Rapport CRTEn

Acknowledgment
I would like to express my gratitude to everyone who made it possible for me to complete my
internship at CRTEn. I want to give a special thank you to my supervisor, Dr. Rabia
Benabderrahmane, whose valuable suggestions and encouragement greatly aided me in
coordinating my internship and writing this report.
I would also like to extend my heartfelt appreciation to the staff of CRTEn, particularly the
laboratory of photovoltaic, for granting me permission to utilize the necessary equipment and
materials to successfully carry out my project. Their support played a vital role in my
internship experience.
i
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 2
Figure List .................................................................................................................................. 6
Abreviation list ........................................................................................................................... 8
GENERAL INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 1: ................................................................................................................................. 10
Exploring research and technologies centre of energy (CRTEn) and photovoltaic cells ......... 10
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 11
2. The Research and Technologies Center of Energy .......................................................... 11
2.1 Introduction of CRTEN .............................................................................................. 11
2.2The different laboratories in the CRTEn...................................................................... 12
3. Photovoltaic Technologies: Materials for Solar Cells ...................................................... 16
3.1. The technological system of solar photovoltaics ....................................................... 16
3.1.1 Solar Cell Technologies ....................................................................................... 16
3.1.2 Non-Silicon-Based Solar Cells ................................................................................ 17
3.1.3 Thin-film Technologies ........................................................................................... 18
3.1.4 Semiconductor III-V Solar Cells .......................................................................... 18
3.1.4 Multijunction solar cells ....................................................................................... 19
3.1.5 Bifacial Solar Cells............................................................................................... 20
3.1.6 Dye Sensitized and Organic Solar Cells .............................................................. 20
3.1.6. Perovskite Solar Cells ......................................................................................... 21
4. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 21
Chapter 2: ................................................................................................................................. 22
Deposition and Characterization Techniques of silicon carbide .............................................. 22
1.Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 23
Ben Hassine Imene Page 2
2. The silicon carbide............................................................................................................ 23
2.1 Introduction of silicon carbide [9] .............................................................................. 23
2.2 Applications of the silicon carbide.............................................................................. 24
3. Techniques for silicon carbide deposition and characterization ....................................... 25
3.1 The Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) .................................. 25
3.1.1 Introdution to PECVD .......................................................................................... 25
3.1.2 The PECVD process............................................................................................. 26
3.3 Advantages of using PECVD...................................................................................... 28
3.4 Disadvantages of using PECVD ................................................................................. 28
3.5 Applications ................................................................................................................ 29
4. The carrier lifetime study ................................................................................................. 29
4.1 Introduction to Semilab WT-2000 PVN ..................................................................... 29
4.2 The Semilab WT-2000 PVN process .......................................................................... 30
4.3 Advantages .................................................................................................................. 32
4.4 Disadvantages ............................................................................................................. 32
4.5 Applications ................................................................................................................ 33
5. Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy (FTIR) ........................................................... 33
5.1 Introduction to FTIR ................................................................................................... 33
5.2 The FTIR Process ....................................................................................................... 34
5.3 Advantages .................................................................................................................. 35
5.4 Disadvantages ............................................................................................................. 36
5.5 Applications ................................................................................................................ 36
6. Thickness determination with profilometer ..................................................................... 37
7. The Scanning Electron microscope (SEM) ...................................................................... 38
7.1 Introduction to the SEM.............................................................................................. 38
7.2 The SEM process ........................................................................................................ 39

7.3 The SEM advantages .................................................................................................. 39
7.4 The SEM disadvantages .............................................................................................. 40
7.5 Applications ................................................................................................................ 40
8. X-ray Diffraction .............................................................................................................. 41
8.1. Introduction to the XRD ............................................................................................ 41
8.2. The XRD process ....................................................................................................... 41
8.3. The XRD advantages ................................................................................................. 42
8.4. The XRD disadvantages............................................................................................. 43
8.5. Applications ............................................................................................................... 43
9. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 44
Chapter 3: ................................................................................................................................. 45
Characterization of Silicon Carbide thin films for photovoltaic applications: The Internship
Project....................................................................................................................................... 45
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 46
2. Study of the silicon carbide deposition by PECVD on silicon substrates ........................ 46
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 46
2.2 Experimental Methodology ........................................................................................ 46
2.3 Deposition Parameters ................................................................................................ 46
2.4 SiC deposition: process parameters ............................................................................ 47
3. SiC characterization .......................................................................................................... 48
3.1 Carrier lifetime study in SiC/Si samples ..................................................................... 48
3.1.1 The sample T62S2 ................................................................................................ 48
3.1.2 The sample T62S3 ................................................................................................ 49
3.1.3 The sample T62S6 ................................................................................................ 50
3.1.4 The sample T62S10 .............................................................................................. 50
3.2 Characterization of SiC with Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy ................... 51
3.3 SiC thickness determination ....................................................................................... 51

3.4 Morphological characterization of SiC with SEM...................................................... 52
3.4.1 Study of Optical Characteristics Using UV-Visible Spectroscopy ...................... 52
3.5 Structural characterization of SiC with XRD ............................................................. 53
4. The Selection of the Optimal Passivation Layer for Photovoltaic Applications .............. 55
4.1 The passivation layer .................................................................................................. 55
4.2 Selection of T62S2 as the Optimal Passivation Layer for Photovoltaic Applications 55
5. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 56
GENERAL CONCLUSION .................................................................................................... 56
References ................................................................................................................................ 58

Figure List
Figure 1: The CRTEn location .............................................................................................. 11
Figure 2: The different laboratories in CRTEn .................................................................. 12
Figure 3:Photovoltaic Laboratory ........................................................................................ 13
Figure 4:The Technological System of Solar Photovoltaics ............................................... 17
Figure 5:Solar cell efficiency ................................................................................................. 17
Figure 6:Thin-film Technologies........................................................................................... 18
Figure 7:Semiconductor III-V Solar Cells ........................................................................... 19
Figure 8: Multijunction solar cells ........................................................................................ 19
Figure 9:Bifacial Solar Cells.................................................................................................. 20
Figure 10:Mechanism of dye-sensitized solar cells.............................................................. 21
Figure 11:Elementary structural unit of SiC ....................................................................... 24
Figure 12:Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition ................................................. 26
Figure 13:PECVD System in CRTEn................................................................................... 28
Figure 14:Semilab WT-2000 PVN ........................................................................................ 30
Figure 15::The Semilab WT-2000 PVN process .................................................................. 31
Figure 16:Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy machine in CRTEn ...................... 34
Figure 17: Profilometer machine .......................................................................................... 38
Figure 18: The SEM equipment ............................................................................................ 38
Figure 19: The SEM process ................................................................................................. 39
Figure 20:X-ray Diffraction eauipment ............................................................................... 41
Figure 21:The XRD process .................................................................................................. 42
Figure 22: SiC thin films deposited on silicon substrates ................................................... 48

Figure 23: Lifetime cartography and the corresponding histogram of the sample T62S2
.................................................................................................................................................. 48
Figure 24: The lifetime cartography and the corresponding histogram of the sample
T62S3. ...................................................................................................................................... 49
T62S6 ....................................................................................................................................... 50
T62S10 ..................................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 27: FTIR Spectra of the SiC Layers Deposited under Different Pulse Numbers 51
Figure 25: The Cross-Section View of the SiC Layer deposited on Si substrate .............. 52
Figure 26: Reflectivity spectra of the deposited SiC layer.................................................. 53
Figure 27: XRD diffractogram of SiC deposied on Si substrate ....................................... 54
Figure 28: XRD diffractogram highlighting the presence of SiC ...................................... 54

Abreviation list
CRTEn: Research and Technologies Center of Energy
Si: Silicon
SiC: Silicon Carbide
LPV: Photovoltaic Laboratory
PV: Photovoltaic
LPT: Thermal Process Laboratory
LaNser: Laboratory of Nanomaterials and Energy Systems
LMEEVED: Laboratory for Wind Energy Control and Waste Energy Recovery
FTIR: Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy
XRD: X-ray diffraction
PECVD: Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition
SEM: Scanning Electron microscope
XRD: X-ray Diffraction
BOS: Balance of system technologies
DC: Direct Current

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
In the photovoltaic (PV) industry, the development of efficient solar cells is crucial to use
renewable energy effectively. One of the challenges in solar cell technology is reducing losses
and improving the overall performance of the devices. These losses could be divided into
technological losses and fundamental losses.
This internship report provides an overview of my experience during the internship at CRTEn
Technopole Borj Cedria, a prominent research centre focusing on advanced research and
development in energy, materials, and nanotechnologies. CRTEn is known for its state-of-the-
art facilities, cutting-edge equipment, and a highly skilled team of researchers and scientists.
The centre is dedicated to fostering innovation and technological advancements in order to
contribute to the progress of various industries and address key challenges in the energy and
materials sectors.
During the internship, conducted in the photovoltaic laboratory, the main focus was on
studying the deposition of silicon carbide (SiC) on silicon substrates using the PECVD
(Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition) technique. This technique involves the use of
plasma to deposit thin films of SiC on the silicon substrates. To analyze the properties and
characteristics of the SiC films, several techniques were employed, including FTIR (Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) for chemical bonding analysis, profilometry for measuring
film thickness, X-ray Diffraction (XRD) for determining crystal structure, and Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM), for visualizing surface morphology and microstructure.
The internship experience in LPV laboratory provided a valuable opportunity to work in a

state-of-the-art laboratory environment, collaborate with experts in the field, and gain hands-
on experience with advanced analytical techniques. The research conducted during the
internship contributes to the advancement of SiC deposition technology and its potential
applications in various industries.
Overall, CRTEn’s commitment to innovation, research excellence, and interdisciplinary

collaboration plays a significant role in driving scientific knowledge, technological
advancements, and supporting industrial development in the energy and materials sectors.

Chapter 1:
Exploring research and technologies centre of energy

(CRTEn) and photovoltaic cells

1. Introduction
In this chapter, we will describe the Research and Technologies Center of Energy, a
prominent institution specializing in energy and materials. We will provide a comprehensive
overview of the center, its mission, and its notable contributions to the field. Furthermore, this
chapter will shed light on various photovoltaic technologies employed at CRTEn. We will
explore the advancements in photovoltaic cells, highlighting the innovative approaches and
breakthroughs in harnessing solar energy. Through detailed explanations and examples, we
will showcase the diverse range of photovoltaic technologies developed and implemented at
CRTEn.
2. The Research and Technologies Center of Energy

This part provides an in-depth exploration of the CRTEn.
2.1 Introduction of CRTEN

The CRTEn is a prominent institution located in the Borj Cedria Technopark, Borj-Cedria,
Tunisia (Figure 1). With a rich history in energy and materials research, CRTEn has emerged
as a leading center dedicated to addressing energy challenges and developing sustainable
solutions. Through its state-of-the-art laboratories and research facilities, CRTEn conducts
cutting-edge studies in areas such as renewable energy systems, energy storage, energy
efficiency, and materials for energy applications. The center actively collaborates with
national and international partners, including academic institutions, industry leaders, and
governmental organizations, offering a dynamic research environment. CRTEn's strategic
location and commitment to innovation position it as a key player in driving the energy
transition and contributing to the global quest for sustainable energy solutions.
Figure 1: The CRTEn location[1]

2.2The different laboratories in the CRTEn
The Research and Technologies Center of Energy (CRTEn) encompasses various departments
and laboratories dedicated to different aspects of energy research and technology
development. Some of the prominent departments and laboratories within CRTEn
include(Figure 2):
Figure 2: The different laboratories in CRTEn
• The Thermal Processes Laboratory (LPT): has a primary objective of mastering

and optimizing applications in solar thermal and energy efficiency.
• The Laboratory of Wind Energy Control and Energy Valorization of Waste

(LMEEVED): is a research facility dedicated to study and develop technologies
related to wind energy control and the efficient use of waste for energy generation.
The lab focuses on exploring innovative solutions in these areas and aims to contribute
to the advancement of scientific knowledge and the development of practical
applications.
• The Laboratory of Nanomaterials and Systems for Renewable Energies

(LaNSER): is a multidisciplinary research facility stemming from the Photovoltaic
Laboratory (LPV). Comprising physicists, chemists, process engineering specialists,
and electrical engineering experts, LaNSER covers a wide spectrum of scientific
domains related to renewable energy and the environment. Building on its

multidisciplinary expertise, LaNSER focuses on research projects involving the
application of nanomaterials in photovoltaics, environmental studies, and chemical
and biological sensors. The laboratory continues previous initiatives from the 2010-
2013 period while launching new strategic research themes.
• The Photovoltaic Laboratory (LPV)
In this part, I will introduce the d LPV laboratory in which I have done my internship and it’s
different research projects.
Figure 3:Photovoltaic Laboratory[1]
-Introduction to LPV
The LPV is a leading research laboratory in Tunisia, spearheading advancements in solar

energy research and technology. With notable achievements such as producing industrial-
scale solar cells with high efficiencies of 11% in 1990 and 12-14% in 1993, the LPV played a
crucial role in the development of thin-film technologies and the exploration of nanomaterials
for efficient solar cell fabrication. Currently, the laboratory focuses on both first-generation
crystalline silicon-based cells, which dominate the market, and second-generation thin-film
cells using materials like amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium/gallium
selenide alloys. In line with nanoscience and nanotechnology advancements, the LPV aims to
address energy-related challenges through research on energy storage, cost reduction of solar
cells, and the use of metallic nanoparticles. Exploring non-used regions of the solar spectrum,
replacing expensive materials with transparent organic films, mastering the properties of
carbon nanotubes, and functionalizing nanostructures are among the laboratory's key
objectives. Additionally, the LPV investigates the plasmonic effect, pursues the discovery of
new materials, and characterizes nanostructures to enhance solar cells performance. Beyond

photovoltaics, the laboratory explores applications in supercapacitors, photocatalysis, and
photolysis, contributing to a comprehensive approach in clean energy research.
• Projects of LPV laboratory
The LPV laboratory has undertaken various projects in the field of Organic-Organic and
Organic-Inorganic composites for photovoltaic cells and electrical energy storage. One such
project focuses on developing a transparent organic conducting electrode based on Carbon
Nanotubes/Poly(vinylidene fluoride) and its application in organic solar cells. The research
also explores conductive polymers and their composites for applications in capacitors and
supercapacitors, aiming to enhance electrical energy storage. Another project involves hybrid
solar cells using silicon nanowires and photoactive polymers.
In order to studynew concepts for photovoltaic cells, the LPV laboratory is studying the
efficiency of the plasmonic effect in photovoltaic cells, aiming to improve their performance.
The researchers are also investigating nanostructured composite layers for thoird generation
solar cells, which could potentially enhance their energy conversion efficiency. Furthermore,
the laboratory focuses on nanostructures and crystalline silicon photovoltaic cells, including
the functionalization of nanoscale structures in crystalline silicon.
The LPV laboratory is also involved in studying second-generation solar cells, examining
electron transport phenomena in silicon dioxide, and investigating CIS and CIGS solar cells.
They explore CIS/CIGS solar cells on amorphous silicon and crystalline silicon, as well as
combinations of these materials. Additionally, the researchers are dedicated to studying non-
toxic materials such as polymers, carbon nanotubes, and TiO2 for solar spectrum conversion.
The aim is to develop environmentally friendly materials for solar energy applications.
The application of the laboratory's research findings on crystalline silicon solar cells and SiC-
based cells is an integral part of their work. They aim to translate their research into practical
applications that can enhance the performance and efficiency of these solar cell technologies.
In addition to photovoltaics, the LPV laboratory also conducts research in the field of
photonics and photocatalytic processes. They study photoelectrochemical devices with
semiconductor electrodes for photovoltaic conversion and solar energy storage. The
laboratory also investigates semiconductor nanomaterials and their applications in
photocatalysis.

The LPV laboratory has undertaken specific projects as well, such as the development of
nanostructured thin films based on a porous ZnO/Si nanocomposite for photovoltaic
applications, aiming to establish a correlation between nanostructures and energy efficiency.
They also explore the decoration of titanium dioxide nanotubes with metallic nanoparticles
for indoor air treatment processes, with applications in hospitals and agri-food industries.
Furthermore, the laboratory is involved in a Tunisian-German exchange program for the

scalable fabrication of stable and highly efficient perovskite solar cells, using carbon charge
transport layers. They also explore innovative SPRAY coating technologies that bridge the
gap between industrial and academic research applications.
Lastly, the LPV laboratory works on advanced heterojunction Si solar cells with thin films of
SiC and metal oxides. This project aims to enhance the efficiency and performance of Si solar
cells through advanced heterojunction designs.
These projects collectively demonstrate the LPV laboratory's commitment to advancing solar
energy technologies through the exploration of various materials, structures, and concepts.
• Techniques
A lot of techniques are available in CRTEn and in particular in LPV. Some techniques are
used for films deposition and nanostructures growth and others are used to characterize the
synthesized structures:
a. Methods of deposition
PECVD (Plasma Enhanced chemical vapor deposition)
Spin-coating
Dip-coating
Chemical deposition
Thermal evaporation
b. Characterization Methods
XRD

FTIR
Electrical characterization
Optoelectronic characterization
UV-VIS-NIR Spectroscopy
3. Photovoltaic Technologies: Materials for Solar Cells
3.1. The technological system of solar photovoltaics

The PV technological system is a power system comprises a sequence of interconnected
components that work together to convert sunlight energy into electricity, utilize the generated
energy, store it, or invert it.Accordingly, a PV system, whether centralized utilityscale or
distributed, consists of two main groups of elements: solar cells, and balance of system
technologies (BoS). While cells are responsible for generating electric energy out of the solar
irradiation, BoS components are important for connecting, chemically protecting, and
mechanically mounting the cells into panels, as well as electronically regulating their output
levels to be used, stored in batteries, or fed into the utility grid. Additionally, the system
includes testing and monitoring processes and portable devices powered by PV electricity.
3.1.1 Solar Cell Technologies

Solar cells represent the building block and main component of PV systems. A solar cell is
defined as an electrical device that directly converts the energy of photons into direct current
(DC) electricity through a chemical/physical phenomenon called the photovoltaic effect.
Photons with energy exceeding the cell material band-gap are absorbed causing excitation of
charge-carriers and thus electric current and voltage. The conversion efficiency (η) is
calculated as the percentage of the incident light power on the cell surface that is converted
into electrical energy under standard conditions.

Figure 4:The Technological System of Solar Photovoltaics [2]
3.1.2 Non-Silicon-Based Solar Cells

Non-silicon-based solar cells are emerging alternatives for converting sunlight into electricity.
Examples include organic solar cells, perovskite solar cells, dye-sensitized solar cells,
quantum dot solar cells, and CIGS solar cells. These technologies offer advantages such as
lightweight, flexibility, and potential cost reductions in manufacturing. However, they are still
in the development phase and not as widespread as silicon-based solar cells, which currently
dominate the market.
Figure 5: Solar cell efficiency[3]

3.1.3 Thin-film Technologies
Thin-film technologies are a type of solar cell technology that involves depositing thin layers
of semiconductor materials onto a substrate. Examples include cadmium telluride, copper
indium gallium selenide, amorphous silicon (a-Si), and organic photovoltaics .These
technologies offer advantages such as flexibility, lightweight, and potential cost reduction.
While they may have slightly lower efficiency compared to traditional silicon-based cells,
ongoing research aims to improve their performance and make them more competitive in the
solar market.
Figure 6: Thin-film Technologies[4]
3.1.4 Semiconductor III-V Solar Cells

Semiconductor III-V solar cells are a class of advanced solar cell technologies using
compound semiconductors composed of elements from Group III (such as gallium or indium)
and Group V (such as arsenic or phosphorus) of the periodic table. These materials have
desirable electronic properties, enabling efficient conversion of sunlight into electricity. III-V
solar cells have achieved some of the highest efficiencies among solar cell technologies,
making them suitable for space applications and concentrated photovoltaic systems. However,
their high manufacturing costs and challenges in integration with conventional silicon-based
technologies have limited their widespread commercial adoption. Ongoing research focuses
on improving their cost-effectiveness and scalability for broader deployment in the solar
energy industry.

Figure 7: Semiconductor III-V Solar Cells [5]
3.1.4 Multijunction solar cells

Multijunction solar cells are a type of advanced solar cell technology that consists of multiple
semiconductor layers stacked on top of each other. Each layer is designed to absorb a specific
range of wavelengths of sunlight, allowing for more efficient utilization of the solar spectrum.
By capturing a broader range of light, multijunction solar cells can achieve higher conversion
efficiencies compared to single-junction cells. These cells are commonly used in concentrated
photovoltaic systems and space applications where high power output is crucial. However,
their complex manufacturing process and cost have limited their widespread use in terrestrial
applications. Ongoing research aims to improve their cost-effectiveness and explore new
materials and designs to enhance their performance and expand their commercial viability.
Figure 8: Multijunction solar cells [6]

3.1.5 Bifacial Solar Cells
Bifacial solar cells are a type of solar cell technology that can generate electricity from both
the front and back sides of the module. Unlike traditional solar cells that only capture sunlight
from the front side, bifacial cells have a transparent backside that allows them to also capture
reflected and scattered light from the surroundings. This feature enables increased energy
production, especially in areas with highly reflective surfaces like snow, water, or light-
colored ground. Bifacial solar cells offer the potential for higher energy yields and can be
integrated into various applications such as solar trackers and building-integrated
photovoltaics. Ongoing research aims to optimize their efficiency, durability, and cost-
effectiveness to further promote their adoption in the solar industry.
Figure 9: Bifacial Solar Cells[7]
3.1.6 Dye Sensitized and Organic Solar Cells

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) and organic solar cells are alternative solar cell
technologies that offer unique advantages. DSSCs use a layer of photosensitive dye to absorb
sunlight, transferring the energy to a semiconductor material to generate electricity. They are
cost-effective, flexible, and perform well under low-light conditions. Organic solar cells, on
the other hand, utilize organic materials as the active layer. They are lightweight, flexible, and

can be produced using low-cost printing techniques. However, their efficiency is currently
lower compared to traditional silicon-based cells. Ongoing research aims to improve the
efficiency and stability of both DSSCs and organic solar cells to increase their commercial
viability in the solar industry.
Figure 10: Mechanism of dye-sensitized solar cells[8]
3.1.6. Perovskite Solar Cells

Perovskite solar cells are a promising solar cell technology that utilizes perovskite materials
as the light-absorbing layer. With their unique crystal structure, perovskites efficiently convert
sunlight into electricity. They have rapidly achieved high power conversion efficiencies
comparable to or even surpassing traditional silicon-based solar cells. Perovskite solar cells
offer advantages such as low-cost manufacturing and the ability to be processed onto flexible
substrates, enabling diverse applications. However, challenges remain regarding long-term
stability and scalability for widespread commercialization. Ongoing research focuses on
enhancing perovskite solar cell performance, durability, and manufacturing techniques to
fully harness their potential as a viable solar energy solution.
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, this chapter provided an insightful exploration of the CRTEn and photovoltaic
cells. The laboratory's dedication to advancing renewable energy technologies and its
innovative projects showcase the potential for a sustainable future.

Chapter 2:
Deposition and Characterization Techniques of silicon

carbide

1.Introduction
In the field of material science and analysis, exploring advanced characterization techniques is
essential for gaining a deeper understanding of materials and their properties. This chapter
deals with several prominent techniques used for deposition and characterization, including
PECVD (Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition), lifetime analysis, FTIR (Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectroscopy), SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope), and XRD (X-ray
Diffraction). These techniques play an important role in determining the structural, chemical,
and physical properties of materials, enabling researchers and scientists to understand their
behavior and applications.
2. The silicon carbide
2.1 Introduction of silicon carbide [9]

Silicon carbide (SiC) is a binary combination between silicon and carbon which belong to
column IV of the periodic table. The basic structural unit of silicon carbide is a tetrahedron
(SiC4 or CSi4) in which each silicon atom is connected to four carbon atoms (and vice versa)
as shown in figure 11. SiC is characterized by its hard crystalline structure, thanks to the
covalent bonds between silicon and carbon. SiC is described in the form of a stack of N
elementary bilayers constituting polytypes of different shapes. These polytypes are
distinguished by the way in which the atomic layers are arranged and not by their number of
silicon or carbon atoms per cell.

Figure 11:Elementary structural unit of SiC [10]
Its short interatomic distance (0.189 nm) compared to silicon (0.235 nm) gives SiC better
hardness, chemical stability and thermal conductivity which is an important property for the
evacuation of the heat generated in devices operating at high temperatures and at low
temperatures and at high frequencies. This also makes it more resistant to radiation. SiC
stands out for its strong chemical resistance to acidic and basic aqueous solutions at room
temperature.
The large bandgap of SiC is very beneficial for the use of this material as an optical window
in photovoltaic cells since amorphous SiC absorbs in the ultraviolet range and admits an
average absorbance in the visible and a good transmission in the near infrared.
2.2 Applications of the silicon carbide

In the field of engineering and materials science, silicon carbide is commonly used as an
abrasive material. It is used in the manufacturing of grinding wheels, sandpapers, and cutting
tools due to its hardness and abrasive properties.
Silicon carbide has also applications in the electronics industry. It is used in the production of
electronic components such as Schottky diodes. Silicon carbide-based devices can operate at
higher temperatures and higher voltages compared to traditional silicon-based devices. This
makes it suitable for high-power and high-temperature applications such as power electronics,
electric vehicles, and renewable energy systems.

Furthermore, silicon carbide has gained attention in recent years for its potential in power
electronics and energy conversion systems. Its unique combination of high-temperature
capability, high voltage handling, and low switching losses makes it an attractive material for
improving the efficiency and performance of power devices.
Its excellent thermal conductivity and tolerance to high temperatures ensure stable
performance even in demanding conditions. SiC-based PV cells exhibit superior radiation
resistance, making them suitable for space applications. Integrating SiC-based power
electronics reduces power losses and enhances overall system efficiency. Furthermore, SiC's
exceptional durability, chemical resistance, and mechanical strength enable PV cells to
withstand harsh environmental conditions without significant degradation. Overall, SiC offers
improved efficiency, reliability, and durability to enhance the performance of PV cells.
In summary, silicon carbide is a versatile material that finds applications in various industries,
including abrasives, electronics, and power electronics. Its exceptional properties make it a
valuable material for improving the performance and efficiency of a wide range of
applications.
3. Techniques for silicon carbide deposition and characterization

Silicon carbide could be deposited as thin films by different techniques such as the Plasma-
Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD), the Hot Wire Assisted Chemical Vapor
Deposition, the magnetron sputtering, the Pulsed Laser Deposition. In this work, the PECVD
was used to deposit SiC thin films. The study of silicon carbide (SiC) deposition could be
achieved through various techniques like: the X-ray Diffraction, the Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM), the Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) etc.
3.1 The Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD)
3.1.1 Introdution to PECVD

PECVD, or Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition, is a thin-film deposition technique
used in various industries, including semiconductor manufacturing, optics, and PV industry. It
is a process that allows the controlled growth of thin films on a substrate using a combination
of chemical reactions and plasma excitation.

3.1.2 The PECVD process
The PECVD process involves several steps and parameters that govern the deposition of thin
films (Figure 12).
Figure 12:Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition[11]
Here are some key details about the PECVD process:
-Vacuum Chamber: PECVD takes place in a vacuum chamber that provides a controlled
environment for film deposition. The chamber is typically made of a material that is
compatible with the process gases and can withstand the plasma environment.
-Substrate Preparation: the substrate to be coated is cleaned thoroughly to remove any

contaminants or oxide layers. This step ensures good adhesion and quality of the deposited
film.
-Precursor Gases: PECVD requires precursor gases that will react to form the desired thin
film. The choice of precursor gases depends on the material to be deposited. For example, in
the deposition of silicon nitride, silane (SiH4) is used as a silicon source, and ammonia (NH3)
is used as a nitrogen source.
-Plasma Generation: An electric field is applied to the precursor gases to generate a plasma.
The electric field can be created using radio frequency power or microwave power. The
plasma contains highly energetic electrons, ions, and neutral species.
-Gas Activation and Reaction: The plasma provides energy to the precursor gases, breaking
their molecular bonds and generating reactive species. These species react with each other or
with the substrate surface to form the desired thin film. The reactions can involve etching or
deposition processes, depending on the specific parameters.

-Film Deposition: The reactive species generated in the plasma are deposited onto the
substrate, forming a thin film. The film grows layer by layer as the reactive species continue
to react and deposit. The deposition rate depends on factors such as gas flow rates, precursor
concentrations, and plasma power.
-Process Parameters: Various process parameters are carefully controlled to achieve the
desired film properties. These parameters include gas flow rates, precursor gas ratios,
chamber pressure, temperature, and plasma power. Optimizing these parameters ensures film
uniformity, thickness control, and desired film composition.
-Film Properties: The properties of the deposited film can be tailored by adjusting the process
parameters. These properties include film thickness, refractive index, electrical conductivity,
stress, and composition. Characterization techniques like spectroscopic ellipsometry and
electrical measurements are employed to analyze and control the film properties.
-Post-Processing: After the film deposition, additional steps like annealing or surface
treatments may be performed to enhance the film's properties, remove residual impurities, or
improve adhesion to the substrate.
Overall, the PECVD process is a complex interplay of precursor gases, plasma excitation, and
process parameters that enable the controlled deposition of thin films with specific properties.
By carefully adjusting these factors, PECVD offers a versatile method for thin films synthesis
and their integration in a wide range of applications.
The Figure 13 shows the PECVD equipment available in CRTEn.

Figure 13:PECVD System in CRTEn
3.3 Advantages of using PECVD

The PECVD offers several advantages in thin film deposition compared to other techniques.
Here are some key advantages of using PECVD:
- Low operation temperature
- Lower chances of cracking deposited layer
- Good dielectric properties of deposited layer
- Good step coverage
- Less temperature dependent
3.4 Disadvantages of using PECVD

- Toxic byproducts
- High cost of equipment.

3.5 Applications
- Deposition of silicate layers
- in-situ doping
- Anti-reflection and anti-scratch layers in optics
- Anti-reflection and passivation layers for Solar cells
PECVD is a valuable technique in thin film deposition, offering unique advantages. However,
it is important to note that PECVD is not meant to replace traditional CVD methods. Instead,
it complements CVD by providing certain benefits. PECVD can often deliver superior layer
quality compared to CVD, thanks to its ability to produce conformal and uniform films even
on complex structures. Moreover, PECVD finds application in a wide variety of industries
and technologies, ranging from semiconductors to optics. Despite its advantages, the costs
associated with the PECVD process can sometimes be prohibitive, especially when
considering equipment, precursor gases, and maintenance expenses. Nonetheless, the benefits
and diverse applications of PECVD make it an attractive option for many industries [5].
4. The carrier lifetime study

In silicon-based solar cells, to obtain the maximum current, the photo-generated carriers
diffusing towards the metal contacts must have a large diffusion length and lifetime. A
compromise between electrical and optical parameters must be ensured. The carrier lifetime
study is an important step in the solar cell fabrication process. In this work, Semilab WT-2000
equipment was used (Figure 6).
4.1 Introduction to Semilab WT-2000 PVN

The Semilab WT-2000 PVN wafer machine is equipment used in the semiconductor
manufacturing industry to process and characterize wafers, which are material plates used as
substrates in electronic device fabrication.
The efficiency of the Semilab WT-2000 PVN wafer machine can depend on several factors,
such as usage, maintenance, operating conditions, and the quality of the equipment's
manufacturing. In general, these machines are designed to be durable and resilient to
withstand continuous operations in a production environment.

However, being high-tech equipment, it may require regular maintenance to maintain optimal
performance. This can include periodic cleaning and calibration, replacement of wear parts,
and software updates. The specific lifetime of a Semilab WT-2000 PVN wafer machine can
vary based on frequency of use, level of maintenance performed, and usage conditions [3].
For a more precise characterization of a Semilab WT-2000 PVN wafer machine, it is

recommended to consult the information provided by the manufacturer, such as technical
specifications and maintenance recommendations.
Figure 14: Semilab WT-2000 PVN [12]
4.2 The Semilab WT-2000 PVN process

The Semilab WT-2000 PVN wafer machine is designed to process and characterize wafers in
the semiconductor manufacturing industry. The process typically involves the following steps:
-Loading: Wafers are loaded into the machine using a robotic arm or a manual loading
mechanism. Proper handling techniques are employed to prevent damage of the wafers.
-Cleaning: The wafers may undergo a cleaning process to remove any contaminants or
particles that could affect the subsequent processing steps. This can include rinsing, drying,
and possibly chemical cleaning techniques.
-Alignment: The machine ensures that the wafers are properly aligned and positioned for the
subsequent processes. This is critical for accurate characterization and processing.
-Measurement: The Semilab WT-2000 PVN machine performs various measurements and
analyses on the wafers such as lifetime, diffusion length and current measurements.

-Data Analysis: The machine processes and analyzes the data collected from the
measurements. This can involve advanced algorithms and software to extract meaningful
information about the wafers' properties and quality.
-Feedback and Control: Based on the analysis results, the machine may provide feedback or
control signals to other equipment or processes in the semiconductor manufacturing line. This
feedback helps optimize the overall manufacturing process and ensure consistent quality.
-Unloading: Once the processing and characterization steps are complete, the wafers are
unloaded from the machine using a similar mechanism as the loading process.
It's important to note that the exact process may vary depending on the specific configuration
and capabilities of the Semilab WT-2000 PVN wafer machine, as well as the requirements of
the semiconductor manufacturing facility.
This technique is based on the measurement of the photoconductance decay. Microwave

photoconductance decay (µWPCD) uses a laser with an excitation wavelength of 904 nm with
a pulse duration of 200 ns to create electron-hole pairs in silicon up to 30 µm deep. Carriers
results in an increase in conductivity which decreases after the excitation step. The
photoconductance measurement is performed by measuring the variation in microwave
reflectivity (∆σ) to a microwave signal as shown in figure 15.
Figure 15: The Semilab WT-2000 PVN process [12]

4.3 Advantages
Here are three advantages of the Semilab WT-2000 PVN wafer machine:
- Accurate Characterization: It provides precise measurements and analyses of wafer

properties, ensuring reliable characterization for better quality control in semiconductor
manufacturing.
-Versatility: The machine can handle different types of wafers and accommodate various
semiconductor materials, making it suitable for a wide range of applications and adaptable to
evolving industry needs.
-Efficiency and Productivity: By automating processes, such as loading/unloading wafers and

data analysis, it reduces manual labor requirements and minimizes errors. This leads to
increased throughput, enhanced overall productivity, and faster decision-making in the
manufacturing process.
Overall, the Semilab WT-2000 PVN wafer machine offers accurate characterization,
versatility, and improved efficiency, contributing to enhanced quality control, increased
productivity, and better performance in semiconductor manufacturing.
4.4 Disadvantages
Here are some potential disadvantages of the Semilab WT-2000 PVN wafer machine:
-Cost: The Semilab WT-2000 PVN machine represents a significant investment, which may
be a challenge for smaller or budget-constrained manufacturing facilities.
-Complexity: Operating and maintaining the machine requires skilled technicians or operators
with knowledge of its operation, calibration procedures, and troubleshooting techniques.-
-Limited Compatibility: While versatile, the machine may not be compatible with certain
specialized materials or wafer sizes, potentially requiring alternative equipment or techniques.
-Maintenance Requirements: Regular maintenance is necessary to ensure optimal

performance, which includes cleaning, calibration, and potential replacement of parts or
components. Proper management is important to minimize downtime and associated costs.

It's important to note that these disadvantages are not necessarily inherent flaws of the
Semilab WT-2000 PVN machine but rather considerations that manufacturers should be
aware of when evaluating its suitability for their specific needs and constraints.
4.5 Applications
The Semilab WT-2000 PVN wafer machine has applications in :
-Quality control and characterization of wafers.
-Process development and optimization.
-Research and development of new materials and device designs.
-Failure analysis to identify root causes of issues.
-Real-time process monitoring for proactive quality control.
These applications contribute to improved device performance, enhanced manufacturing

processes, and the advancement of semiconductor technology.
5. Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy (FTIR)
5.1 Introduction to FTIR

Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to analyze the molecular
composition of a sample based on its interaction with infrared radiation. It is widely used in
various scientific, industrial, and research applications [13]. Here is an introduction to FTIR :
FTIR spectroscopy operates on the principle that molecules absorb specific frequencies of
infrared light, which correspond to the vibrational modes of the molecular bonds. By
measuring the absorption of infrared light by a sample at different wavelengths, FTIR
spectroscopy can provide valuable information about its molecular structure, functional
groups, and chemical composition.
The basic components of a FTIR spectrometer include a source of infrared radiation, an

interferometer, a sample holder, and a detector. The interferometer modulates the incoming
infrared light, and the resulting interferogram is then Fourier transformed to obtain a

spectrum. This spectrum represents the absorption of different infrared frequencies by the
sample, which can be analyzed to identify specific functional groups and compounds.
Figure 8 shows the FTIR machine available in CRTEn and used is this work.
Figure 16: Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy machine in CRTEn
5.2 The FTIR Process

The FTIR spectroscopy process involves several steps to analyze the molecular composition
of a sample using infrared radiation. Here is an overview of the FTIR process:
-Sample Preparation: The sample of interest needs to be prepared for analysis. Depending on
the nature of the sample, it may need to be ground, dissolved, or prepared in a specific form to
ensure accurate and consistent measurements.
-Interferometer Setup: The sample is placed in the sample holder, which is positioned in the
optical path of the FTIR spectrometer. The spectrometer consists of an interferometer, which
modulates the incoming infrared light by splitting it into two beams and recombining them.
This creates an interferogram, which contains information about the sample's absorption of
infrared light at different frequencies.
-Measurement Acquisition: The interferogram is detected by a sensitive detector, such as a

photodiode or a pyroelectric detector. The interferogram is obtained by measuring the

intensity of the modulated infrared light as a function of time. This process is repeated for a
certain period to accumulate sufficient data.
-Fourier Transformation: The acquired interferogram is subjected to Fourier transformation,

which converts the time-domain interferogram into a frequency-domain spectrum. Fourier
transformation mathematically analyzes the interferogram to extract the individual
frequencies and their respective intensities.
-Spectrum Analysis: The resulting spectrum represents the absorption of infrared light by the
sample at different frequencies. The spectrum is typically displayed as a plot of intensity
against wavenumber. The spectrum can be analyzed using spectral databases, reference
spectra, or by comparing it with known spectra of compounds to identify functional groups,
specific compounds, or molecular structures present in the sample.
-Data Interpretation: The interpreted spectrum can provide valuable information about the
sample's molecular composition, chemical bonds, and functional groups. It helps in
identifying compounds, detecting impurities, and determining structural information.
-Data Reporting: The final step involves analyzing and reporting the results of the FTIR
analysis. This includes summarizing the identified compounds, presenting the spectral data,
and interpreting the findings in the context of the specific application or research objective.
It's important to note that the specific details of the FTIR process may vary depending on the
instrument and techniques employed. However, the fundamental principle remains the same,
utilizing interferometry and Fourier transformation to obtain a spectrum that reveals the
sample's molecular composition based on its interaction with infrared light.
5.3 Advantages
-Broad applicability to various sample types.
-Provides detailed molecular information.
-Non-destructive analysis.
-Rapid and real-time analysis.
-Enables quantitative analysis.

-High sensitivity and selectivity.
-Instrumentation advancements enhance accuracy and reliability.
5.4 Disadvantages
-Costly equipment and maintenance.
-Complex data interpretation and analysis.
-Limited spatial resolution for microscopic samples.
-Susceptible to interference from water vapor and atmospheric gases.
-Requires expertise and training to operate effectively.
-Limited sensitivity for certain compounds or low-concentration analytes.
-Potential sample preparation requirements.
-Limited ability to analyze samples at extreme temperatures or pressures.
-Some compounds may not exhibit distinct infrared absorption bands, limiting analysis
capabilities.
5.5 Applications
-Chemical analysis and identification of organic and inorganic compounds.
-Pharmaceutical analysis for drug formulation and quality control.
-Polymer analysis to assess composition, degradation, and additives.
-Material science for characterization of ceramics, composites, and coatings.
-Semiconductor industry for quality control and process optimization.
-Archaeology for analysis of ancient artifacts and materials.
-Solar cell and energy research for characterization of photovoltaic materials.
These applications demonstrate the wide range of fields where FTIR spectroscopy is
employed to analyze and characterize various samples and materials.

6. Thickness determination with profilometer
A profilometer (figure 17) is a measuring instrument used to determine the thickness or height
of a surface or coating. The process of determining thickness using a profilometer involves
the following steps:
-Preparation: The surface or coating to be measured is prepared by ensuring it is clean and

free from debris or contaminants that could affect the measurement accuracy.
-Calibration: Before taking measurements, the profilometer is calibrated using a reference

sample with a known thickness. This calibration ensures accurate measurements by
accounting for any variations or offsets in the instrument.
-Measurement: The sample is then placed on the surface to be measured, and a stylus or probe
is brought into contact with the surface. The instrument is moved along the surface, and the
probe traces the contours or topography of the surface.
-Data collection: As the profilometer moves, it generates data that represents the variations in
height or thickness of the surface. This data is typically recorded and analyzed.
-Data analysis: The collected data is processed and analyzed to determine the thickness or
height of the surface. The profilometer software or algorithms compare the measured profile
to the reference sample and calculate the thickness based on the collected data points.
It's important to note that the specific measurement technique and calculation methods may
vary depending on the type and model of the profilometer being used. However, the
fundamental principle remains the same, which is to measure the surface profile or
topography to determine the thickness or height of the material being measured.

Figure 17: Profilometer equipment in CRTEn
7. The Scanning Electron microscope (SEM)
7.1 Introduction to the SEM

The SEM (Figure 18) is a technology used in various industries for high-resolution imaging
and analysis of samples at the micro- and nanoscale. It involves using a focused electron
beam to interact with the sample, providing detailed information about its surface structure
and composition [14].
Figure 18: The SEM equipment

7.2 The SEM process
The SEM process (Figure 19) typically involves the following steps:
- Sample Preparation: The sample is prepared by cleaning, mounting, and potentially coating
it with a conductive material to enhance imaging.
- Sample Alignment: The sample is carefully aligned within the SEM chamber to ensure
accurate imaging and analysis.
- Electron Beam Scanning: The focused electron beam is scanned over the sample surface,
resulting in interactions with the atoms or electrons in the sample.
- Signal Detection: Various signals, such as secondary electrons, backscattered electrons, or

X-rays, are detected to generate images and collect data about the sample's characteristics.
- Image and Data Analysis: The acquired data is processed and analyzed to extract valuable
information about the sample's topography, elemental composition, and other relevant
properties [2].
Figure 19: The SEM process [14]
7.3 The SEM advantages

SEM offers several advantages in imaging and analysis:
- High Resolution: SEM provides exceptional resolution at the micro- and nanoscale, allowing
detailed examination of sample surfaces.

- Non-Destructive: The imaging process is typically non-destructive, allowing for multiple
observations and analysis without damaging the sample.
- Versatility: SEM can be applied to a wide range of sample types, including conductive and
non-conductive materials.
- Elemental Analysis: The technique enables elemental analysis, identifying the chemical
composition and distribution of elements within the sample.
- Depth Profiling: SEM can also perform depth profiling to investigate layer structures and
interfaces in materials.
7.4 The SEM disadvantages

SEM also has some limitations:
- Cost: The initial investment and maintenance costs of SEM equipment can be significant,
making it less accessible for smaller laboratories or facilities.
- Vacuum Requirements: SEM typically requires a vacuum environment, which may limit the
analysis of samples that are sensitive to vacuum conditions.
- Sample Preparation: Proper sample preparation, including coating and mounting, is crucial
for accurate imaging and analysis, adding complexity and time to the process.
- Limited Sample Size: The size of samples that can be analyzed may be limited due to the
chamber size and stage capabilities of the SEM system.
7.5 Applications
The SEM technique finds applications in various fields, including:
- Semiconductor Industry: SEM is used for defect analysis, quality control, and failure
analysis of semiconductor devices and integrated circuits.
- Material Science: It helps characterizing material properties, investigate material structures,

and analyze surface modifications or coatings.
- Nanotechnology: SEM is used for nanoscale imaging and fabrication of structures, such as
nano-devices or nano-patterns.

- Biological Research: SEM assists in imaging and studying biological samples, such as cells,
tissues, and biomaterials, at high resolution.
- Forensics and Archaeology: It permits in the examination and analysis of forensic evidence,
ancient artifacts, and historical materials.
8. X-ray Diffraction
8.1. Introduction to the XRD

XRD (X-ray Diffraction) is a technique used for studying the crystal structure of materials
(Figure 20). It involves directing X-rays onto a sample and analyzing the resulting diffraction
pattern to gain insights into the arrangement of atoms within the material's lattice structure
[15].
Figure 20:X-ray Diffraction equipment available in CRTEn
8.2. The XRD process

The XRD process typically includes the following steps (Figure 21):
- Sample Preparation: The sample is prepared in a suitable form, such as a powder or single
crystal, to ensure proper diffraction.

- X-ray Beam Interaction: X-rays are directed onto the sample, and the atoms within the
material scatter the X-rays in different directions.
- Diffraction Pattern Collection: A detector captures the diffracted X-rays, generating a

diffraction pattern, which is a unique fingerprint of the material's crystal lattice.
- Data Analysis: The obtained diffraction pattern is analyzed using mathematical techniques,
such as Fourier transformation, to determine the crystal structure parameters.
Figure 21: The XRD process [16]
8.3. The XRD advantages

XRD offers several advantages in the study of crystal structures:
- Structural Information: XRD provides detailed information about the arrangement of atoms
within a crystal lattice, including lattice parameters, atomic positions, and symmetry.
- Non-Destructive: The technique is non-destructive, allowing for repeated measurements

and analysis without damaging the sample.
- High Resolution: XRD can provide high-resolution data, enabling the characterization of
complex crystal structures and subtle atomic arrangements.

- Quantitative Analysis: XRD allows for quantitative analysis, such as determining the crystal
phase composition and identifying the presence of impurities or defects.
- Material Identification: XRD can be used to identify unknown materials by comparing their
diffraction patterns to known databases.
8.4. The XRD disadvantages

XRD also has some limitations:
- Sample Requirements: XRD requires the sample to be in a suitable crystalline form, which
may be challenging for amorphous or non-crystalline materials.
- Sample Size: The size of the sample can be a limitation as it should be large enough to
generate a sufficient diffraction signal.
- Time-Consuming: Obtaining a high-quality diffraction pattern can be a time-consuming

process, particularly for complex crystal structures or low-intensity diffraction signals.
-Equipment and Expertise: XRD equipment and expertise may be costly and require
specialized training and knowledge for sample preparation, data collection, and analysis.
8.5. Applications
XRD finds applications in various fields, including:
- Material Science: It is used to determine the crystal structure and phase composition of
materials, aiding in material characterization, synthesis, and quality control.
- Pharmaceuticals: XRD permits the analysis of the crystal structures of pharmaceutical

compounds, facilitating drug development and formulation.
- Geology: It is employed to study the mineral composition and crystal structures of rocks and
minerals, providing insights into their formation and properties.
- Metallurgy: XRD assists in the analysis of metal alloys, identifying phase transformations,
and studying crystal defects for improved materials design.

- Archaeology and Art Conservation: XRD is used in the identification and analysis of
pigments, ceramics, and other artifacts to understand their composition and production
techniques [4].
9. Conclusion
In this chapter, we have explored advanced characterization techniques for materials, focusing
on the principles and applications of PECVD, FTIR, XRD, SEM. These techniques have
proven to be invaluable in understanding and analyzing the properties of various materials,
enabling researchers and scientists to gain insights into their structural, chemical, and physical
attributes.

Chapter 3:
Characterization of Silicon Carbide thin films for

photovoltaic applications: The Internship Project

1. Introduction
In this chapter, we present the results and findings of the internship project focused on the
characterization of silicon carbide (SiC). SiC is a widely used material known for its
exceptional properties, including high temperature stability, excellent mechanical strength,
and wide bandgap. The aim of this project was to explore and analyze the various properties
of SiC using multiple characterization techniques, providing valuable insights into its
structural, optical, and electrical characteristics.
2. Study of the silicon carbide deposition by PECVD on silicon

substrates
2.1 Introduction
In this part, we present the study of silicon carbide (SiC) deposition on silicon (Si) substrates
using the Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) technique. SiC is a wide-
bandgap semiconductor with excellent thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties, making
it highly desirable for various applications such as power devices, optoelectronics, and high-
temperature electronics. The PECVD method offers a controlled and versatile approach to
deposit SiC films on Si substrates, offering precise control over film properties and growth
parameters.
2.2 Experimental Methodology

The study involved a series of experiments to investigate the SiC deposition process using
PECVD. The experimental setup included a PECVD chamber, a Si substrate holder, and
precursor gases such as silane (SiH4) and methane (CH4) along with a carrier gas such as
hydrogen (H2).
2.3 Deposition Parameters

Various deposition parameters were studied to optimize the SiC film growth on Si substrates.
These parameters included substrate temperature, gas flow rates, pressure, and deposition
time. By systematically varying these parameters, the influence of each parameter on film
quality, thickness, and stoichiometry was assessed.

2.4 SiC deposition: process parameters
Before SiC deposition, the Silicon substrates underwent a cleaning process as described
below:
-Trichloroethylene: Duration 5 min (To remove grease)
-Acetone: Duration 5 min
-Ethanol: Duration 5 min
-HF (10%) for 10 min to eliminate the native oxide.
Table 1 recapitulates the parameters chosen in this work to deposit SiC films with different
properties. As we can see, the substrate temperature and the deposition duration were the
studied parameters. In this process, hydrogen plasma was applied before and after the
precursor’s introduction into the PECVD chamber. This step is essential to obtain a
hydrogenated silicon carbide layer and ameliorate the passivation of interfaces defects.
Table1: Description of the process parameters
Substrate Pressure RF Deposition SiH4 H2 CH4

temperature (Torr) power duration flow flow flow
(°C) (watts) (s) rate rate rate
(sccm) (sccm) (sccm)
T62S2 450 1 15 30 50
50 180 10 40
15 30 50
T62S3 450 1 15 30 50
50 30 10 40
15 30 50
T62S6 350 1 15 30 50
50 60 10 40
15 30 50
T62S10 450 1 15 30 50
50 60 10 40
15 30 50

Figure 22 presents a photography of SiC layers deposited deposited for two different process
duration.
Figure 22: SiC thin films deposited on silicon substrates
3. SiC characterization
3.1 Carrier lifetime study in SiC/Si samples
3.1.1 The sample T62S2

The carrier lifetime is determined using the Semilab technique. This technique permits the
determination of the lifetime cartography using a measurement resolution of 250 µm. Figure
16 shows the lifetime cartography and the corresponding histogram of the sample T62S2.
Figure 23: Lifetime cartography and the corresponding histogram of the sample T62S2

As we can observe, the cartography is very homogeneous indicated by the blue color
demonstrating the deposition homogeneity. This indicates that the T62S2 SiC sample is
considered to be of good quality, which can positively impact its electrical conductivity and
performance. The average carrier lifetime is about 7.2 µs.

Figure 24 shows the lifetime cartography and the corresponding histogram of the sample
T62S3. The lifetime cartography shows the non-homogeneity of the SiC film. The carrier
lifetime varied from 3.5 to 4.4 µs.
Figure 24: The lifetime cartography and the corresponding histogram of the sample T62S3.
Comparing to the T62S2 SiC sample, it can be inferred that the T62S2 has a better overall
performance. The T62S2 sample also exhibits an homogeneous deposition,. This suggests that
the SiC layer in the T62S2 sample has a better passivation behavior of the silicon substrate .
This behavior is potentially leading to improved electrical conductivity and overall device
performance compared to the T62S3 SiC sample.

T62S6. The lifetime cartography shows the non-homogeneity of the SiC film as the sample
T62S3. The aerage carrier lifetime is about 3.9 µs.
Figure 25: The lifetime cartography and the corresponding histogram of the sample T62S6

T62S10. The lifetime cartography shows a better homogeneity of the SiC film than the
samples T62S3 and T32S10. The average carrier lifetime is about 5.5 µs.
However, it is important to note that all the samples show a red color on the edges indicating a
lower carrier lifetime, which may suggest the presence of defects or impurities in these
regions due to the cut-off of the wafers.
Figure 26: The lifetime cartography and the corresponding histogram of the sample T62S10

3.2 Characterization of SiC with Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy
The infrared spectra corresponding to the thin SiC layers are obtained by subtracting the
reference spectrum of the substrate and are represented in the figure 27.
T62S2
0.08 T62S10
T62S6
T62S3
0.06
Intensité (u.a)
Si-C
C-H
0.04
0.02
0.00
Si-C Si-O
600 800 1000 1200 1400

-3
Nombre d'onde (cm )
Figure 27: FTIR Spectra of the SiC Layers Deposited under Different Pulse Numbers
The FTIR spectra illustrated in the figure show the presence of characteristic bands of the SiC
bonds at 610 cm-1 and 790 cm-1. The spectra depict also the presence of Si-O and C-H
bonds. FTIR results confirm the SiC deposition by PECVD.
3.3 SiC thickness determination

The measurements obtained using a profilometer indicate that the SiC thickness for the
samples T62S2, T62S3, T62S6, and T62S10 are as follows: 652.8713 micrometers, 133.6666
micrometers, 983.3852 micrometers, and -106.47 micrometers, respectively. These results
represent the measured thickness values of the SiC material on the respective samples. It is
important to note that a positive value indicates a thickness above the reference plane, while a
negative value suggests a thickness below the reference plane. These measurements provide
essential information about the thickness of the SiC layer in each sample, which is crucial for
quality control, process optimization, and further analysis of the materials.

3.4 Morphological characterization of SiC with SEM
The cross-section view provides us with insights into the thickness and uniformity of the SiC
layer. The figure shows that the deposited SiC layer has a thickness of approximately 185 nm.
Figure 28: The Cross-Section View of the SiC Layer deposited on Si substrate
3.4.1 Study of Optical Characteristics Using UV-Visible Spectroscopy

The reflectivity spectra of the Si substrate and the SiC/Si sample are presented in figure 26.

110
100
90
80
Réflectivité (%) 70
60
50
40
30
20
10
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Longueur d'onde (nm)
Figure 29: Reflectivity spectra of the deposited SiC layer
The reflectivity is significantly reduced in the UV/visible spectral region and becomes less
intense than that of the substrate. We observe the presence of interference fringes for the
thin layers analyzed in the wavelength range from 440 to 1200 nm. This presence is due to
multiple reflections at the film/substrate and film/air interfaces. It should be noted that these
interference fringes only appear when the film/air interface is perfectly smooth, whereas in
the presence of surface clusters, the light will be scattered instead of being reflected.
Therefore, we can conclude that the surfaces of the layers are smooth, which is consistent
with the results of morphological analysis by SEM.
3.5 Structural characterization of SiC with XRD

The analysis was performed by grazing Incidence X-ray Diffraction (GIXRD)
The analyses are conducted using the 'D8 ADVANCE' diffractometer manufactured by
BRUKER with an incidence angle of 5° to minimize substrate effects. The obtained
diffractograms are presented in the figure 27.

Intensité (u.a)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
2 (°)
Figure 30: XRD diffractogram of SiC deposied on Si substrate
The diffractogram of the deposited layers reveals a prominent peak located at 69.43°,
attributed to Si(400), which corresponds to the silicon substrate. A zoomed-in view of the
range 25° to 45° shows a peak at 35°, associated with SiC (311). This result confirms the
successful fabrication of thin SiC layers figure 28.
Intensité (u.a)
25 30 35 40 45
2 (°)
Figure 31: XRD diffractogram highlighting the presence of SiC

4. The Selection of the Optimal Passivation Layer for Photovoltaic
Applications
4.1 The passivation layer

A passivation layer is a thin film of material deposited on the surface of a substrate to enhance
its performance and protect the surface from adverse environmental effects. Passivation
involves neutralizing surface defects, reducing non-radiative recombination of charge carriers,
and improving the stability and lifetime of devices.
The passivation layer acts as a barrier between the substrate and the external environment,
minimizing undesirable interactions such as oxidation, corrosion, or chemical reactions with
contaminants. It can also limit current leakage, improve light emission or absorption
efficiency, and promote more efficient electrical interfaces between different layers of a
device.
The materials used as passivation layers vary depending on the application and substrate.
They can be organic, inorganic, or hybrid materials such as polymers, metal oxides, or
nitrides. Deposition of the passivation layer can be achieved through various techniques such
as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD),
or evaporation[7].
In summary, a passivation layer is a deposited material film on the surface of a substrate to

enhance performance, protect against environmental damage, and reduce surface defects. It
plays a crucial role in the reliability and efficiency of electronic, photovoltaic, and
optoelectronic devices.
4.2 Selection of T62S2 as the Optimal Passivation Layer for Photovoltaic

Applications
After conducting a comprehensive characterization study of the T62S2, T62S3, T62S6, and
T62S10 samples, it was determined that T62S2 exhibited the most favorable properties for the
passivation layer for the silicon substrate. The selection of T62S2 was based on its passivation
behavior. In fact, this sample exhibits the best carrier lifetime and the most homogeneous.

By choosing T62S2 as the preferred material for the passivation layer, it is expected to
provide effective surface passivation and reduce recombination of charge carriers in. This, in
turn, can enhance the overall efficiency and performance of the solar cells by minimizing
losses related to surface recombination. The superior properties of T62S2, coupled with its
compatibility with PV manufacturing processes, make it a promising candidate for improving
the electrical properties and stability of photovoltaic devices.
Further research and development efforts can now focus on optimizing the deposition process
and fine-tuning the passivation layer thickness to maximize the performance benefits of using
SiC in PV applications.
5. Conclusions
In summary, the characterization study of SiC using multiple techniques has provided a
comprehensive understanding of the different SiC samples. The selection of SiC as a
passivation layer in PV applications paves the way for future advancements in photovoltaic
technology.
GENERAL CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the internship at CRTEn provided a valuable opportunity to delve into the
project study of silicon carbide (SiC) deposition by PECVD on silicon substrates. Throughout
the internship, a range of techniques and methods were employed to characterize and analyze
the properties of the SiC films, including the measurement of carrier lifetime, FTIR
spectroscopy, profilometry, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy
(SEM).
The use of these techniques allowed a comprehensive understanding of the SiC films,
including their structural, optical, and morphological properties. The findings from these
analyses provided insights into the quality and performance of the SiC films, enabling the
identification of the most suitable type for the passivation layer in photovoltaic (PV)
applications.

Among the examined SiC samples, T62S2 emerged as the optimal choice for the passivation
layer. This sample presents the most suitable properties in particular the carrier lifetime.
The study of silicon carbide as a passivation layer opens up avenues for further research and
development, aiming to optimize the deposition process and fine-tune the passivation layer
characteristics. This advancement has the potential to contribute to the improvement of solar
cell efficiency and competitiveness in the market.
Overall, the internship provided a valuable learning experience, combining theoretical

knowledge with practical implementation in the field of SiC deposition. The project study on
SiC deposition represent important steps towards advancing the development of efficient
photovoltaic devices.

References
[1]: http://www.crten.rnrt.tn/public/fr/home
[2]: Solanki, Chetan Singh. Solar photovoltaic technology and systems: a manual for
technicians, trainers and engineers. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., 2013.
[3]: https://homesolarsimplified.com/most-efficient-solar-panels-2023/
[4]: https://www.susumu.co.jp/english/tech/know_how_02.php
[5] Forbes, David, and Seth Hubbard. "Solar-cell-efficiency enhan-cement using

nanostructures [Электронный ресурс]." Solar & Alternative Energy. SPIE (2010).
[6] Francesco Enrichi, G. C. (2020). SOLAR CELLS AND LIGHT MANAGEMENT

Materials, strategies and sustainability.
[7] https://solaren-power.com/bifacial-solar-modules/
[8] Jatan. (2015). Introduction to Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Retrieved from W&M honors
fellows:http://honorsfellows.blogs.wm.edu/2015/04/15/abstract-introduction-to-dye-
sensitized-solar-cells/
[10] M. Barbouche, Synthèse, purification et caractérisation de nanostructures de carbure de

silicium pour applications photovoltaïques et optoélectroniques, thèse de doctorat, Université
de Carthage, 2017.
[10] Järrendahl, Kenneth, and Robert F. Davis. "Materials properties and characterization of
SiC." Semiconductors and Semimetals. Vol. 52. Elsevier, 1998. 1-20.
[11] Long, Jidong, et al. "Doped microcrystalline silicon layers for solar cells by 13.56 MHz
plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition." Energy Procedia 15 (2012): 240-247.
[12] https://semilab.com/category/products/carrier-lifetime-u-pcd-qss-upcd
[13] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
[14] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope

[15] https://serc.carleton.edu/research_education/geochemsheets/techniques/XRD.html
[16] https://cms.eas.ualberta.ca/xrd/how-xrd-works/

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Acknowledgment

Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 2

Figure List .................................................................................................................................. 6

Abreviation list ........................................................................................................................... 8

GENERAL INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 9

2. The Research and Technologies Center of Energy .......................................................... 11

2.1 Introduction of CRTEN .............................................................................................. 11

2.2The different laboratories in the CRTEn...................................................................... 12

3. Photovoltaic Technologies: Materials for Solar Cells ...................................................... 16

3.1. The technological system of solar photovoltaics ....................................................... 16

3.1.1 Solar Cell Technologies ....................................................................................... 16

3.1.2 Non-Silicon-Based Solar Cells ................................................................................ 17

3.1.3 Thin-film Technologies ........................................................................................... 18

3.1.4 Semiconductor III-V Solar Cells .......................................................................... 18

3.1.4 Multijunction solar cells ....................................................................................... 19

3.1.5 Bifacial Solar Cells............................................................................................... 20

3.1.6 Dye Sensitized and Organic Solar Cells .............................................................. 20

3.1.6. Perovskite Solar Cells ......................................................................................... 21

Deposition and Characterization Techniques of silicon carbide .............................................. 22

2.1 Introduction of silicon carbide [9] .............................................................................. 23

2.2 Applications of the silicon carbide.............................................................................. 24

3. Techniques for silicon carbide deposition and characterization ....................................... 25

3.1 The Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) .................................. 25

3.1.1 Introdution to PECVD .......................................................................................... 25

3.1.2 The PECVD process............................................................................................. 26

3.3 Advantages of using PECVD...................................................................................... 28

3.4 Disadvantages of using PECVD ................................................................................. 28

3.5 Applications ................................................................................................................ 29

4. The carrier lifetime study ................................................................................................. 29

4.1 Introduction to Semilab WT-2000 PVN ..................................................................... 29

4.2 The Semilab WT-2000 PVN process .......................................................................... 30

4.3 Advantages .................................................................................................................. 32

4.4 Disadvantages ............................................................................................................. 32

4.5 Applications ................................................................................................................ 33

5. Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy (FTIR) ........................................................... 33

5.1 Introduction to FTIR ................................................................................................... 33

5.2 The FTIR Process ....................................................................................................... 34

5.3 Advantages .................................................................................................................. 35

5.4 Disadvantages ............................................................................................................. 36

5.5 Applications ................................................................................................................ 36

6. Thickness determination with profilometer ..................................................................... 37

7. The Scanning Electron microscope (SEM) ...................................................................... 38

7.1 Introduction to the SEM.............................................................................................. 38

7.2 The SEM process ........................................................................................................ 39

Ben Hassine Imene Page 3

7.4 The SEM disadvantages .............................................................................................. 40

7.5 Applications ................................................................................................................ 40

8. X-ray Diffraction .............................................................................................................. 41

8.1. Introduction to the XRD ............................................................................................ 41

8.2. The XRD process ....................................................................................................... 41

8.3. The XRD advantages ................................................................................................. 42

8.4. The XRD disadvantages............................................................................................. 43

8.5. Applications ............................................................................................................... 43

2. Study of the silicon carbide deposition by PECVD on silicon substrates ........................ 46

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 46

2.2 Experimental Methodology ........................................................................................ 46

2.3 Deposition Parameters ................................................................................................ 46

2.4 SiC deposition: process parameters ............................................................................ 47

3. SiC characterization .......................................................................................................... 48

3.1 Carrier lifetime study in SiC/Si samples ..................................................................... 48

3.1.1 The sample T62S2 ................................................................................................ 48

3.1.2 The sample T62S3 ................................................................................................ 49

3.1.3 The sample T62S6 ................................................................................................ 50

3.1.4 The sample T62S10 .............................................................................................. 50