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Bacterial Infection and Common Bacterial Diseases: A Review

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 Trends in e-ISSN: 2582-4457
Pharmaceuticals and Nanotechnology Volume-3, Issue-2 (July-December, 2021)

www.matjournals.com

Bacterial Infection and Common Bacterial Diseases: A Review

Dr. Nagham Mahmood Aljamali1* , Zainab H. Al-zubaidy2 , Asaed H Enad3

1
Professor, Ph.D in Organic Chemistry, Synthetic Chemistry Field, Iraq
2
Lecturer, Department Medical laboratories Technique, Hilla University College, Babylon, Iraq
3
Assistant Lecturer, Department Medical laboratories Technique, Hilla University College, Babylon, Iraq
*
Corresponding Author: dr.nagham_mj@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT hospital or nursing home and while gardening

Prevention of surgical infections is always of
great importance, but it is a complex issue
that calls for a range of prevention
measures, and these guidelines are a
valuable tool for protecting patients.
Infections at the surgical sites are caused by
bacteria that enter the body through the
incisions made by the surgeon with his
scalpel during the operation. They threatens
the lives of millions of patients annually and
contributes to the spread of antibiotic
resistance. 11% of patients develop
infections during surgery in low- and
middle-income countries. While in Africa
up to 20% of women develop wound
infections after undergoing caesarean
sections, putting their health at risk and
undermining their ability to care for their
children. Surgical site infections are not
only a problem for poor countries, but also
extend 400,000 days of hospital stay in the
United States at an additional cost of $900
million annually.
Keywords-- Antibiotic, Bacteria,
Development, Disease, Environment,
Microbial, Spread
INTRODUCTION
The skin forms an immune barrier
against bacterial infection. Although many
types of bacteria come into contact with the
skin or settle on it, they are usually unable to
infect humans. When a bacterial skin infection
occurs, it can range in size from very small
spots to an all-over infection as well as in
severity, ranging from harmless to life-
threatening. There are many types of bacteria
that can infect the skin, the most common
being Staphylococcus and Streptococcus.
People can get skin infections caused by less
common types of bacteria while staying in a
or swimming in ponds, lakes, or the ocean.
Some people have an increased risk of skin
infection. For example: people with diabetes
tend to have poor blood flow, especially in the
hands and feet. Their blood sugar levels are
also high, which reduces the ability of their
white blood cells to fight infection. Older
adults, people who have HIV, AIDS or other
immune system disorders or hepatitis, and
people who are undergoing chemotherapy or
treatment with other drugs that suppress the
immune system also have an increased risk of
skin infections due to a weakened immune
system [3]. They have skin that has been
inflamed or damaged by sunburn, scratching,
or other bruising tends to become infected. In
fact, any injury to the skin makes a person
more susceptible to infection. Preventing
bacterial infections of the skin involves
keeping the skin healthy and clean. When a cut
or scrape occurs in the skin, the site of the
injury should be washed with soap and water
and covered with a sterile dressing. Vaseline
can be applied to open areas to keep the tissues
moist and to try to prevent bacterial invasion.
Doctors advise people not to apply antibiotic
ointments, either prescription or non-
prescription, to minor, non-infected wounds
due to the risk of developing an allergic
reaction to the antibiotic. However, an
ointment containing an antibiotic is used if the
person has become infected. Larger areas need
to use oral or injectable antibiotics. For
abscesses filled with pus, they must be opened
by a doctor so that the pus can drain out and
any dead tissue must be removed by surgery
[4].
BACTERIAL DIARRHEA
Infants have a particularly high rate of
campylo -bacteriosis due to their immature
immune defenses. Young adults are also more

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susceptible to infection, possibly because they
have less experience cooking and handling raw
meat. Therefore, they may often be exposed to
foods potentially to be contaminated. Most
healthy people may develop some degree of
immunity to the bacteria that cause this disease
as they mature. This may explain the lower
number of campylobacter infections in middle-
aged and older adults. In addition to being
transmitted to humans through contaminated
undercooked meat, the disease can also be
transmitted to humans as a result of
contaminated unpasteurized milk and
untreated water. People with weakened
immune systems are more likely to get a
campylobacter infection. Some people with
campylobacter infection have mild symptoms,
such as diarrhea. These people probably will
not seek medical attention because the
symptoms will resolve on their own. When full
symptoms appear, usually two to seven days
after exposure initially, the patient may have a
fever for 12 to 48 hours, headache, muscle
aches and malaise and a general feeling of
illness. These early symptoms are followed by
abdominal pain and narrow diarrhea,
sometimes with nausea and vomiting [5, 6].
SYMPTOMS OF SHIGELLA INFECTION
Besides diarrhea, shigella disease can cause:
 Abdominal cramps and pain
 A rise in temperature
 Anorexia
 Vomiting and nausea
 Painful bowel movements (tiredness)
Shigella disease can lead to
dehydration. In rare cases, other complications
such as arthritis, seizures, and kidney problems
can occur. It is a highly contagious disease that
people can get through contact with something
contaminated with feces from an infected
person, such as: toys, toilet surfaces, food
prepared by an infected person.
It can also spread through:
 Flies that touch contaminated stool
 Water in areas with poor sanitation
It does not take many Shigella bacteria
for infection to occur. Shigella can pass in a
person's stool for up to 4 weeks, even after the
obvious symptoms of the disease have
improved. To find out if your child has
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shigella infection, the doctor will take a stool
sample for testing [10].
CHRONIC BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
In some cases, we are more concerned
that the infection may be caused by a bacterial
infection, bacterial infections may be due to a
"secondary infection" (meaning the virus
started the process but was followed by
bacteria) when symptoms last longer than 10
to 14 days, which is longer. The fever worsens
a few days into the illness rather than
improvement. Sinusitis, ear infections, and
pneumonia are common examples of
secondary infection. For example, a runny
nose that persists beyond 10-14 days may be a
sinus infection that is best treated with
antibiotics. Earache and fever that appear
several days after a runny nose are likely to be
an ear infection. Pneumonia may be detected
by a persistent cough, stomach pain, or
difficulty breathing. Your doctor may diagnose
pneumonia by a physical exam or may order a
chest X-ray. Other bacterial diseases we are
concerned about include urinary tract
infections, which are difficult to detect. It can
cause kidney damage if not treated. The most
serious are bacterial diseases such as sepsis
(bacteria in the blood) and bacterial meningitis
(a bacterial infection of the lining of the brain
and spinal cord). There are types of
inflammation or bacterial infections, including
skin, vaginal, oral, gums, teeth, intestinal
infections, and others. For example: about
50% of women suffer from vaginal infections,
which can be the result of fungi or bacteria but
the problem is that most women do not you
can distinguish between them. The importance
of distinguishing between the two sources of
contamination directly depends on the type of
treatment being given. So it is important to
know how to distinguish between the types of
vaginal infections. The causes of bacterial
diarrhea are numerous. Diarrhea caused by a
bacterial infection is characterized by
abnormally loose or watery stools. Digestive
disorders can also cause chronic diarrhea and
diarrhea may be associated with symptoms
such as stomach pain. Many cases of diarrhea
are caused by an infection in the digestive tract
[12].
The most common causes of acute
diarrhea in the United States are Salmonella,
Campylobacter, Shigella and E. coli. Some
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cases of chronic diarrhea are called
"functional" because although all organs of the
digestive system appear to be normal, they do
not function optimally [13].
Diarrhea Causes
Medication-induced diarrhea:
Laxatives and other medications, including
antibiotics, can cause diarrhea.
Endocrine causes: Sometimes
hormonal factors cause diarrhea. Cancer-
related causes: Neoplastic diarrhea is
associated with a number of bowel cancers.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED
BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
Sexually transmitted infections are
germs that are spread mainly through sexual
contact between two people. It is of several
types, most notably the human
immunodeficiency virus and syphilis, which
are transmitted from the mother to the fetus
during pregnancy and childbirth and through
transfusion of blood, fluids and tissues. The
germs that cause these infections are either
bacteria, viruses, or parasites. The most
common conditions it causes are gonorrhea,
chlamydial infections, syphilis, trichomoniasis,
ulcers, genital herpes, genital warts, HIV and
hepatitis B. He found more than 30 different
bacteria, viruses and parasites that were
sexually transmissible. STIs can also present
serious health problems such as infertility,
stillbirth and blindness in the newborn [14,
15]. According to the World Health
Organization (Fact Sheet No. 110, August
2011), the number of new curable STIs
(syphilis, gonorrhea, Chlamydia and
Trichomonas) that Each year around the world
there are about 448 million cases, and this
does not include HIV and other sexually
transmitted infections that continue to
negatively impact the lives of individuals and
communities around the world. In developing
countries, sexually transmitted infections and
their complications are classified among the
first five categories of diseases that need
health care. Sexually transmitted infections are
the main preventable cause of infertility,
especially in women. The World Health
Organization recommends a syndromic
approach to diagnosis and care for people
living with sexually transmitted infections.
Some sexually transmitted infections appear in
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some without symptoms. Both asymptomatic
and asymptomatic can lead to serious
complications. In addition, untreated STIs can
have serious complications on reproductive
health and the health of the mother and
newborn. These infections are generally
considered a major cause of preventable
infertility, especially in women. Untreated
infections are associated with congenital and
prenatal infections in newborns, especially in
areas where prevalence rates remain high.
Bacterial vaginosis is a type of vaginal
infection caused by an overgrowth of naturally
occurring bacteria in the vagina, upsetting the
normal balance. Women are more likely to get
bacterial vaginosis in their reproductive years,
but women can get it at any age. The reason
for this isn't fully understood, but certain
activities, such as unprotected sex or frequent
douching, may increase the risk [16].
BACTERIAL VAGINAL INFECTIONS
Bacterial vaginosis, which is the same
bacterial infection, is one of the most common
types of vaginal infections after fungal
infections, as it accounts for about a third of
vaginal infections. This condition is
characterized by an imbalance in the normal
bacterial population in the vagina, where the
numbers of some Gram-negative and
anaerobic bacteria such as:
 Gardnerella
 Fusobacterium (Fusobacterium)
 Peptostreptococcus
 Mycoplasma
An increase in the types of these
bacteria leads to bacterial vaginal infections.
Vaginal Infection Treatment
Fungal vaginal infections are treated
as follows: Taking certain medications, such
as: Fluconazole, antifungal ointments.
While the treatment of bacterial vaginal
infections is as follows:
 Take antibiotics
 Take probiotic pills- which are pills that
contain good bacteria and are used as a
preventative treatment for women.
 Take vitamin C in the form of tablets
suitable for the vagina, as vitamin C
contributes to maintaining the level of
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acidity of the vagina and preventing
fungal infections [17].
SKIN BACTERIAL INFECTION
Overcrowding in recreational places
increases the chances of bacterial infection
transmission between people, especially for
people with sensitive skin in swimming pools,
bathtubs, barber shops, blades used for the
same people and shared towels, and therefore
it is a common skin disease in summer. The
chances of getting a bacterial infection in the
skin among children increase as a result of
acute infections due to bacteria transmitted by
infection and contact between infected and
healthy people, where friction and contact
between them is without care. To prevent this
infection, use only clean personal items and
take a shower on a daily basis, especially
while traveling. For the same previous reasons,
which are infections with bacterial infection in
most common skin diseases in the summer,
which is represented by sweating and heating.
The rash can also occur due to blockage of the
sweat glands and the lack of sweat leaving the
body, causing inflammation of the surrounding
tissues, so we advise you to do the following:
Avoid clothes made of synthetic fibers, and
choose cotton clothes so that the sweating that
leads to this rash does not increase. Stay away
from hot places and pay attention to personal
hygiene. Wash the affected areas with
lukewarm water and do not rub them, dry them
well and then use the preparations intended to
eliminate them. Some people suffer from an
increase in the appearance of acne due to
bacterial infection and the spread of bacterial
inflammation from one place to another in the
skin and sometimes cause ulcers, especially
those with oily skin. And germs in the skin and
be grains. This often occurs when there is a cut
or wound in the skin; It may also happen if
you have a severely weakened immune system
due to disease or treatment. And some cases of
skin bacterial disease cover a small area on the
surface of the skin, and other skin bacterial
infection can cause infection and inflammation
of the face in deeper layers of the skin and in
this case the infection covers a large area of
the skin. Bacterial, virus, parasites or fungi and
these various germs can cause skin infections
by penetrating the surface of the skin through
hair follicles for small openings or wounds in
the skin resulting from scratches, punctures,
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surgery, burns, animal or insect bites, or
sunburn. You can also get bacterial dermatitis
from direct contact with contaminated
surroundings when participating in a variety of
activities that expose your skin, such as
swimming in a polluted pool, lake or ocean,
and sharing personal items such as towels,
sheets, razors, clothing and sports equipment.
Many people carry bacteria and do not develop
infection, so if a strep infection appears on the
face or in the skin in general, it is likely from
bacteria that you have been carrying for some
time. Most bacteria are able to survive
(dehydration, extreme temperatures, stomach
acid, high levels of salt), and bacteria can also
be passed from person to person. Because the
bacteria are so hardy, they can live on non-
living things like pillowcases or towels long
enough to pass them on to the next person who
touches them. Despite attempts to get rid of
them, they remain in hospitals, where they
attack the most vulnerable patients. Some of
the disorders or medicines you are treating can
be a cause of infection, including: a weakened
immune system burns resulting from surgery.
And skin damage due to diseases from eczema
and insect bites, bruises that injured the skin
[18-20].
PURULENT BACTERIAL INFECTION
Most commonly, it is a pocket of pus
that forms in hair follicles or sebaceous glands
as a result of a bacterial infection. The skin in
the affected area becomes red and swollen. If
the boil is opened it will most likely drain the
pus fluid. Boils arise under the arms, and
around the buttocks. It may be superficial or
deep. It is caused by the bacteria
Staphylococcus aureus. This type of infection
spreads among people who live in crowded
conditions, who suffer from poor hygiene or
chronic skin diseases, or whose nasal passages
contain bacteria. A weakened immune system,
obesity, aging and possibly diabetes are
common risk factors. Some people may
become infected repeatedly for unknown
reasons. Some people develop hair follicle
infections after exposure to a hot tub or
chlorine. Some people may develop mild
folliculitis in areas exposed to moisture and
friction, such as on exercise equipment.
Sometimes when shaving the beard, some fine
or short hair may grow under the skin and
cause mild irritation and inflammation.
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However, in this case there is no actual
infection, and it is called pseudo folliculitis.
Symptoms appear any time from 6 hours to 5
days after exposure. Skin abscesses or boils
are warm, painful pus-filled pockets under the
surface of the skin that may occur anywhere
on the body due to a bacterial infection.
Mostly they occur in the neck, breast, face and
buttocks [21].
Bacterial Infection that causes Eczema and
Impetigo
It leads to the formation of yellow
sores and sometimes small blisters filled with
yellow fluid. They appear in the form of a
painful infectious rash. It mostly affects
children and can infect the face. It is called
facial bacteria in children and it can occur
anywhere in the body but most commonly
occur on the face, arms and legs. It is
characterized by large blisters that may press
on the fluid and form a honey-colored crust
and can last for several days to weeks. This
infection is highly contagious and can be
transmitted to other areas of the body or to
other people [22].
Bacterial Cellulose Infection
It is most commonly caused by
staphylococcus and streptococcus bacteria.
Streptococcus spreads rapidly in the skin
because it produces enzymes that block the
tissues ability to trap infection. This infection
usually occurs around open wounds and in
pus-filled pockets such as abscesses. This type
of inflammation is characterized by the skin in
the affected area becoming hot and lightly like
an orange peel. Sometimes blisters filled with
fluid appear, which may be small or large. The
boundaries of the affected area are not distinct,
except in a form of cellulitis called erysipelas.
Most cases of cellulitis are quickly treated
with antibiotics. But sometimes people
develop skin abscesses and some serious and
rare complications that cause severe infections
that destroy tissues quickly called necrotizing
skin infections and lead to the spread of
bacteria through the blood and this condition is
called bacteremia [23].
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Bacterial Lymphangitis
Causes: Streptococcus bacteria usually
enter the lymphatic vessels through a cut or cut
in the skin of the arm or leg. Often the
streptococcal infection spreads in the skin and
tissues under the skin to the lymphatic vessels.
It appears as red, irregular, warm, thin streaks
on the skin of the affected arm or leg. These
strips usually extend from the affected area to
a group of lymph. Lymph nodes become
enlarged and painful. Rarely, the infection
develops and causes ulcers in the skin, which
leads to the entry of bacteria into the
bloodstream and causes bacteremia.
Bacterial Infection of Skin spotted with
Staphylococcus
Causes: It is a reaction of the skin to
the toxins resulting from a staph infection,
which causes the upper layer of the skin to
separate from the rest of the skin and peel off
as if it was burned. It is characterized by fever,
rash, and sometimes blisters. Staphylococcal
syndrome occurs most often in infants and
children under 6 years of age, and rarely in the
elderly, except for those with kidney failure or
a weak immune system. This infection is
highly contagious [24].
Necrotizing Dermatitis, which is a new and
different form of bacterial cellulitis
It is caused byinfection from a mixture
of different types of bacteria, not just one type.
It is characterized by the death of the affected
skin and tissues. Most skin infections do not
lead to the death of the skin and nearby tissues.
However, sometimes, a bacterial infection can
cause small blood vessels to clot in the
affected area. This clotting causes the death of
the tissues fed by these vessels due to the lack
or lack of blood supply. Because the body's
immune defenses travel through the
bloodstream, and in this case are unable to
reach this area, the infection spreads quickly
and can be difficult to control. Death may
occur even with proper treatment. And the
cases of deaths resulting from this type of
disease reach about 30% of the elderly, those
who suffer from other medical disorders, and
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those who have reached an advanced stage of
the disease [25-27].
Ways to Prevent Infections and Bacterial
Infection
The guidelines include 13
recommendations for the preoperative period
and another 16 for the prevention of infections
during and after the procedure.
Recommendations range from simple
precautions such as ensuring patients shower
or take a light bath before surgery for surgical
teams to best clean their hands, to guidelines
on when to give antibiotics to prevent
infections and what types of disinfectants to
use before an operation. Health organizations
recommend, "Many of us will need surgery
sooner or later, but none of us want to catch an
infection lying on the operating table. Surgical
teams applying these new guidelines can
reduce damage and improve quality of life. It
plays its role in stopping the spread of
antimicrobial resistance. We also recommend
that patients who are preparing to undergo
surgery ask their surgeons if they are
following the advice of the organization in this
regard.” No evidence-based international
guidelines have previously been available, and
there are inconsistencies in the interpretation
of evidence and recommendations in existing
national guidelines. The new WHO guidelines
are applicable in any country and can be
modified to suit the local context, as they take
into account the strength of the available
scientific evidence and the implications for
costs, resources, patient values and
preferences. These guidelines complement the
Figure 1: Uterine bacterial infection
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WHO Surgical Safety Checklist, which
provides a wide range of safety measures, by
providing more detailed recommendations for
the prevention of infections. The most
important issue the guidelines recommend is
that antibiotics should be used to prevent
infections only prior to and during surgery,
which is a critical measure to stop the spread
of antimicrobial resistance, and post-operative
antibiotics should not be used as is often the
practice. Antibiotic resistance occurs when
bacteria change in response to the use of these
drugs, and resistance develops naturally over
time, but the misuse of antibiotics among
humans and animals speeds up the process
dramatically. Antibiotic resistance is
jeopardizing the advances of modern
medicine. The absence of effective antibiotics
to prevent and treat infections will increase the
risk of organ transplants, chemotherapy
measures for cancer and surgeries, such as
caesarean sections and hip replacements,
resulting in longer hospital stays, higher
medical costs and increased mortality. Several
studies demonstrate that applying a range of
preventive measures significantly reduces the
damage caused by infections at surgical sites.
A pilot study in four African countries showed
that implementing a set of new
recommendations could reduce the incidence
of infections at surgical sites by 39%. Building
on these successful examples FAO is
developing a guide and toolkit that will help
national and local authorities put these
recommendations into action as shown in Figs
(1-4).
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Figure 2: Bacterial infection of hair follicles.

Figure 3: Spread of bacterial infection.

Figure 4: Bacterial infection of Skin.

CONCLUSION The bacteria inside the nose can be eliminated

Patients can prevent the spread of by applying a topical antibiotic into the nostrils
bacterial infection by washing hands with soap (mupirocin). However, overuse of the antibiotic
and water, or by using hand sanitizer solutions. mupirocin can cause bacteria to become

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resistant to it. So this antibiotic is only used
when a person is at risk of infection. For
example, this antibiotic is given to patients
before surgery, or to people who live in the
same household with people who have skin
infections. Patients with bacterial infections
should not prepare food. Some hospitals
periodically screen patients who have been
admitted to the hospital for methicillin-resistant
bacteria. Other hospitals only detect these
bacteria in patients who are predisposed to
infection, such as patients who are going to
undergo certain types of surgery. Tests involve
taking samples from the inside of the nose with
a cotton swab. If MRSA is found in a patient, it
is isolated to prevent the spread of the bacteria.
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Nanotechnology ., Volume-3, Issue-2 (July-
December, 2021) , P: 13-22 .
11. Rabab Mahdi Ubaid Mahmood, Intisar Obaid
Alfatlawi, Saher Mahmood Jawd (2021).
Review on Causes of Diarrhea (Bacterial,
Parasitic, Viral) in Children. Journal of
Clinical Trials and Regulations. 3(1).
Available at :
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351
cterial_Parasitic_Viral_in_Children
12. Nagham Mahmood Aljamali., Jawad, A. M.,
Alfatlawi, I. O., & Jawd, S. M. (2020).
 Trends in
Pharmaceuticals and Nanotechnology
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Review on Hospital Bacteria (Causes,
Infections, Prevention). Infection. 11,16.
Available at:
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nagham
- for athletes and sports clinicians and a
Aljamali/publication/342618759_Review_on
_Hospital_Bacteria_Causes_Infections_Preve
ntion/links/5efd30e3a6fdcc4ca4448621/Revi
ew-on-Hospital-Bacteria-Causes-Infections-
Prevention.pdf
13. Nagham Mahmood Aljamali (2017).
Synthesis of Antifungal Chemical
Compounds from Fluconazole with (Pharma-
Chemical) Studying. Research journal of
Pharmaceutical, biological and chemical
sciences. 8 (3), 564-573. Available at :
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317
181573_Synthesis_of_Antifungal_Chemical_
Compounds_from_Fluconazole_with_Pharm
a-Chemical_Studying/figures?lo=1
14. Ahmed, H. A., & Nagham Mahmood
Aljamali (2021). Preparation,
Characterization, Antibacterial Study,
Toxicity Study of New Phenylene diamine-
Formazan Derivatives. 15(2). Available at:
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nagham
- 22.
Aljamali/publication/350910005_Preparation
_Characterization_Antibacterial_Study_Toxi
city_Study_of_New_Phenylene_diamine-
Formazan_Derivatives/links/607998322fb90
97c0ceb59d1/Preparation-Characterization-
Antibacterial-Study-Toxicity-Study-of-New-
Phenylene-diamine-Formazan-
Derivatives.pdf
15. Panigrahy, U. P., & Reddy, A. (2015). A
novel validated RP-HPLC-DAD method for
the estimation of Eluxadoline in bulk and
pharmaceutical dosage form. Research
Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 8(11),
1469-1476. DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/0974-
360X.2015.00263.2
16. Nagham Mahmood Aljamali., Jawd, S. M.,
Jawad, Z. M., & Alfatlawi, I. O. (2017).
Inhibition activity of (Azo–acetyl acetone) on
bacteria of mouth. Research Journal of
Pharmacy and Technology. 10(6), 1683-
1686. Available at:
https://portal.arid.my/Publications/9b1bfbe0-
968f-4f11-8194-f630922d0585.pdf
17. Pirotta, M. V., & Garland, S. M. (2006).
Genital Candida species detected in samples
from women in Melbourne, Australia, before
and after treatment with antibiotics. Journal
of clinical microbiology. 44(9), 3213-3217.
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18. Lewis, T., & Cook, J. (2014).
Fluoroquinolones and tendinopathy: a guide
systematic review of the literature. Journal of
athletic training. 49(3), 422-427. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-49.2.09
19. Marchant, J. (2018). When antibiotics turn
toxic. Nature. 555(7697), 431-433. Available
at:
https://refp.cohlife.org/when_antibiotics_turn
_toxic.nature.2018.pdf
20. Nagham Mahmood Aljamali. (2016).
Synthesis and Biological Study of Hetero
(Atoms and Cycles) Compounds. Der
Pharma Chemica. 8(6) 40-48. Available at:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304
951005_Synthesis_and_biological_study_of_
hetero_Atoms_and_Cycles_compounds .
21. Wang, X., Ryu, D., Houtkooper, R. H., &
Auwerx, J. (2015). Antibiotic use and abuse:
a threat to mitochondria and chloroplasts with
impact on research, health, and environment.
Bioessays. 37(10), 1045-1053. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.201500071
Ray, K. (2012). Adding weight to the
microbiota's role in obesity—exposure to
antibiotics early in life can lead to increased
adiposity. Nature Reviews Endocrinology.
8(11), 623-623. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2012.173.
23. Nagham Mahmood Aljamali (2017).
Synthesis of Antifungal Chemical
Compounds from Fluconazole with (Pharma-
Chemical) Studying, Research journal of
Pharmaceutical, biological and chemical
sciences. 8(3), 564-573. Available at:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317
181573_Synthesis_of_Antifungal_Chemical_
Compounds_from_Fluconazole_with_Pharm
a-
24. Jess, T. (2014). Microbiota, antibiotics, and
obesity. New England Journal of Medicine.
371(26), 2526-2528. Available at:
https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJ
Mcibr1409799
25. Albrich WC, Monnet DL, Harbarth S (2004).
Antibiotic selection pressure and resistance in
Streptococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus
pyogenes. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 10
(3): 514–7. Available at :
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/P
MC4418965.
26. Nagham Mahmood Aljamali ,Farah Wadai
El-Taei , Doaa Alasady . (2021). Review on
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Types of Toxins (Pharmaceutical, Biological,

Chemical), Glob Acad J Pharm Drug Res; 32. Nagham Mahmood Aljamali ,Maryam Sabah
Vol-3, Iss- 3 pp- 44-53., Available online at Naser, Ali Jalil Obaid., (2021), Review on
https://www.gajrc.com DOI: Resistance of Bacteria and Fungi to
10.36348/gajpdr.2021.v03i03.002 Antibiotics and Drugs , Journal of Advances
27. Kingston W (June 2008). Irish contributions in Pharmacy Practices , Volume-3, Issue-2
to the origins of antibiotics. Irish Journal of (July-December, 2021) ,P: 20-29.
Medical Science. 177 (2): 87–92. DOI: 33. Nagham Mahmood Aljamali ,Aryaf Mahmood
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-008-0139-x Sabea, Ahmed Kareem Thamer, Review on
28. Brandt, L. J. (2013). American Journal of Ulcers, Boils with their Bacterial and Fungal
GastroenterologyLecture: Intestinal Causes., Research & Review: Drugs and
Microbiota and the Role of Fecal Microbiota Drugs Development., Volume-3, Issue-2
Transplant (FMT) in Treatment of C. (July-December, 2021) P: 30-40
Difficile Infection Official journal of the 34. Nagham Mahmood Aljamali, Nabaa Hameed
American College of Gastroenterology| ACG, Chekhyor, Abbas Hmood Jassim. Review on
108(2), 177-185. Available at: Evolution and Spread of Bacteria and Fungi in
https://journals.lww.com/ajg/Abstract/2013/0 the Environment ., Journal of Molecular
2000/American_Journal_of_Gastroenterolog Pharmaceuticals and Regulatory Affairs.,
yLecture_.6.aspx Volume-3, Issue-2 (July-December, 2021) .
29. Kellermayer, R. (2013). Prospects and
challenges for intestinal microbiome therapy
in pediatric gastrointestinal disorders. World
journal of gastrointestinal pathophysiology,
4(4), 91. DOI:
https://dx.doi.org/10.4291%2Fwjgp.v4.i4.91.
30. Nagham Mahmood Aljamali ,Ward N. Ali ,
Zainab H. Al-zubaidy, Review on Influence of
Antibiotics on the Progression of General
Health, Journal of Clinical Trials and
Regulations ., Volume-3, Issue-2 (July-
December, 2021), P: 12-18 .
31. M N Abdul ,HA Ali Abd , Nagham Mahmood
Aljamali ., Synthesis, Spectral, Bio Assay,
Chromatographic - Studying of New
Imidazole Reagents Via Three Components
Reaction., NeuroQuantology , July 2021
,Volume 19 ,Issue 7 , Page 115-122.,
doi: 10.14704/nq.2021.19.7.NQ21092

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