Biology 2
● SPORULATION
Fertilization
- Union of egg cell and sperm cell
Asexual
- Does not involve the union of sex
cells
Pollination
- Placement of pollen grain from the
anther to the stigma of a carpel of a
flower
Reproduction
- Biological process in which an
“offspring” is produced
Sexual
- Involves the union of sex cells
REPRODUCTION
- Biological process in which an
“offspring” is produced from their
parent or parents.
Why is Reproduction important?
● Procreation- continous existence
of life
● Variation- improvement of genetic
material
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
1. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- Production of offspring from the
fusion of male and female gametes
(two parents)
● ISOGAMY
- Male and female gametes of similar
shape and size (same morphology)
● HETEROGAMY
- Male and female gametes of
different shape and size (different
morphology)
- Eg: sperm and egg
2. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- Production of offspring from one
single parent and does not involve
fusion of gametes
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
● BINARY FISSION
- Separation of the body into two new
bodies
- Common in single-celled organism
Eg: separation of body-bacteria
● BUDDING
- New individual arises as an
outgrowth (bud) from its parent,
develops organs like those of the
parent, and then detaches itself
● FRAGMENTATION
- Body breaks into two or more parts,
with each fragment capable of
becoming a complete individual
Eg: starfish and planaria
- new individual form from an
aggregation of cells surrounded by a
resistant capsule or spore, which
later on germinates
Eg: mushroom, fungi
● Parthenogenesis
- “Virgin birth”
- Female’s egg develop into a new
organism without being fertilized by
a sperm cell
- “Incomplete form of sexual
reproductions”
Eg: Hammerhead shark & aphids
ADVANTAGES
Sexual Reproduction
● Genetic diversity is maintained
● Adaptation to changing environment
is possible
Asexual Reproduction
● Isolated/sessile species can perform
it alone.
- Eg: mussels
● Time efficient, can transpire without
waiting for partner availability
● Offspring can easily adapt to existing
environment because of similarity in
traits
DISADVANTAGES
Sexual Reproduction
● Isolated/solitary/non-motile animals
will not be successful
● some evolve to hermaphroditic
characteristics (earthworm,
tapeworm)
- Hermaphrodites- may male and
female sex organs (example: worms
may gonads na pang lalaki at
pambabae)
Asexual Reproduction
● Genetic variation is limited to none
at all
● adaptation will not ensure survival if
environment drastically changes
PLANT REPRODUCTION
- reproduce sexually (sexual
reproduction) while others reproduce
asexually (vegetative reproduction).
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
● Pollination (stamens and pistils)
- transferring pollen grain from the
stamen to the stigma of a flower.
TWO TYPES OF POLLINATION
a. SELF POLLINATION
- transfer of pollen from the stamen to
the stigma of the same flower.
 b. CROSS-POLLINATION
- transfer of pollen in separate plants
● POLLINATING AGENTS
- Animal-aided or wind aided
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
- a plant part such as stems, Leaves,
roots or turions are used to
reproduce new plants
ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
- Needs human intervention
NATURAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
- No human interference
● TUBERS- swollen portions of
underground stems (stolons) , and
have nodes, and buds.
● GINGER- type of vegetative
propagation unit called rhizome. A
rhizome is an underground
horizontal stem with stored foods
and buds. Terminal and lateral buds
give rise to new shoots.
● The runner arises from the base of
the stem as a lateral branch and
runs along the surface of the soil.
ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE
- Artificial methods used in agriculture
& horticulture to propagate / grow
new plants that are identical to the
parent
1. CUTTINGS
- shoots that are removed from a plant
and allowed to form new plants
- Parts of a plant (usually shoots) that
are removed from the parent plant
- rooted in well-watered compost, soil
or rooting powder
- allowed to form into a new plant
Eg: santan, celia, rose
2. GRAFTING
- a section from one plant is attached
to a section of another plant
- Involves fixing / binding together the
cut surfaces of 2 plants (similar) so
they grow as one.
- Useful qualities from both plants
combined into one e.g. rose flower
and thorn-less stem
3. LAYERING
- a branch of a plant is fixed into the
soil to allow it to form roots and a
new plant
- Branch of a plant is bent over and
pinned down into the soil at a node
- Covered over with soil and
eventually new roots and shoots
develops
- Useful for the propagation of woody
plants
Eg: Woody plants
4. MICROPROPAGATION
- the growth of new plants from tiny
pieces of a parent plant
- Some cells are removed from plant
are placed in a dish with nutrients &
growth regulators
- They grow into a group of similar
cells: callus
- Which develops into a small plant &
then placed into compost.
- Entire plants can be grown from a
small piece of stem, leaf or root
tissue
- Used in mass production of house
plants and crops such as bananas
and strawberries.
- Provides a larger number of plants
more quickly than cuttings
STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER
PEDICEL
- stalk that holds the flower.
- Holds individual flower
PEDUNCLE
- Holds group of flowers
RECEPTACLE
- enlarged tip of the pedicel from
which the floral parts arise.
SEPAL
- one of the several leaf-like structures
that protects the flower while it's still
a bud.
CALYX
- Collective term for all sepals
PETAL
- Whorl inner to the sepals; may be
brightly colored in some
COROLLA
- Collective term for all petals
PERIANTH
- Collective term from sepals and
petals
CARPEL/PISTIL
- female reproductive part of a flower

- STIGMA: sticky: to trap pollen
- STYLE: hollow tube that connects
stigma and ovary
- OVARY: produces female gametes
(ovules)
a. OVULES
- round or oval shaped inside the
ovaries.
b. LOCULE
- cavity within the ovary
STAMEN
- male reproductive part of a flower
- Made up of anther and a filament
- Most flowers have multiple filaments.
- Anther: produces sperm cell;
production of pollen grains
- Filament: holds the anther
Plant types based on the presence of
reproductive structures
MONOECIOUS
- Stamens and pistils occur on
separate flowers, but the same
plant.
- Eg: corn
DIOECIOUS
- Staminate and pistillate flowers
occur on separate plants.
- Eg: papaya
Classification of flowers based on the
presence of floral parts
PERFECT/BISEXUAL
- has both stamens and carpel
- Eg: Gumamela
IMPERFECT/UNISEXUAL
- has only either the stamens
(staminate flower) or the carpels
(carpellate flower)
PLANT DEVELOPMENT
I. GAMETOPHYTE
- Production of the gametes (pollen
grain and embryo sac)
a. MALE GAMETOPHYTE
- Inside the anthers’ microsporangia,
male gametophytes divide
- by meiosis to generate haploid
microspores which, in return,
undergo mitosis and give rise to
pollen grains.
- Pollen grain contains two cells:
- One generative cell
- Cell that will become the pollen tube
cell
b. FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE
- The ovule inside the ovary contains
the megasporangium.
- Within each megasporangium, a
megasporocyte undergoes meiosis,
generating 4 megaspores: three
small and one large.
II. POLLINATION
- transfer of pollen from an anther to a
receptive stigma
- Agents: animals, wind, water,
humans
III. FERTILIZATION
- one sperm and egg combine,
forming a diploid zygote, the future
embryo
- Double Fertilization- other sperm
fuses with the 2n polar nuclei,
forming a triploid cell that will
develop into the endosperm, which
is the tissue that serves as a food
reserve.
IV. EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT
- Production of plant embryo from a
zygote
- Ovules become the seed.
- Ovary matures into the fruit.
V. SEED GERMINATION AND GROWTH
- Germination is the resumption of
growth and development after a
period of seed dormancy
- Epigeal- cotyledon is located above
the soil
eg: beans
- Hypogeal- cotyledon is located
below
eg: corn
- Cotyledon- provides nutrients sa
embryo/plant
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
TESTES
- Male gonads (reproductive organ)
- produces seminiferous tubules
SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES
- produce sperm (spermatogenesis)
SCROTUM
 - Hangs outside the body. Needs to
maintain a slightly lower temperature
- houses the testes; and cooler
compared to other parts of the body.
3% cooler
What helps the scrotum regulate its
temperature?
● Cremaster muscle- contract and
relax; contract- inaangat yung testes
towards the body. relax- nakahang
yung scrotum away from the body
● Blood vessels- helps regulate the
temperature
DUCTS
EPIDIDYMIS
- From seminiferous tubules of a
testis, the sperm pass into the coiled
duct of an epididymis
- Storage of sperm cells
VAS DEFERENS
- joins a duct from seminal vesicle,
forming a short ejaculatory duct
URETHRA
- outlet tube for both excretory system
and the reproductive system.
ACCESSORY GLANDS
SEMINAL VESICLE
- secretes fluid that is thick, yellowish
and alkaline. Contains mucus and
sugar fructose
PROSTATE GLAND
- secretes its product directly into the
urethra through small ducts
- add as protection sa semen as it
travels in the vagina
- Vagina- acidic, harmful, or can
damage sperm cells.
BULBOURETHRAL
- secrete clear mucus that neutralize
any acidic urine remaining in the
urethra
- pre-cum/pre-ejaculate- does not
contain sperm
- sperm cell + secretion= semen
- Cowper's Gland
PENIS
- contains urethra as well as the
erectile tissue
- Responsible for erection
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
OVARIES
- female gonads
- Oogenesis- development of ovarian
follicles
- Secretion of estrogen and
progesterone
FALLOPIAN TUBE (OVIDUCTS)
- area where fertilization occurs
UTERUS (womb)
● Endometrium- inner lining
- where implantation happens;
nagsshed ng blood (menstruation) if
walang fertilization; provide blood
flow and nourishment to the growing
embryo
● Myometrium- middle layer
- capable of contractions; important
during labor cos it helps the baby to
be pushed into the birth canal. Pero
kapag hindi pa labor, it suppresses
the contractions. Nagcocontract din
ito to expel blood from the uterus.
CERVIX
- neck of the uterus
VAGINA
- Birth canal
VULVA
- collective term for the external
female genitalia
● LABIA MAJORA- pair of thick fatty
ridges, enclose and protect the rest
of the vulva.
● LABIA MINORA– the vaginal
opening and the separate opening of
the urethra are located with a cavity
bordered by a pair of slender skin
folds.
HYMEN
- a thin piece of tissue, covers the
vaginal opening in humans at birth
- can be damaged through various
physical activities and not just sexual
activities
CLITORIS
- located at the top of labia minora.
VESTIBULAR GLAND
- secrete lubricating mucus
ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT
- formation of sex cells, zygote
formation, subsequent stages in
one’s life span. Development is
terminated by death.
1. GAMETOGENESIS
- Stage of development that yields
haploid gametes.
- Oogenesis
- Spermatogenesis
2. FERTILIZATION
- Stage of development that results in
a unicellular diploid zygote
ANIMAL SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
● EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
 - occur in less complex animals like ● Male- causes the testes to produce
the aquatic sperm
- outside the body gametes are ● Female- causes the growth of an
released in surrounding environment ovarian follicle and it causes the
- Eg: frogs, amplexus (magkapatong follicle cells to secrete estrogen.
na frog) 2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
● INTERNAL FERTILIZATION ● Male- causes the testes to secrete
- observed in more complex animals testosterone.
- eggs are fertilized inside the ● Female- causes ovulation and it
female’s body causes progesterone
- require specialized organs .
3. CLEAVAGE
- Stage of development involving a 16 primary spermatocyte will produce 64
series of mitotic divisions to produce viable sperm cell
a multicellular blastula from a
unicellular zygote.
- human chorionic gonadotropin:
the hormone that blastocyst secretes
and is detected in the pregnancy
test.
4. GASTRULATION
- produce a gastrula with distinct germ
cell layers: the outermost ectoderm;
the inner endoderm, and the middle
layer, the mesoderm
- Archenteron- primitive gut; first
digestive system in human
5. EMBRYONIC STAGE
- Formation of 4 membranes that
Supports, protects and nourishes the
embryo. (yolk sac, allantois,
amnion and chorion)
- Development of placenta
- Placenta: connects the embryo and
uterus
6. ORGANOGENESIS
- Stage of development where the
different germ layers differentiate
into specific organ systems.
7. GROWTH
- Stage of development characterized
by an increase in size of an
individual
- After birth

Hormonal Regulation of Animal

Reproduction

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH)
- Stimulates the release of two
hormones:
1. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
2. Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)

PITUITARY GLAND
- secretes 2 gonadotropic hormones
1. Follicle-stimulating Hormone
(FSH)