CHEMICAL BONDING Example: water (H2O) is composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, and

in its bond, each hydrogen atom shares an oxygen atom. Ionic: this occurs when metallic and non-metallic
atoms bond and an electron charge is given from one to the other.

IONIC Common table salt is an an example of common compound with ionic bonds. Ionic compounds are often
solids, and form crystals. Carbon dioxide, gas we breathe out of our lungs, is a compound with covalent bonds.

Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell, or energy level, of an atom. For example, oxygen has
six valence electrons, two in the 2s subshell and four in the 2p subshell. We can write the configuration of
oxygen's valence electrons as 2s²2p⁴.

Ionic compound - In chemistry, an ionic compound is a chemical compound composed of ions held together by
electrostatic forces termed ionic bonding. The compound is neutral overall, but consists of positively charged
ions called cations and negatively charged ions called anions

In chemistry, the valence electrons of an atom are the outermost electrons that are involved in bonding. These
electrons are crucial in determining the chemical reactivity and bonding behavior of an atom. The number of
valence electrons an atom has depends on its position in the periodic table. For example, elements in the same
group of the periodic table have the same number of valence electrons, which gives them similar chemical
properties. Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share their valence electrons to achieve a stable electron
configuration. In a covalent bond, two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons, with each atom contributing
one or more electrons to the bond. This sharing of electrons allows both atoms to achieve a full outer electron
shell, leading to a more stable configuration. The number of valence electrons an atom has determines how
many covalent bonds it can form. For example, carbon has four valence electrons, so it can form up to four
covalent bonds with other atoms. Oxygen, on the other hand, has six valence electrons and can form up to two
covalent bonds. Overall, understanding the valence electrons and covalent bonding of an atom is crucial in
predicting its behavior in chemical reactions and understanding its role in forming molecules and compounds.

Chemical bonding, any of the interactions that account for the association
of atoms into molecules, ions, crystals, and other stable species that make up the familiar substances
of the everyday world. When atoms approach one another, their nuclei and electrons interact and
tend to distribute themselves in space in such a way that the total energy is lower than it would be in
any alternative arrangement. If the total energy of a group of atoms is lower than the sum of the
energies of the component atoms, they then bond together and the energy lowering is the bonding
energy.
The ideas that helped to establish the nature of chemical bonding came to fruition during the early
20th century, after the electron had been discovered and quantum mechanics had provided a
language for the description of the behaviour of electrons in atoms. However, even though chemists
need quantum mechanics to attain a detailed quantitative understanding of bond formation, much of
their pragmatic understanding of bonds is expressed in simple intuitive models. These models treat
bonds as primarily of two kinds—namely, ionic and covalent. The type of bond that is most likely to
occur between two atoms can be predicted on the basis of the location of the elements in the periodic
table, and to some extent the properties of the substances so formed can be related to the type of
bonding.
A key concept in a discussion of chemical bonding is that of the molecule. Molecules are the smallest
units of compounds that can exist. One feature of molecules that can be predicted with reasonable
success is their shape. Molecular shapes are of considerable importance for understanding
the reactions that compounds can undergo, and so the link between chemical bonding and chemical
reactivity is discussed briefly in this article.
Introduction to Chemical Bonding

Chemical bonding is one of the most basic fundamentals of chemistry that explains other concepts such as
molecules and reactions. Without it, scientists wouldn't be able to explain why atoms are attracted to each other
or how products are formed after a chemical reaction has taken place. To understand the concept of bonding,
one must first know the basics behind atomic structure.
Introduction
A common atom contains a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons, with electrons in certain energy levels
revolving around the nucleus. In this section, the main focus will be on these electrons. Elements are
distinguishable from each other due to their "electron cloud," or the area where electrons move around the
nucleus of an atom. Because each element has a distinct electron cloud, this determines their chemical
properties as well as the extent of their reactivity (i.e. noble gases are inert/not reactive while alkaline metals are
highly reactive). In chemical bonding, only valence electrons, electrons located in the orbitals of the outermost
energy level (valence shell) of an element, are involved.

Lewis Diagrams
Lewis diagrams are graphical representations of elements and their valence electrons. Valance electrons are the
electrons that form the outermost shell of an atom. In a Lewis diagram of an element, the symbol of the element
is written in the center and the valence electrons are drawn around it as dots. The position of the valence
electrons drawn is unimportant. However, the general convention is to start from 12o'clock position and go
clockwise direction to 3 o'clock, 6 o'clock, 9 o'clock, and back to 12 o'clock positions respectively. Generally
the Roman numeral of the group corresponds with the number of valance electrons of the element.
Below is the periodic table representation of the number of valance electrons. The alkali metals of Group IA
have one valance electron, the alkaline-earth metals of Group IIA have 2 valance electrons, Group IIIA has 3
valance electrons, and so on. The nonindicated transition metals, lanthanoids, and actinoids are more difficult in
terms of distinguishing the number of valance electrons they have; however, this section only introduces
bonding, hence they will not be covered in this unit.

Lewis diagrams for Molecular Compounds/Ions

To draw the lewis diagrams for molecular compounds or ions, follow these steps below (we will be using H 2O
as an example to follow):
1) Count the number of valance electrons of the molecular compound or ion. Remember, if there are two or
more of the same element, then you have to double or multiply by however many atoms there are of the number
of valance electrons. Follow the roman numeral group number to see the corresponding number of valance
electrons there are for that element.
Valance electrons:
Oxygen (O)--Group VIA: therefore, there are 6 valance electrons
Hydrogen (H)--Group IA: therefore, there is 1 valance electron
NOTE: There are TWO hydrogen atoms, so multiply 1 valance electron X 2 atoms
Total: 6 + 2 = 8 valance electrons
2) If the molecule in question is an ion, remember to add or subract the respective number of electrons to the
total from step 1.
For ions, if the ion has a negative charge (anion), add the corresponding number of electrons to the total number
of electrons (i.e. if NO3- has a negative charge of 1-, then you add 1 extra electron to the total; 5 + 3(6)= 23 +1
= 24 total electrons). A - sign mean the molecule has an overall negative charge, so it must have this extra
electron. This is because anions have a higher electron affinity (tendency to gain electrons). Most anions are
composed of nonmetals, which have high electronegativity.
If the ion has a positive charge (cation), subtract the corresponding number of electrons to the total number of
electrons (i.e. H3O+ has a positive charge of 1+, so you subtract 1 extra electron to the total; 6 + 1(3) = 9 - 1 = 8
total electrons). A + sign means the molecule has an overall positive charge, so it must be missing one electron.
Cations are positive and have weaker electron affinity. They are mostly composed of metals; their atomic radii
are larger than the nonmetals. This consequently means that shielding is increased, and electrons have less
tendency to be attracted to the "shielded" nucleus.
From our example, water is a neutral molecule, therefore no electrons need to be added or subtracted from the
total.
3) Write out the symbols of the elements, making sure all atoms are accounted for (i.e. H 2O, write out O and 2
H's on either side of the oxygen). Start by adding single bonds (1 pair of electrons) to all possible atoms while
making sure they follow the octet rule (with the exceptions of the duet rule and other elements mentioned
above).
4) If there are any leftover electrons, then add them to the central atom of the molecule (i.e. XeF 4 has 4 extra
electrons after being distributed, so the 4 extra electrons are given to Xe: like so. Finally, rearrange the electron
pairs into double or triple bonds if possible.

Octet Rule
Most elements follow the octet rule in chemical bonding, which means that an element should have contact to
eight valence electrons in a bond or exactly fill up its valence shell. Having eight electrons total ensures that the
atom is stable. This is the reason why noble gases, a valence electron shell of 8 electrons, are chemically inert;
they are already stable and tend to not need the transfer of electrons when bonding with another atom in order to
be stable. On the other hand, alkali metals have a valance electron shell of one electron. Since they want to
complete the octet rule they often simply lose one electron. This makes them quite reactive because they can
easily donate this electron to other elements. This explains the highly reactive properties of the Group IA
elements.
Some elements that are exceptions to the octet rule include Aluminum(Al), Phosphorus(P), Sulfur(S), and
Xenon(Xe).
Hydrogen(H) and Helium(He) follow the duet rule since their valence shell only allows two electrons. There are
no exceptions to the duet rule; hydrogen and helium will always hold a maximum of two electrons.
Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is the process of not sharing electrons between two atoms. It occurs between a nonmetal and a
metal. Ionic bonding is also known as the process in which electrons are "transferred" to one another because
the two atoms have different levels of electron affinity. In the picture below, a sodium (Na) ion and a chlorine
(Cl) ion are being combined through ionic bonding. Na + has less electronegativity due to a large atomic radius
and essentially does not want the electron it has. This will easily allow the more electronegative chlorine atom
to gain the electron to complete its 3rd energy level. Throughout this process, the transfer of the electron
releases energy to the atmosphere.
Another example of ionic bonding is the crystal lattice structure shown above. The ions are arranged in such a
way that shows unifomity and stablity; a physical characteristic in crystals and solids. Moreover, in a concept
called "the sea of electrons," it is seen that the molecular structure of metals is composed of stabilized positive
ions (cations) and "free-flowing" electrons that weave in-between the cations. This attributes to the metal
property of conductivity; the flowing electrons allow the electric current to pass through them. In addition, this
explains why strong electrolytes are good conductors. Ionic bonds are easily broken by water because the
polarity of the water molecules shield the anions from attracting the cations. Therefore, the ionic compounds
dissociate easily in water, and the metallic properties of the compound allow conductivity of the solution.

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding is the process of sharing of electrons between two atoms. The bonds are typically between a
nonmetal and a nonmetal. Since their electronegativities are all within the high range, the electrons are attracted
and pulled by both atom's nuceli. In the case of two identical atoms that are bonded to each other (also known as
a nonpolar bond, explained later below), they both emit the same force of pull on the electrons, thus there is
equal attraction between the two atoms (i.e. oxygen gas, or O 2, have an equal distribution of electron affinity.
This makes covalent bonds harder to break.
There are three types of covalent bonds: single, double, and triple bonds. A single bond is composed of 2
bonded electrons. Naturally, a double bond has 4 electrons, and a triple bond has 6 bonded electrons. Because a
triple bond will have more strength in electron affinity than a single bond, the attraction to the positively
charged nucleus is increased, meaning that the distance from the nucleus to the electrons is less. Simply put, the
more bonds or the greater the bond strength, the shorter the bond length will be. In other words:
Bond length: triple bond < double bond < single bond
Polar Covalent Bonding
Polar covalent bonding is the process of unequal sharing of electrons. It is considered the middle ground
between ionic bonding and covalent bonding. It happens due to the differing electronegativity values of the two
atoms. Because of this, the more electronegative atom will attract and have a stronger pulling force on the
electrons. Thus, the electrons will spend more time around this atom.

The symbols above indicate that on the flourine side it is slightly negitive and the hydrogen side is slightly
positive.
Polar and Non-polar molecules
Polarity is the competing forces between two atoms for the electrons. It is also known as the polar covalent
bond. A molecule is polar when the electrons are attracted to a more electronegative atom due to its greater
electron affinity. A nonpolar molecule is a bond between two identical atoms. They are the ideal example of a
covalent bond. Some examples are nitrogen gas (N2), oxygen gas (O2), and hydrogen gas (H2).

One way to figure out what type of bond a molecule has is by determining the difference of the
electronegativity values of the molecules.
If the difference is between 0.0-0.3, then the molecule has a non-polar bond.
If the difference is between 0.3-1.7, then the molecule has a polar bond.
If the difference is 1.7 or more, then the molecule has an ionic bond.