Plant Design and

Operations
Second Edition

Ian Sutton
Author, Sutton Technical Books, Ashland, Virginia

G Gulf Professional Publishing

\ja An imprint of Elsevier

II
Contents

Preface xxv

CHAPTER 1 Safety in Design 1

Introduction 1

StandardExamples 2

Terminology 2

Regulations, Standards, and Guidance 2

Regulatory Agencies (the United States) 3

Regulations (International) 3

Industry Standards 5

Health, Safety, and Environment 7

Process Safety Management 9
Risk Management 10
Units of Measurement 11
SI Units 12
Date Format 12

Engineering Drawings 13

Block Diagrams 13
Process Flow Diagrams 14

Piping and Instrument Diagrams 15

Spec Breaks 18
Isometric Drawings 18
Electrical Single-Line Diagrams 18
Materials of Construction 19

Flammable and Combustible Materials 19

Fire Triangle 20

Flammable Range 21

Flash Point 21

Flammable/Combustible Liquids 22

Ignition Sources 23

Lightning 25

Area Classification 25

IEC Code 27

Regulations and Standards 27

Temperature Code 29

Classification Plan 29

V
vi Contents

Fireproofing Insulation 30

Fireproofing Materials 33

Cryogenic Systems 34
Maintenance 34

CHAPTER 2 Siting and Layout 35

Introduction 35
Regulations and Standards 36
Siting 36
Layout 38

Layout Risk Analysis 40

Facility Orientation 41
Hazardous Areas 41
Blocks and Roads 42

Piping 42

Drainage Systems 43

Loading/Unloading Facilities 44
Routine Access and Egress 45

Explosion Protection 46
Safe Areas 46

Emergency Escape 47
Manual Alarm Call Points 47

Process Isolation Valves 48

Firefighting 49

Emergency Showers and Eyewashes 49

Equipment Spacing 51
Pressure Vessels 54

Hydrocarbon Storage Tanks 56

Pumps 57

Compressors/Compressor Drivers 58
Heat Exchangers 59
Boilers 59
Fired Equipment 59

Air Intakes 60

Equipment Stacking 61

Piping and Valves 61

Piping 61
Valves 62
Flares and Vents 62

Buildings 63
Utilities 64
 Contents vii

Stairways and Ladders 64

Stairways 65
Ladders 67

Platforms 71

Guardrails, Handrails, and Toeboards 71

Ramps 72

CHAPTER 3 Equipment and Buildings 73

Introduction 73

Regulations and Standards 74

Pressure Vessels/Columns 74
Pressure Vessel Code 74

Fire Hazard 79

Maximum Allowable Working Pressure 79

Vessels Under Vacuum 80

Storage Vessels 81
Reflux Vessels 82

Manways 82

Nameplate/Documentation 82

Storage Tanks 82
Functions of Storage Tanks 84

Types of Storage Tank 85

Fixed Roof Tanks 86

Floating Roof Tanks 87

Plastic Tanks 89
Bund Walls/Berms 89
Tank Farms 90
Stairs and Platforms 90
Tank Design 91

Tank Fires 93

Boilover/Foamover 95

Rag Layers 95
Bottoms Sediment and Water 96

Pumps 97

Types of Pump 98
Shutdown and Alarm Systems 99

Suction Piping 99

Minimum Flow Protection 99

Fire Protection 100

Sealless Pumps 100

Sparing 100
viii Contents

Pump Isolation 100

Vibration 101

Pump Casing 101

Seals and Packing 101

Compressors 102

API 618 102

Seals 102
Shutdown and Alarm Systems 102

Liquid Knockout 104

Relief Valves 104

Compressor Isolation 104

Surge Protection 105

Sparing Policy 105

Turbines 105

Gas Turbines 105

Steam Turbines 106

Heat Exchangers 106

Shell and Tube Exchangers 108

Tube/Shell Side 108

Tube Leakage 108

Air-Cooled Exchangers 110

Ill
Cooling Towers

Natural/Forced Draft Ill

Safety 113

Fired Heaters 114

Heat Transfer Fluids 115

Air Preheaters 117

Safety 118

Flares/Blowdown 119

Emergency Depressurization 119

Flaring 120

Thermal Oxidizers 125

Boilers 125

Internal Combustion Engines 126

Starter Systems 127

Intake, Exhaust, and Fuel Systems 127

127
Electrical Equipment
Transformers 128

128
Equipment Grounding
Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupters 128
 Contents ix

Buildings 129
Administrative Buildings 130
Control Buildings 130
Process Buildings 135
Warehouses and Workshops 136
Temporary Buildings 136

CHAPTER 4 Piping 139

Introduction 139
Regulations and Standards 140
Pipe Specifications 140
Pipe Sizing 143
Nominal Pipe Sizes 144
Pipe Schedule 144
Fluid Velocity 146
Materials 146
Steel 146
Other Metals 146
Polymers 147
Equipment 148
Underground Piping 148
Fittings 149
Welding 150
Threaded Piping 150

Expansion Loops/Compensators 150

Small Pipe Connections 152
Flanges 153
Gaskets 154
Blinds 154
Line Blinds 156
Spectacle Blinds 156
Insulation 156
Heat Tracing 157
Steam Tracing 158
Electrical Tracing 158
Flame Arrestors 159
Thermal Flame Arrestors 159
Water Seal Flame Arrestors 160
Velocity Flame Arrestors 161
Detonation Arrestors 161
Vortex Breakers 161
Hoses 162
x Contents

CHAPTER 5 Valves 165

Introduction 165

Regulations and Standards 166

Valve Symbols 166
Block Valves 166
Gate Valves 166
Ball Valves 168

Butterfly Valves 170

Plug Valves 170

Needle Valves 171

Excess Flow Valves 171

Self-Closing Valves 172

Globe/Control Valves 173

Check (Non-return) Valves 174

Rotary Valves 175

Flangeless Valves 176

Emergency Isolation Valves 177

Valve Seat Materials 177

Valve Position 177

Steam Traps 178

Pressure Relief Devices 178
Causes of Overpressure 179
Pressure Safety Relief Valves 179
Pilot-Operated Pressure Relief Valves 181

Block Valves 182

Thermal Relief Valves 183

Rupture Disks 183

Hatches/Doors 185

CHAPTER 6 Instrumentation and Control 187

Introduction 187

Regulations and Standards 188

Operating/Safe Limits 188

Process Control 193

Distributed Control Systems 193

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems 194

Safety Instrumented Systems 195

Safety Integrity Level 196

Testing and Inspection 197

High-Integrity Pressure Protection System 198

 Contents xi

Fire and Gas Detection 199

Fire Detection 200

Toxic Gas Detection 203

of Detectors 204
Layout
Portable Gas Detectors 206

Alarm 206
Systems
Alarm 208
Signaling
to Alarms 208
Response
Matrix 210
Response
Limitations 211

Alarm Flooding 211

CHAPTER 7 Transportation 213

Introduction 213

214
Terminology
and Standards 214
Regulations
217
International Safety Guide
CAP 437—Offshore Helicopter Landing Areas 218

Tank Trucks 219

220
Loading/Unloading
220
Loading Racks
Static Electricity 222

Bonding 225

Switch 225
Loading
Additives 226

Vacuum Trucks 226

Tank (Rail) Cars 228

Tank Car Markings 228

Pressure Vessels 229

Cars 229
Empty
Graffiti 230
Marine 230
Operations
and 231
Ships Barges
Small Boats 231

233
Jetty Terminals
Personnel Transfer 233

Baskets 236
Cargo
Helicopters 236
239
Pipelines
One Call 239

241
Pigging
Catchers 247
Slug
xii Contents

CHAPTER 8 Operations 249

Introduction 249

Regulations and Standards 249

Housekeeping 251

Storage and Handling of Hazardous Materials 252

Flammable Liquids 252
Oxidizing Agents 253
Catching Samples 253
Gas Storage Cylinders 255
Tank Operations 256
Filling and Emptying 256

Purging and Cleaning 257

Rotating Equipment 257

Emergency Response 258

Manual Emergency Shutdown 258

Evacuation, Escape, and Rescue 258

Personnel Tracking 260

Nonprocess Operations 260

Outside Storage 260
Coal and Coke Storage 261
Drum Storage 261
Cranes and Rigging 261

Lifting Precautions 262

Wire Ropes, Chains, and Slings 263

Tag Lines 263

Start-Up 263

Commissioning 264
Operational Readiness Review 264
Start-Up 264

CHAPTER 9 Maintenance 265

Introduction 265

Regulations and Standards 266

Maintenance Management System 266

Types of Maintenance 267

Repair Maintenance 267

Condition-Based Maintenance 267
Scheduled Maintenance 268

Reliability-Centered Maintenance 268

Procurement 269
Spare Parts 269
 Contents xiii

Documentation 270

Factory Acceptance Tests 270

Maintenance Task Organization 271

Step 1—Plan the Work 271

Step 2—Conduct a JHA 273

Step 3—Prepare/Issue a Work Permit 273

Step 4—Shutdown and Isolate Equipment 273

Step 5—First Break 274

Step 6—Perform the Work 275

Step 7—Close Out the Work 275

Step 8—Handover to Operations 275

Pressure Tests 276

Testing Procedure 277

Installing Blinds 278

Test Medium 279

Test 281
Tightness
Strength Test 281

Pressure Test Manual 282

Records 282

Online Cleaning and Repair 283

Corrosion 285

Cathodic Protection 285

Corrosion Under Insulation 286

C02 Corrosion 288

Sulfide Stress Cracking 288

Controlling Corrosion 288

Simultaneous Operations 289

Managing SIMOPs 289

SIMOPs Matrix 290

Conducting SIMOPs 290

CHAPTER 10 293
Energy Control
Introduction 293

and Standards 294

Regulations
29 CFR 1910.119 294

API 2015 296

API 2026 298
API2217A 299
ANSI Z117.1 300

NFPA69 301
xiv Contents

Example 304
Risk Management 304

Energy Control Program 305

Step 1—Job Hazards Analysis 305

Step 2—Work Permit 305

General Work Permits 306
Hot Work Permits 306
Confined Space Permits 308
Issuing the Permit 308

Multiple Work Permits 308

Changes in Conditions 308

Barrier Tape 309
Step 3—Vent, Drain, and Purge 309
Inert Gas 309
Air-Blowing Hydrocarbon Lines 310
Step 4—Isolate the Equipment 311
Positive Isolation 311
Nonpositive Isolation 315
Step 5—Open the Equipment 316
Test for Oxygen 316
Heavy Sludge Deposits 317
Step 6—Complete Work/Return to Service 317
Lockout/Tagout 317
Car Seals 319

Group Lockout/Lockboxes 319

Padlocks 320

Tags 320

Removing Locks and Tags 320

Electrical Isolation 321
Confined Space Entry 321

Types of
Space 323
The Entry Permit 324
Personnel 325
Test 326
Excavations 327
Tie-ins 329
Hot Tapping 330
Plugged Lines 330
Prevention of Pluggage 330
Unplugging a Line 331
Mechanical 332
Differential Pressure 332
 Contents xv

CHAPTER 11 Inspection 335

Introduction 335

Regulations and Standards 336

API RP 510 337
API 653 340
API RP 580 341
Organization 342

Inspection Programs 343

Initial Inspection 344
Routine External Inspection 344

Complete External Inspection 345

Internal Inspection 345

Inspection Frequency 346

Nondestructive Testing 347
Continuous Monitoring 347
Equipment and Piping 348
Pumps 348
Tanks 348

Relief Valves 349

Inspection Records and Report 350

Risk-Based Inspection 350

Analyze Risk 352

Determine Costs 352
Allocate Resources 352

CHAPTER 12 Firefighting 353

Introduction 353

Regulations and Standards 354

API 2021 356
NFPA 10 357
Fire Scenarios 358
Leak Sources 358
Types of Fire 359
Single Fire Concept 359

Radiant Heat 359

Fire Prevention 359
Release Prevention 359

Preventing Ignition 360

Fire Protection 361

Operating Response 361

Safety Instrumentation 361

xvi Contents

Passive Fire Protection 361

Active Fire Protection 361
Firewater Systems 362
Firewater Supply 364
Firewater Pumps 365
Main Fire Pumps 365
Jockey Pumps 366
Firewater Distribution 366
Ring Main/Header 366
Capacity and Rates 367
Disposal of Firewater 367
Materials of Construction 368
Firewater Delivery 368

Hydrants 368
Fire Monitors 369
Sprays 370
Deluge Systems 373

Testing 373
Other Firefighting Media 373
Halons 373
Steam 373
Foam 374
Carbon Dioxide 375

Inergen 375
Earth-Moving Equipment 376
Portable Fire Extinguishers 376
Water Extinguishers 377
Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers 377
Dry Chemical Extinguishers 377
Organization and Training 378
First Response Team 378

Communications 378

Firefighting Vehicles 378

Fire Training Ground 379

CHAPTER 13 Occupational Safety 381

Introduction 381
Regulations, Standards, and Guidance 382
Measuring Performance 382
Safety Manual 384
Incident Reporting 388
 Contents xvii

Vehicle Incidents 389

Near Misses 389
Behavior-Based Safety 389

Management Commitment 390

Observed Hazard Card 391
Timeout Policies 391
Lone Worker Policy 393
Machinery Safety 393
Dropped Objects 393

Overhead Power Lines 394

Emergency Showers and Eyewashes 395

Design of Emergency Showers 395

Operating the Shower 399

Eyewash Units 399

Testing 399

CHAPTER 14 Personal Protective Equipment 401

Introduction 401

Types ofPPE 402

Regulations and Standards 403

Guidance Documents 405

OSHA3151 405

HSE Personal Protective Equipment 405

Clothing 406

Flame-Resistant Clothing 406

Impervious Clothing/Proximity Suits 407

Bunker Gear 407

Head Protection 408

Additional Equipment/Markers 408

Color Schemes 409

Maintenance and Storage 409

Hand Protection 409

Foot Protection 410

Eye/Face Protection 410

Respiratory Protection 410

Supplied Air Respirators 411

Air-Purifying Respirators 412

Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus 412

Chemical Canister Rebreathers 412

Disposable Respirators 412

xviii Contents

Fall Protection 412

Definitions 413
Fall Protection System 414
Fall Arrest System Equipment 415

CHAPTER 15 Health 417

Introduction 417

Regulations and Standards 418

Employee Access to Records 418
Asbestos 418
Radiant Heat 420
Noise 421
Definitions 422
Noise Limits 423
Noise Control 425
Vibration Control 427

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material 427

Regulations and Standards 427

Technologically Enhanced NORM 428

Exposure 428
Treatment 428

Water/Dry Blasting 428

Safe Limits 428
Protective Measures 428

Lifting 429
Heat Stress 429
Heat Index 429
Types of Heat Stress 430
Heat Stress Factors 430
Heat Stress Prevention 430
Thermal Radiation 431
Cold Stress 432

Equivalent Chill Temperature 433

Controlling Cold Stress 433

Food and Galley Hygiene 433
Methods of Preservation and Treatment 434

Treating Contamination 434

Storage and Cooking Temperatures 435
Facilities and Equipment 435

Alcohol and Drug Policy 435

Coverage 435
Affected Participants 436
 Contents xix

Applicants for Employment 437

Testing 437

Legal Drugs 437

Contractors 437

CHAPTER 16 Human Factors and Ergonomics 439

Introduction 439

Regulations and Standards 440

Process Safety Management 441

Principles of Human Behavior 442

Improving Human Factors 444

Change the Work/Workplace 444

Change Work Performance 444

Change the Person 444

Human Error 445

Automation of Functions 445

Control Rooms 445

Work Stations 446

Operation of Valves 447

Critical Valves 447

Noncritical Valves 448

Nonoperational Valves 448

Valve Criticality Analysis 448

Signs 449

Prohibition 450

Mandatory Action 451

Warning 452

Safe Condition 453

The Safety Diamond 454

Labeling 456

Color Coding 457

General Application 458

American Public Works Association 458

Piping 458

Hoses 459

Refineries 460

Human Factors on Projects 462

Phase I—Concept Selection 462

Phase II—Preliminary Engineering 462

Phase IE—Detailed Engineering 463

xx Contents

CHAPTER 17 Chemicals 465

Introduction 465

Regulations and Standards 466

Safety Data Sheets (SDS) 466

Structure 466
OSHA Requirements 469

Global Harmonization System 470

Fluid Categories 471

Chemical Compatibility 471

Exposure Limits 472

Emergency Response Planning Guidelines (ERPG) 472

Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health 474

Permissible Exposure Limits 474

Threshold Limit Values 474

Short-Term Exposure Limit 475

Benzene 475

Carbon Dioxide 475

Carbon Monoxide 476

Chlorine 476

Hydrogen Fluoride 476

Unloading 477

KOH Beds 477

Dedicated Flare 477

Hydrogen Sulfide 477

Regulations and Standards 478

Toxicity 479
Location of Fixed Monitors 480

Sensor Technology 480

Flaring of H2S 480

Corrosion/Metallurgy 481

H2S Safety Plan 481

Lead 485

Nitrogen 485

Sulfur Dioxide 486

Oxygen 487

Oxidizing Agents 488

CHAPTER 18 Industries 491

Introduction 491
Offshore Oil and Gas 494
Platform Layout 495
 Contents xxi

Rotating Equipment 496

Flares 497

Wellbay Area 497

Drilling Rigs 497

Noise 498

Emergency Evacuation and Rescue 499

Secondary Method of Escape 499

Tertiary Methods of Escape 502

Temporary Refuge 502

Oil Refineries 504

Distillation 506
Chemical Reactions 507
Chemical and Petrochemical Plants 507

CHAPTER 19 Common Hazards 509

Introduction 509

Process Hazards 510

High Flow 510

Low/No Flow 510

Reverse Flow 510

Misdirected Flow 512

High Pressure 512

Low Pressure 512

High Temperature 512
Low Temperature 514

High Level 515

Wrong Composition 515

Chemical Embrittlement 515

Strong Oxidizers 516

Static Electricity 516

Hazards of Utilities 516
Common Cause Failure 516
Process Contamination 516
Electrical Power Failure 516

Nitrogen 517

Reverse Flow to a Utility Header 517

Survivability of Utilities 518

Hazards of Water 518

Water in Very Hot Liquid 518
Water and Firefighting 519
xxii Contents

Hazards of Steam 519

Steaming Vessels During Turnaround 520

Reboiler Leak 520

Wet Steam in Turbines 520

Hazards of Ice 520

Line Freezing 521

Hydrates 521

Hazards of Compressed Gas 522

Gas Cylinders 522

Pigging 522

Hazards of Air 522

Flammable Mixture 522

Blowing a Line Clear 523

Hazards of External Events 523

Flooding 523

Earthquakes 523

Hazards of Equipment and Instruments 524

Furnace Firing 524

Fired Heater Burnout 524

Multiple Uses of Equipment 525

Distributed Control Systems 525

Hazards of Piping, Valves, and Hoses 526

Piping 526

Hoses 529

Valves 530
Shared Relief Valve 532

SDV Bypass 533

CHAPTER 20 Security 535

Introduction 535

Regulations and Standards 536

Types of Attack 537

Members of the Public 537

Sabotage 539

Terrorism 539

Cybersecurity 540

Security Vulnerability Analyses 541

Managing Security 541

Culture 541

Inherent Safety 542

Hazards Analysis 542

 Contents xxiii

Rings of Protection 542

Transportation 544
Countermeasures 544
Access Security 545
Personnel Screening 545
Offshore 546

Transportation Worker Identification Credential (the United States) 546

Equipment Modifications 546

Response to a Threatening Call 546

Acronyms 549

Bibliography 553
Index 559