oily, holocrine glandular secretion covers the
feathers in a fatty film.
o External acoustic meatus gland
o Cloaca glands - produce a mucous secretion
Accessory Structures
Comb - fleshy growth or crest on the top of the head
Wattle - fleshy growth that hangs down under their chin
Cheek or ear lobe - fleshy bits that stick out on the side of the
head
Snood - fleshy appendage that extends over the beak
Caruncles - fleshy protuberances found on the head, neck and

throat, with larger structures particularly at the bottom of the
throat.
The network of sinusoidal capillaries in the superficial layer of

the dermis of comb, wattle and ear lobes are responsible for the
red coloration of these structures.
Turkey
12
Patagia
The patagia are membranous folds of skin that
span the flexor surfaces of the joints of the wings.
At the shoulder, the folds are present on both the
extensor and flexor surfaces of the joint. Elastic
fibers embedded within the patagia permit the
wings to be rested against the body without
muscular effort. The wing has four patagia.
Propatagium - the largest skinfold of the
wing and it fills the angle formed by the partially flexed elbow.
Postpatagium - located at the caudal angle of the carpus
Metapatagium – located at the caudal junction of the thorax and the wing
Alular patagium – located between the alula and the
carpometacarpus.
Intergidital Web
Intrerdigital webs are located at the spaces between the
second, third and fourth toes of waterfowl that facilitate
swimming.
Featherless Body Region
The epidermis is thicker in featherless regions to accommodate the

mechanical forces to which these areas are subjected. Epidermal
specialisations occurring in these regions include the:
Rhamphotheca – horny sheath that forms the epidermal covering of the
beak
Cere - soft, variably colored region of skin present on the upper beak.
Scales (scuta) and small scales (scutella) - cover the dorsal surface of
the tarsometatarsus and digits; smaller scales (scutella), usually
hexagonal in shape, are present on the plantar surface. Scales and scutella
constitute the podotheca. Podotheca is the scaly covering present on the
foot of the birds.
Pads – composed of metatarsal and digital pads
Claws - cone-shaped coverings over the distal phalanx. They are composed
of a dorsal plate) and a plantar plate.
Spur - well developed in males. In females, it usually takes the form of a
wart-like scale. The spur grows approximately 10 mm per year and can
thus be used in estimating age. It has a bony center and is surrounded with Spur
epidermis, but it is not considered a toe.
13
Feather
The presence of feathers is the hallmark of class Aves. Like the hairs of mammals, feathers are
keratinous in nature and grow from an epidermal follicle that encircles a dermal core. There are
two main types of feathers seen in poultry:
Contour feathers - comprise the flight feathers and those that cover the body
Down feathers – fluffy and soft present under the exterior feathers.
Basic feather structures include the:
Calamus or Quill –hollow portion of the shaft; attaches the feather to the bird’s skin or
bone. Barbs are not attached to it
Rachis - rigid portion of the shaft; holds the vanes.
Distal umbilicus – small opening; marks the boundary between the calamus and rachis
Proximal umbilicus – opening at the proximal end of the calamus
Vane or Vexillum - the plumed part of the feather that grows from the central shaft.
Barb - grow from the rachis. Each barb is a feather within a feather with a little shaft and
little barbs of its own called barbules. When viewed as a whole the barbs are the vane.
Barbules - are mini-barbs that grow from the central shaft of each barb.
14
Type of Feathers
Contour Feather - give shape and color to the bird. They are found everywhere except the
beak, legs, and feet. It is composed of the coverts, flight and tail feathers.
Covert feathers - most numerous feathers, covering most of the surface of the body.
Their size, shape and colour vary greatly depending on their location and function.
Remiges – flight feathers; located on the antebrachium (secondary remiges), manus
(primary remiges) and the alula (alular remiges); they have a slightly curved shaft and
asymmetrical vexillae.
Rectrices - feathers of the tail; they have a symmetrical vexillae
Down feathers – have little or no shaft. They are soft and fluffy. Down feathers help insulate
birds by trapping air. Definitive (adult) down feathers are particularly numerous in water bird
Semiplume feathers - a cross between down and contour feathers. Unlike down, they do have
a well-formed shaft. However, they do not have well developed barbicels which make them soft.
They are found underneath contour feathers and are used for insulation
Filoplume feathers - incredibly small. They have a tuft of barbs at the end of the shaft. They
are attached to nerve endings and send messages to the brain that give information about the
placement of feathers for flight, insulation, and preening.
Bristle feathers - very stiff with only a few barbs found at the base. They are found around the
mouth of insect eating birds where they act as a funnel. They can also be found around the
eyes where they work like eyelashes. ement of feathers for flight, insulation, and preening.
15
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is the ring of soft horn marking the c. Caruncle

transition between the skin and the d. Wattle
horn?
a. Vexillum 6. What is the rigid portion of the shaft of
b. Epikeras the feather?
c. Cornual rings a. Remiges
d. Spur b. Calamus
c. Rachis
2. What is the hollow portion of the shaft of d. Barb
the feather?
a. Remiges 7. How mammae are present in bitch?
b. Calamus a. 6
c. Rachis b. 8
d. Barb c. 10
d. 12
3. What is the small mass of horny material
on the palmar/plantar surface of the 8. What is the other name of preen gland?
fetlock of horse? a. Vexillum
a. Ergot b. Uropygial gland
b. Chestnut c. Patagium
c. Contour feathers d. Salt gland
d. Digital pad
9. What is the projecting part of the
4. What is the wedge-shaped structure mammary gland?
between the sole, bars and bulb of a. Mammae
horse hoof? b. Teat
a. Quarter c. Lactiferous sinus
b. Coronet d. Lactiferous duct
c. Frog
d. Heel 10. What is the heart-shaped pad on the
palmar side of the dog?
5. What is fleshy growth or crest on the top a. Carpal pad
of the head of chicken? b. Metacarpal pad
a. Comb c. Digital pad
b. Snood d. Tarsal pad
ANS KEY
16
REFERENCES:

• König, H. E. and H G. Liebich. 2020. Veterinary Anatomy of Domestic Animals.
17

Clsu Comparative Anat Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Clsu Comparative Anat Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Clsu Comparative Anat Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

VANA 2205.

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

The skeletal system can be divided into three parts: axial,

TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 hours

1. Identify the animal based on the present morphological features

Horse Has facial crest in the maxilla; orbit is complete

Animal Hyoid Apparatus

Openings Bones Transmitted Structures Comparative Notes

The vertebral column is divided into 5 regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar,

Animal Thoracic Vertebrae

RIBS and STERNUM

Dog Pig Cattle Horse

Horse Narrow shaft and strongly curved in dorsal third

Pig Narrow shaft and distinct angle

Animal Rib Pairs Sternal Asternal Sternebrae

The sternum of birds a large unsegmented bone with a well-

RADIUS AND ULNA

Animal Radius and Ulna

Carpal Bone Dog Horse Cattle Pig

METACARPALS and DIGITAL BONES

TIBIA AND FIBULA

Animal Tibia and Fibula

Tarsal Bone Dog Horse Cattle Pig

2 (Middle P FUSED FUSED P

METARSALS and DIGITAL BONES

1. Which structure is present in the humerus b. Mc II

• Dyce, K. M., and C. J. G. Wensing. 2010. Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy. 4 th Ed.

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 hours

1. Review the anatomy of the muscular system.

MUSCLES OF THE THORACIC LIMB

Latissimus dorsi Spinous processes of Medial humerus Limb retraction, Thoracodorsal

MUSCLES OF THE PELVIC LIMBS

BRACHIOCEPHALICUS AND STERNOCEPHALICUS MUSCLE

Animal Triceps brachii

Pig With lateral, long and medial heads.

COMMON DIGITAL EXTENSOR

Animal Common Digital Extensor

LATERAL DIGITAL EXTENSOR

Animal Lateral Digital Extensor

Animal Internal Obturator

Animal Biceps femoris

*two heads of the gastrocnemius and the soleus are

1. Where is the insertion of supraspinatus d. Medial head

• Dyce, K. M., and C. J. G. Wensing. 2010. Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy. 4 th Ed.

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

As different animals have different feeding behavior, modification in

TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 hours

1. Identify the dental formula of different domestic animals.

Cat lips are less mobile and reduced.

Animal Hard palate

Animal Dental Formula (Temporary)

Modified Triadan System - provides a

This naming is more efficient in identifying

Animal Salivary Gland

Five openings in the pharynx

*may be related to the ease of the dog in vomiting

Parts of the ruminant’s gastric groove: