PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

Explain the force of an aircraft: when thrust and drag are in an equilibrium an aircraft will
maintain a steady speed. For aircraft to accelerate thrust must exceed the value of drag.

When lift and weight are in equilibrium the aircraft will maintain a steady level altitude. For
an aircraft you climb lift must exceed the weight of the aircraft.
In the paint turn weight is a constant but lived it is lost due to the effective reduction in
wingspan. Therefore, to maintain altitude in a banked turn the lift value needs to be restored
by increasing speed and the bank angle

Wing Design

Advantage of a T tail, increase elevator effectiveness, tail is out of the downwash.

Why does a swept back wing stall first?

Does the Da42 have dihedral wings? dihedral

How does a wing stall? A wing stalls when it loses lift because the air flow over it becomes
disrupted. This can happen if the wing's angle is too high, or the airplane is going too slow.
To recover from a stall, the pilot needs to lower the airplane's nose to restore smooth airflow
over the wing and regain lift.

Wing of a jet?

What is a wing twist? an aerodynamic feature added to aircraft wings to adjust lift
distribution along the wing to ensure that the wing tip is the last part of the wing surface to
stall.

Washout? Is a decrease in the angle of incidence from the wing root to the tip. This
compensates for the earliest toll due to the higher level of loading experience at the wing tips.

Disadvantage of swept wing?

- Poor lift qualities
- Higher stall speeds, due to the reduction of lift
- Speed instability, speed is unstable below MDS, even with the hight lift coefficient at
lower speed, drag increases faster.

Advantage of a swept wing?

- Hight Mach cruise speed
- Stability in turbulence, which is ironic as it produces less lift, we would think it is less
stable but because it produces less lift it is less responsive to updraught.

What is the difference between angle of attack and angle of incidence?

AOA=chord line to airflow AOI=chord line to longitude datum
What is the critical AoA? Maximum lift coefficient

How does an aerofoil work? The wings provide lift by creating a situation where the pressure
above the wing is lower than the pressure below the wing.

How do high lift devices work?

Trailing edge flaps (fowler)= increase lift at low angle of deflection
Leading edge flaps (Kruger)/slats=increase lift by increasing camber,chord,area
Slots=delay separation of the airflow bondary layer

How does a stall strip work? initiates flow separation on a region of the upper surface of the
wing during flight at high angle of attack.

C of P movement during/approaching stall? Moves forward with increasing AOA then rapidly
moves aft which makes the airccraft pitch down

What are the disadvantages of a swept wing, and how is this compensated?
Pitch up, super stall, less aerodynamically efficient, tip stall, dutch roll require yaw damper,
to comoensate => require lift devices for reasonable takeoff and landing, mach tuck

What are wing tip vortices? Created by spanwise airflow over the upper and lower surfaces of
a wing that meet at the wing tips as turbulence and therefore induce drag.

Why winglets? When the high pressure and low pressure streams around the wing meets at
the wingtip they create a vortex. This vortex creates drag. The winglet reduce the induced
drag. In the end it helps reducing the fuel consumption of the aeoplane..

List the advantages and disadvantage of winglets :

Ad – reduced effects of vortices, more efficient wing
Dis – fitting/maintenance

What is anhedral? Downward inclination

What is dihedral? Upward inclination

Why do we use dihedral? Lateral stability

Why is anhedral used instead on some aircraft? As some aircraft are too stable (high wing)

What is wing loading? Weight divided by wing area

What do you prefer, a high or low wingload? Lower=take of/land at lower speeds
Angle of incidence ? the angle between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and the chord line
of the wing
How do we call a decrease in the angle of incidence from the wing root to the tip, Washout

Speed (IAS/TAS/Mach)

Difference between TAS and IAS ? True Airspeed is equivalent airspeed corrected for
temperature and pressure altitude.

How can you calculate a Mach number?

What are Mach meter errors? instrument error, position error, compressibility error and
manoeuvre induced error.

Temperature decrease how does the LSS? decrease.

Mack truck? Nose down pitch when passing Mcrit. CP moves rearwards behind CG due to
shockwaves.

Mcrit? Speed at which airflow over wing becomes sonic.

How do you prevent an aircraft reaching mcrit? Swept wings.

Why do we measure speed as a Mach number? When does speed change from IAS to Mach?
Because at altitude Mach is more significant (Mmo) If climbing at constant IAS you could
exceed Mmo

At high altitudes, what speed do aircraft climb on? Mach no

Why do we bother with Mach Number? At altitude it is more significant. If you were to climb
at constant IAS you could exceed Mmo

At what speed does mach tuck occur? Mcrit

What is a mach trimmer? To compensate for mach tuck above mccrit

How do you recover from Mach tuck? How do you avoid it? Descend

What increases Mach Crit? Swept wing.

Why does a swept wing increase Mach crit? Effective chordwise velocity is reduced. Wing
believes it is flying slower than it actually is.

What do airlines have to guard against reaching Mach crit? Swept wings.
Speed and Altitude

Why do we fly high and fast? More efficient, less power but less power is required, faster

What is the maximum operating ceiling of a typical jet? 35000-40000

Why will a jet not fly this altitude? Coffin Corner

When will a jet be able to fly this altitude? If warmer temperature

Explain what coffin corner is. Where the speed at which Mach number buffet and prestall
buffet occur are the same. It’s the moment on the airspeed tape where you are stuck between
two stalls. If you climb further the two limits will get closer to you.

Name several examples of disadvantages of high altitude operation: Less engine thrust,
therefore reduced take-off weight, Brake cooling can become critical at landing

V Speeds

VMCG, VMBE, V1, VMCA, Vr, V2

What effect does a wet runway have on V1 and V2? Lower V1, gives more stopping distance

What is VMCG? Min control speed on ground with loss of critical engine, it maintains
directianl control and it canot be higher than v1.

Can Vmcg be lower than V1? Explain. It normally is! Maybe in wet conditions they could be
the same

Would you be happy if VMCG is higher than V1? No, after V1 if eng fail no lateral control
until VMCG

What is V2? Why is it important? Take off safety speed by screen height (35ft.) Maintains
climb and directional control

Being an excellent pilot, if I can fly at VMCA, do I need a V2 speed? Yes, VMCA is only
directional, V2 is climb performance

How do you calculate VREF? 1.3 x Vs in landing config

What is VMBE? Max speed on ground which brake capability can stop with

What is VS? Stall speed. Air over wings will stall at this speed. Varies with weight and config
What are factors that affect Vmca?
- Temperature, an increase in temperature means an increase in density altitude and
thus decrease in engine power and thrust. Less thrust means less yawing moment and
lower Vmca.
- Altitude, higher altitude means higher density altitude and affects Vmca in the way
described in Temperature
- Centre of Gravity An aft CofG means a smaller moment arm for the rudder to work on
and thus leads to a higher Vmca.
- Flap Position With the flaps down the drag induced behind the operating engines will
be greater and is a favourable effect. Thus raising the flaps will increase Vmca.
- Weight As weight is increased, the lift required to balance the weight also increases.
When the AoB is introduced, the side force component is also greater. This means a
greater AoA on the rudder and thus less pedal force required. Therefore, higher
weights lead to a reduction in Vmca.

VNE means ? never-exceed speed

Relation between Vs and V2 ? v2=1.2vs

VIMD is the minimum drag speed.

Propreties of stall speed : total weight, load factor, power, and center of gravity location.

Mach number : the Mach number is a way to describe the speed of an object relative to the
speed of sound

Departure

What is a departure?
1- starts at 35ft until landing gear retractation at V2 (TO thrust and flaps/slats TO
config)
2- starts at landing gear is retracted until 400’ or mentioned acceleration altitude (TO
thrust and flaps/slats TO config)
3- starts at 400’ or mentioned acceleration speed, the aircraft is accelerated in level flight
and the flaps/slats are retracted. Ends at clean config.
4- Starts at AC clean + speed > VFS . Set Max Cont Thrust. Ends at minimum 1500’ or
when the obstacle clearance has been met.

What does the third segment of a departure mean to you? Where does it end? Level flight
acceleration and flap retraction. Up to1000ft

When does the final take off segment end?1500ft with flaps up and max cont thrust
TORA Takeoff Run Available (TORA) – the runway length declared available and suitable
for satisfying takeoff run requirements

TODA Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) – this distance comprises the TORA plus the
length of any remaining runway or clearway beyond the far end of the TORA.
TODA =usubale runway + clearway

ASDA Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA) – the runway plus stopway length
declared. available and suitable for the acceleration and deceleration of an aircraft that must
abort its takeoff.

Clearways the length of an ostacle free area, could be paved or water, at the end of the
runway nin the direction of the takeoff. Minimum dimension of 75m either side of the
extended runway that is under the control of the airport authorities

Stopways the stop way is the length of an unprepared surface at the end of the runway in the
direction of the takeoff that is capable of supporting an aircraft if the aircraft has to stop
during a takeoff run

Screen heights screen height relates to the minimum height achieved over the runway before
the end of the clear way should an engine failure occur on takeoff. the screen height also
marks the end of the takeoff distance

Screen hight when runway is wet? it decrease.

Derated take-off thrust? Lowers the thrust delivered by the engine on take-off. You use it to
carry more payload in general when the RWY is contaminated. It’s because you lower Vmcg
by lowering the thrust produced. Tue rudder is effective earlier.

Assumed temperature take-off thrust the pilots input a fake higher OAT into the FMC so the
engines will deliver less thrust on TO. Less thrust = less fuel burn, less maintenance costs

Difference between the two? In the assumed temperature technique, the thrust lever can be
advanced to full TO thrust if needed. In the derated technique it’s not possible because it
could lead to directional problems in case of engine failure.

Critical Engine

Explain the term “critical engine”. Engine which failure would result in the most adverse
effects

Does a jet have a critical engine? No

Drag and Lift
Define parasite drag, is defined as all drag that is not associated with the production of lift.

Drag ? Drag is the resistance to motion of an object through the air.

Draw the drag curve, where is max range, where is long range cruise, what’s the difference

Induced drag, consequence of lift and is produced by the passage of an aerofoil.

Which forces act on an aircraft in flight? Weight, thrust, drag and lift.

AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
Systems - Jet Engines/Gas Turbine Engines

Explain to me how a jet engine works. How does a Gas Turbine engine work? Turbine driven
compressor. Pressure energy is increased by compressor, then combustion adds heat, then it is
passed through the turbine and then exhausted to create thrust

Where is thrust produced in a gas turbine engine? Exhaust

What are the benefits of a free turbine? No need for complex transmissions or clutches

What is a turbo fan? What is a high bypass ratio engine? Some air goes through the core and
some is bypassed. Bypassed air produces thrust and lowers SFC. Ratio of air bypassing the
core to that going through the core
What is high bypass? Large amount of air bypassing the core. Gives lower SFC but is slower

What is N1, N2, EGT, EPR?

- N1=low compressor RPM
- N2=inter comp RPM
- EGT=Engine gas temp
- EPR=Engine pressure ratio (pressure at exhaust to inlet)

How much thrust comes from the N1 fan? 75%

Explain how the N1 compressor produces thrust. Acts like a shrouded prop, produces thrust
in bypass air

Compressor low rpm ? N1

Turbochargers/ Superchargers

How do turbochargers work? Compressor powered by engines own exhaust gases. Increases
air delivered to the cylinder. Also allows more fuel and therefore more power
If you had two A/C, one turbocharged and the other not, which one would reach 2000ft first
and why? Turbo as naturally aspirated has less power and loses power with alititude

What's the benefit of turbocharged engines? More volumetric efficiency, compensates for loss
of atmospheric pressure with altitude, greater power

Carburettors/Fuel Injection

What do you know about carb icing? Would you experience it today? Accel of air causes drop
in temp (up to 35 degrees) and can cause ice in the venturi around the throttle valve

When would you use carb heat in a SEP? icing and throttle butterfly icing in float- type
carburettors can occur within the ambient air temperature range of –10°C to +35°C at relative
humidities above 50%

How does a carb heat system work? Takes heat from the engine compartment

While climbing with a SEP, temp range for carb icing. –10°C to +35°C

Is it an electrical system? No. Mechanical

Why don’t you use Carb heat on the ground for long periods? Fouling spark plugs

What are the advantages of fuel injection vs carb? No ice, uniformed delivery, improved
control of fuel-air ratio, few maintainence problems, instant response, increased efficiency
Why fuel injected engines & what would happen if your primer kept operating? (See above)
Mixture would become excessively rich

Piston Engines

Explain the Otto cycle.Induction, compression, combustion, exhaust

How does a 2-stroke engine work? Uses the beginning of the compression stroke and end of
combustion stroke to perform the intake and exhaust simultaneously

What sort of things would they be used for? Lawn mowers, chain saws etc

Fuel

What colour is avgas? Green or blue

What contaminates fuel? Water and dirt

How would you check for water contamination? Take fuel tests

So is fuel heavier or lighter than water? Lighter

What is the purpose of fuel cross feed? allows for fuel from one wing tank to be burned by
the engine on the other wing