Aristotle’s Definition of Tragedy

Aristotle identifies tragedy as the most refined version of poetry dealing with lofty matters and
comedy as the most refined version of poetry dealing with base matters. He traces a brief and
speculative history of tragedy as it evolved from dithyrambic hymns in praise of the god
Dionysus. Dithyrambs were sung by a large choir, sometimes featuring a narrator. Aeschylus
invented tragedy by bringing a second actor into dialogue with the narrator. Sophocles innovated
further by introducing a third actor, and gradually tragedy shifted to its contemporary dramatic
form.

Aristotle defines tragedy according to seven characteristics: (1) it is mimetic, (2) it is serious, (3)
it tells a full story of an appropriate length, (4) it contains rhythm and harmony, (5) rhythm and
harmony occur in different combinations in different parts of the tragedy, (6) it is performed
rather than narrated, and (7) it arouses feelings of pity and fear and then purges these feelings
through catharsis. A tragedy consists of six component parts, which are listed here in order from
most important to least important: plot, character, thought, diction, melody, and spectacle.

A well-formed plot must have a beginning, which is not a necessary consequence of any
previous action; a middle, which follows logically from the beginning; and an end, which
follows logically from the middle and from which no further action necessarily follows. The plot
should be unified, meaning that every element of the plot should tie in to the rest of the plot,
leaving no loose ends. This kind of unity allows tragedy to express universal themes powerfully,
which makes it superior to history, which can only talk about particular events. Episodic plots
are bad because there is no necessity to the sequence of events. The best kind of plot contains
surprises, but surprises that, in retrospect, fit logically into the sequence of events. The best kinds
of surprises are brought about by peripeteia, or reversal of fortune, and anagnorisis, or
discovery. A good plot progresses like a knot that is tied up with increasingly greater complexity
until the moment of peripeteia, at which point the knot is gradually untied until it reaches a
completely unknotted conclusion.

For a tragedy to arouse pity and fear, we must observe a hero who is relatively noble going from
happiness to misery as a result of error on the part of the hero. Our pity and fear is aroused most
when it is family members who harm one another rather than enemies or strangers. In the best
kind of plot, one character narrowly avoids killing a family member unwittingly thanks to an
anagnorisis that reveals the family connection. The hero must have good qualities appropriate to
his or her station and should be portrayed realistically and consistently. Since both the character
of the hero and the plot must have logical consistency, Aristotle concludes that the untying of the
plot must follow as a necessary consequence of the plot and not from stage artifice, like a deus ex
machina (a machine used in some plays, in which an actor playing one of the gods was lowered
onto the stage at the end).

Aristotle discusses thought and diction and then moves on to address epic poetry. Whereas
tragedy consists of actions presented in a dramatic form, epic poetry consists of verse presented
in a narrative form. Tragedy and epic poetry have many common qualities, most notably the
unity of plot and similar subject matter. However, epic poetry can be longer than tragedy, and
because it is not performed, it can deal with more fantastic action with a much wider scope. By
contrast, tragedy can be more focused and takes advantage of the devices of music and spectacle.
Epic poetry and tragedy are also written in different meters. After defending poetry against
charges that it deals with improbable or impossible events, Aristotle concludes by weighing
tragedy against epic poetry and determining that tragedy is on the whole superior.

According to Aristotle, there are four distinct kinds of tragedy, and the poet should aim at
bringing out all the important parts of the kind he chooses. First, there is the complex tragedy,
made up of peripeteia and anagnorisis; second, the tragedy of suffering; third, the tragedy of
character; and fourth, the tragedy of spectacle.

The aim of tragedy, Aristotle writes, is to bring about a "catharsis" of the spectators — to arouse
in them sensations of pity and fear, and to purge them of these emotions so that they leave the
theater feeling cleansed and uplifted, with a heightened understanding of the ways of gods and
men. This catharsis is brought about by witnessing some disastrous and moving change in the
fortunes of the drama's protagonist. Several of Aristotle's main points are of great value for an
understanding of Greek tragic drama. Particularly significant is his statement that the plot is the
most important element of tragedy, even more so than character:

Tragedy is an imitation, not of men, but of action and life, of happiness and misery. And life
consists of action, and its end is a mode of activity, not a quality. Now character determines
men's qualities, but it is their action that makes them happy or wretched. The purpose of action in
the tragedy, therefore, is not the representation of character: character comes in as contributing to
the action. Hence the incidents and the plot are the end of the tragedy; and the end is the chief
thing of all. Without action there cannot be a tragedy; there may be one without character. . . .
The plot, then, is the first principle, and, as it were, the soul of a tragedy: character holds the
second place.

Aristotle goes on to discuss the structure of the ideal tragic plot and spends several chapters on
its requirements. He says that the plot must be a complete whole — with a definite beginning,
middle, and end — and its length should be such that the spectators can comprehend without
difficulty both its separate parts and its overall unity. Moreover, the plot requires a single central
theme in which all the elements are logically related to demonstrate the change in the
protagonist's fortunes, with emphasis on the dramatic causation and probability of the events.

Since the aim of a tragedy is to arouse pity and fear through an alteration in the status of the
central character, he must be a figure with whom the audience can identify and whose fate can
trigger these emotions. Aristotle says that "pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune, fear by the
misfortune of a man like ourselves." He surveys various possible types of characters on the basis
of these premises, then defines the ideal protagonist as

. . . a man who is highly renowned and prosperous, but one who is not pre-eminently virtuous
and just, whose misfortune, however, is brought upon him not by vice or depravity but by some
error of judgment or frailty; a personage like Oedipus.
In addition, the hero should not offend the moral sensibilities of the spectators, and as a character
he must be true to type, true to life, and consistent. The hero should also have a tragic flaw or
hamartia.

Evolution of the Tragic Hero: A Shift from God to Man

The tradition of writing tragedies from the Classical period to the modern times reveals
that tragedy as a genre has passed through a gradual transformation. The change affected not
only the meaning and form but was also subjected to the pressure of culture and religion. The
core concept of tragedy has remained constant which talks about tradition, culture and religion. It
includes sufferings of human life, which brings the source of tragic experience. The change of
tragedy over time adopts new ideas and introduces new outlooks and understandings. During the
classical age of dramatic glory, the Greeks followed the idea that tragedy is mostly about actions
not characters.
Aristotle, the famous Greek philosopher and scientist, in his book Poetics, Chapter XIII,
defined the element of the ideal tragic situation and the tragic hero. He states, “This is the sort of
person who is not outstanding in moral excellence or justice; on the other hand, the change to
bad fortune which he undergoes is not due to any moral defect or depravity, but to an error of
some kind. He is one of those people who are held in great esteem and enjoy great good fortune,
like Oedipus, Thyestes, and distinguished men from that kind of family” (21).
By mentioning “error” Aristotle meant “hamartia,” the flaw in character that results from
ignorance or an error of judgment that leads the hero to his downfall. This hamartia or error of
judgment is considered as a genuine tragic situation by the Greeks. It is an impulsive act which
does not include malice elements.
elements. It is mentioned in Adade-Yeaboah Asuamah‟s paper, “The
Metamorphosis of Tragic Hero” that, “there is a line of demarcation between hamartia and tragic
flaw, the latter being a trait inherent in the tragic hero”. Hamartia is considered an important
element of tragedy which was used by the classical tragedians and also followed by the
tragedians and playwrights over time keeping the Greek model as an ideal but with a slight
change in it. William Shakespeare used the Greek concept of hamartia to create tragic situations
in his plays but did not give it as much importance as Aristotle. Moreover, hamartia has
undergone various misconceptions over time. In Greek tragedies, hamartia is crucial and used to
determine the tragic situation. There is more emphasis on action rather than characters and
the skillful presentation of action is to gain the emotion of pity and fear. The inner character of
tragic hero comes at second when we focus on the Aristotelian tragic hero. Hence, it is essential
to judge the hero by putting him into light in general terms. According to Aristotle tragic hero is
a good man but not extra ordinary in virtue. The ideas that he gives in his Poetics are,
(i) Hero must have a flaw or error of judgment.
(ii) There must be a reversal of fortune because of the hero‟s error of judgment.
(iii) A discovery that would say the reversal has been brought because of the hero‟s own act
or fault.
(iv) The hero must have extreme pride or hubris.
(v) The hero will suffer more that he deserves.
(vi) The hero bears no responsibility for his fatal flaw. He must be doomed from the very
beginning.
(vii) He/ she is a person who is noble in nature but not perfect that is why the audience see
their own reflection on the hero.
(viii) He/ she discover their fate by themselves through their actions.
(ix) The story of the tragic hero raises pity and fear.
(x) The hero gets wounded physically and spiritually because of the experience he/she
gathers which results them to their death.
(xi) The hero learns from his mistakes because of his intelligence.
(xii) His weakness is his pride.
(xiii) He must face a very serious decision.
The Aristotelian tragic hero dies a tragic death. He falls from a high position by making a
mistake and the hero accepts the death courageously.
The dramatic movement comes when Oedipus realizes
that, in spite of all attempts and being cautious to prevent the Delphic Oracles prediction, he has
killed his father and married to his mother with whom he has children and this has happened
because of the curse of the God Apollo which was impossible to overcome.
On the Contrary, in Shakespearean tragic drama of 16th century which comes much later,
the hero and his actions are inextricable. Shakespeare emphasized more on the characters than
the plot which is the indication of slightly breaking away the traditional Greek form of tragedy
because following the Aristotelian model Shakespeare took the forms into one step further. He
included the idea of hamartia and presented it as Aristotle suggested in Poetics.
During the Renaissance time period, the meaning of hamartia which is associated with
the tragic hero has gone under a drastic change. This is mainly because of the interpretation of
the Italian scholars. As Renaissance period represents rejection of the classical period, the critics
were first to translate Poetics. They have translated the hamartia as “a weakness of characters”
instead of fatal flaw or going wrong. (Asuamah 8). They insisted to include tragic hamartia as the
part of characters. Therefore, it became popular and acceptable by the people of that time,
considering it the characterization of the post-classical tragic hero.
The main difference of the classical and post classical schools of thought is the influence
of religion especially Christianity. “The Greeks were pagans who believed in instant retributive
measures. The renaissance men are influenced by the tenets of the Christian religion” (Asuamah
8). As a result, they believed in sin and intuitive corruption. Moreover, the inclusion of fate was
necessary in Classical dramas whereas, Christianity replaces the belief on fate with nemesis or
providence. For example, there is a belief in Christianity that god has sent different intercession
to prevent men from evil. The idea of punishment is for those who do not show guilt or
repentance for their crime. This way the literary tradition changed from the classical time and
transformed into Christian religious belief. The story remains the same. It talks about a downfall
of a prince or of a man fell from a high position but he is responsible for his action. He is no
longer the pawn in the hands of gods and goddesses. He makes his own choice from his
knowledge.
Prometheus
Bound, The Oresteia by Aeschylus, King Oedipus Rex by Sophocles are some examples of
classical tragedies.

Aristotle contested in his Poetics that the tragic hero has to be a man
“who is pre-eminently good and just, whose misfortune is brought about not by vice or
depravity, but by some error or frailty” (21). Aristotle is not making the hero entirely good, in
which he can do no wrong but rather the hero commits an injury or a great wrong that leads him
to his misfortune. Aristotle did not mean that the hero has to be perfectly virtuous and eminently
good. He is a human and has flaws in his character. Being eminently good is a moral
specification to the fact that he is virtuous. He has to be good up to some degree but there has to
be a flaw in his character. Aristotle adds another qualification by mentioning that. “He must be
one who is highly renowned and prosperous.” (22) He goes on to give examples of classical
tragic heroes, such as Oedipus and Thyestes. He is the man who is noble by birth and nature. He
undergoes the change of misfortune. He is a great man, stands in great repute and prosperity like
Oedipus, mythical Greek king of Thebes and Thyestes, King of Olympia in Greek mythology.
He is neither a villain nor a model of perfection but he is a good and decent man. His hamartia or
fatal flaw is the reason of his downfall. The great man; the tragic hero falls through because of
his error not entirely because of some weakness of his character but because of some moral
blindness. The gods are responsible for the hero's fall. For example, Agamemnon, the king of
Argos in the first play of The Trilogy by Aeschylus, respects the Greek deities as a result,
sacrifices his own daughter Iphigenia in order to get a favorable wind to carry his Greek fleet to
Troy so that he can bring his brother Menelaus‟ wife Helen back who is stolen by the Trojan
prince . When he returns from war, he is totally unaware of his murder that his wife,
Clytemnestra plots against him because of sacrificing his daughter, killing his wife‟s first
husband and bringing a concubine, Cassandra with him. Agamemnon was destined to be killed
by his wife. He was totally unaware of his wife‟s plan. He could not even guess his cousin,
Aegisthus‟ affair with his wife. His fate was pre-destined by the gods, that he would kill his
wife‟s first husband, marry Clytemenestra, sacrifice his daughter and finally lose his life at the
hands of his wife along with Cassandra. Similarly, in Sophocles‟ play King Oedipus Rex, the
king, Oedipus kills his father, Liaus and marries his mother Jocasta. His fate was pre-destined by
the God of sun and light, Apollo before his birth. Therefore, he was born ill-fated and could not
go against his destiny. At the end of the play he blinds himself because he could not bear to see
his faulty self but it was more or less gods‟ wish that he would commit such a crime. Mainly, the
tragic hero‟s downfall is a combination of hubris, fate, and the will of the gods. Oedipus and
Agamemnon both had hubris or extreme pride as both of them are kings. Therefore, they are lead
to their downfall at the end. A classical tragic hero is a man no better than other men in virtue
and
justice. In chapter 2 of Poetics “he uses for people „of the same sort‟ as ourselves, as distinct
from those better or worse than we are” (Heath xiv). “He is a man of good position and
reputation, and he is prosperous” who falls into misfortune. (Mullens 149).He said, “The change
of fortune presented must not be the spectacle of a virtuous man brought from prosperity to
adversity” (Aristotle 21). In other words, the focus of the tragic hero should not be in the loss of
his prosperity. He establishes the concept that the emotion of pity stems not from a person
becoming better but when a person receives undeserved misfortune. Fear comes in mind when
the misfortune befalls upon a man like us. This is why Aristotle points out the fact that, “The
change of fortune should be not from bad to good, but, reversely, from good to bad.” (Aristotle
21) The tragic hero‟s misfortune comes to him not through vice or depravity but by some error
of
judgment. These are the characteristics of the classical tragic hero.
One great example of a classical tragic hero is Oedipus Rex, who was a high society
figure. He was noble by birth and nature in two ways; he was the heir to the city of Corinth and
the King of Thebes. He was living in Corinth as if he was born to the King and Queen of
Corinth. As a matter of fact, he was the future heir to the throne. On the one hand, he became the
king of Thebes by solving the riddle of the Sphinx. On the other hand, he was the heir to the
Corinthian crown. It was so obvious that he started thinking of himself as superior to others
because he was the only one who was able to solve the riddle and welcomed as a king by the
Theban people. He is brave, noble and just. He saved Thebes from disaster. His people treated
him as a superior being because of his qualities. He claims the throne of the former King Lauis
because he deserves it. If he had been living in Thebes and was not given away by his parents, he
would have inherited the throne of Thebes biologically. It is true that when one gets treated as
superior and thinks himself as superior it causes a lot of harm because this way the man develops
extreme pride known as „hubris‟. It is one of the major characteristics of a classical tragic hero.
Aristotle, in his Poetics mentioned the extreme pride of a tragic hero; he called it a
reflection of dignity and conceit that suggests superiority over man. Oedipus says, “I, Oedipus, /
Whose name is known afar. (Sophocles 25). A group of numerous citizens of Thebes gathered in
front of the king‟s place, came to Oedipus for solving their problem as the city was cursed with
plague and people were dying. They wanted Oedipus to free the city from this curse. Oedipus
standing near the central door promises in his speech that he will help his people by bragging of
his fame and revealing his sense of self importance. He has a self centered, impulsive and
arrogant attitude toward life. His state implies that he is above other men and his name is known
afar. Sophocles through his words presented Oedipus as an egoistic king who is impulsive and
arrogant and it is clear in his speech that he thinks high of himself. He is also an ill fated high
born man. His one mistake, which he was unaware of leads him to his downfall. It is mentioned
in the Introduction of Poetics that, someone who unwittingly harms a person close to them is to
be pitied; so in these situations we can pity the agent as well as the victim. Oedipus was not
aware of his mistakes and he unwittingly harms King Laius. His murder was committed
completely out of his impulse. His hubris made him commit this crime. His action raises pity and
fear in the readers‟ mind.
Oedipus says, “all that you suffer; / And while you suffer, none suffers more than I”
(Sophocles 27). This line proves that, Oedipus is a good king who loves his people. He suffers
the pain of the ordinary people of his kingdom. He was destined to kill his father and marry his
mother. This prophecy was bound to happen. Prophecies in Greek tragedies are bound to happen
according to their true interpretation. Prophecies are they only way through which man sees the
power of the gods. This way gods leave man in a wide scope of his thoughts and plans. In the
play Oedipus Rex, Sophocles shows that man is not only a passive sacrifice to his fate or destiny
but he takes an active part in it. The gods arrange things in a way that all steps Oedipus takes to
go against his fate bring him ever nearer to it. This shows the power of gods exerted over men.
The main theme of the play is the prediction of the oracle or the “credibility of oracular
pronouncements.” Gods were considered as incapable of making mistakes and it is clearly shown
that it is impossible for the oracles to go wrong. They never gave untrue prediction. If it were
possible for them to predict wrong, human life would be meaningless. The sanctity is represented
by the chorus who persists that oracles can never predict wrong even if they appear to be.
Doubting them means doubting gods, which is a great sin. Therefore, nobody goes against god‟s
will.
According to Aristotle, the hero starts the tragic sequence, not his baseness. His strives
are interpreted as either blunder or flaw in the character. Oedipus
is nothing but a pawn in the hands of Apollo. His father’s mistake made him suffer as long as he
was alive. He could not go against his faith. Therefore, his story is such an emotional creation of
Sophocles, which is successful to make the readers feel from the bottom of their hearts.
The Oracle plays an important role in Greek religion. Oracle is the massager of god‟s
will. They provide information to humans. They know what god decides for humans based on
that they predict the fate but they have limits given by god. The Oracle of Delphi tells Oedipus
that he must not return to his parents because he the son who will kill his father and marry his
mother. From the previous statements it is clear that king Oedipus, the Aristotelian ideal classical
tragic hero was bound to follow what god wished for him. He could not go against it. Which also
proves that the influence of religion in classical drama is so severe that men feared gods and
believed that without gods wish nothing happens. They prayed and worshiped gods in order to
live a good life. They punished themselves if they did anything wrong because they believed
going against gods is a great sin.

The Renaissance is the bridge between the middle ages and modern history. This time
period began in the 14th century and ended in the middle of the 17th century. During that time it
represented a cultural rebirth which started in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe later on.
Doctor Faustus is a Renaissance tragic hero who wishes to get all knowledge and power
to be equal to God. His over ambition made him suffer and led him to his downfall. Marlowe‟s
tragic hero does not abide by all the ideas given by Aristotle in the classic form of tragic hero. In
renaissance time there involved the religious ideas but not as strict as the ancient Greek world.
They believed good work takes to heaven and bad work leads you to hell. People got involved in
good work to achieve peace in afterlife. Faustus is an ordinary German parent who goes to
Wittenberg for higher studies mainly supported by his kinsmen. He does not belong to a royal or
noble parentage. But he is great because of his scholarship. Like Hamlet and Macbeth, he is an
ambitious hero. He proscribes God, blasphemes the Trinity and Christian doctrines and sells his
soul to the Devil to gain supernatural powers to live a life of voluptuousness for twenty four
years. His fate is settled when he signs the deed with the devils. On the other hand, Hamlet the
Shakespearean tragic hero is also a Renaissance tragic
hero with all the Renaissance quality Doctor Faustus has. Unlike Faustus he is a noble born, he is
a prince of Denmark. His tragedy begin with the noble motivation of punishing his father‟s
murderer and ends in his death. Hamlet does not survive to the outcome of his action like the
classical tragic heroes rather he dies a tragic death like Faustus. Shakespeare portrayed prince
Hamlet‟s tragedy as the result of his unrealistic ideals and inability to overcome weakness of
indecisiveness. This fatal attribute causes multiple deaths at the end of the play. Though prince
Hamlet is described as an intelligent and brave person, he has the tendency to procrastinate. This
procrastination prevents him from acting upon his father‟s murder and his uncle‟s ascension to
the throne by marrying his mother. The Shakespearean idea of tragic hero is slightly different
than the Aristotelian classical
idea. Shakespearean tragic hero is a person of some stature or high position. For example, king,
prince, general or noble man. He must be a good and worthwhile person. His actions have far
reaching effects. He posses character trait or quality which under normal circumstances is a
virtue but under special circumstances is a fatal flaw. He is a great man who promises to be
farther greatness. He makes serious error of judgment which leads him to his downfall. He
makes further errors of judgment following his misdeed. He has a distorted perception which
makes him blind to reality. He frequently commits further crime. He suffers both outwardly and
inwardly. For example, he suffers from isolation, alienation, attacks outwardly and also suffers
from tortures conscience. He elicits pity and fear from the audience because of his recognizing
his own mistakes and he dies at the end of the play. There are the qualities those Shakespearean
tragic hero posses. Hamlet is a knowledgeable prince, who is good and worthwhile person. His
actions have far reaching effects. His delay made him suffer at the end. He suffered both
outwardly and inwardly. He suffered from isolation, alienation and he was tortured by his
conscience. There was a conflict going on in his mind which came out through his soliloquy. His
conscience was stopping him from his revenge. He could not come to a decision because the
ghost could also be his illusion of mind. He was deeply frustrated and suffered inwardly more
that outwardly. His death at the end brings pity and fear into the mind of the readers.
The renaissance tragic hero has evolved from the ancient Greek tragic hero over time.
The imitation of one action of the tragic hero is not the only cause that makes the play revolve
around it. The hero takes several actions in different acts. The story is not stick to one point
rather it progresses with different sub-plots. The action and decision of God is no longer the
main theme of the play. The hero is no longer destined by supernatural being. The hero takes his
own decision and action. He is not bound by the Gods will. The writers like
Marlowe and Shakespeare moved a little away from the Aristotelian idea of tragic hero and
included their own concept along with the Aristotelian principles in their plays.

Features of Greek Tragedy

According to Aristotle, tragedy has six main elements, including plot, character, diction,
thought, spectacle, and song. While the conventions of the Greek playwrights varied, these
elements remained consistent in their work.
Characteristics of Greek tragedy include the flawed tragic hero, a mix of spoken and sung
narration, and some sort of intervention from the gods. This intervention may be positive or
negative for the hero.
Tragedy’s origin lies in sixth century B.C.; however, the questions surrounding this connection
of play style to the god Dionysus and his rituals have yet to be fully answered. As is depicted
from sculptures, artworks and literature, these plays were being performed at annual festivals in
honour of the god Dionysus. In Greek Mythology, the god Dionysus, the son of Semele and
Zeus, is known as the god of the grape harvest, symbolizing fertility and nature. The reason why
the theatrical competitions, called Dionysia, were being held for the honour of the god Dionysus
at the annual festivals is that "the most compelling symbols of Dionysus is the mask. . . [the
function of the mask of Dionysus is] the ecstatic experience reveals God within man and the
ecstasy of being passed by god" (Versényi, 87).

Any tragedians who wished to compete in the festival submitted a request. The chosen three
tragedians would compete against one another for the first, second, or third prize. Along with
each tragedians’ play, there was a fourth satyr play that was often connected thematically to the
tragedies of the current competition.

The festival, which was celebrated with songs and dance, greatly impacted the elements of
tragedy plays, causing the Chorus to emerge. The Chorus consisted of around twelve masked
male members who were ordinary citizens. It is theorized that as time went on the number of
members of the Chorus had increased to fifteen, and they often represented a specific group such
as men, women or slaves. Even though the Chorus had no direct part in the play, it made
comments about the action. In Cassandra’s Prophecy episode in Agamemnon, between 1149-
1391 lines, The Chorus makes comments such as “Prosperity is always delicate. . . Hush, hapless
maid, speak no ill-omened words.” It is supposed that the members were singing their lines,
which was the combination of the lyric with the dramatic element, while simultaneously dancing.
The Chorus is one of the key elements of Ancient Greek Tragedy.

Tragedy's origins are obscure, but it apparently started with the singing of a choral lyric (called
the dithyramb) in honor of Dionysus. It was performed in a circular dancing-place (orchestra) by
a group of men who may have impersonated satyrs by wearing masks and dressing in goat-skins.
(The Greek word tragoedia means "goat-song.") Eventually, the content of the dithyramb was
widened to any mythological or heroic story, and an actor was introduced to answer questions
posed by the choral group. (The Greek word for actor is hypokrites, which literally means
"answerer." It is the source for our English word "hypocrite.") Tragedy was recognized as an
official state cult in Athens in 534 BC. According to tradition, the playwright Aeschylus added a
second actor and Sophocles added a third.

Performance: Greek tragedies were performed in late March/early April at an annual state
religious festival in honor of Dionysus. The presentation took the form of a contest between three
playwrights, who presented their works on three successive days. Each playwright would prepare
a trilogy of three tragedies, plus an unrelated concluding comic piece called a satyr play. Often,
the three plays featured linked stories, but later writers like Euripides may have presented three
unrelated plays. Only one complete trilogy has survived, the Oresteia of Aeschylus. The Greek
theatre was in the open air, on the side of a hill, and performances of a trilogy and satyr play
probably lasted most of the day. Performances were apparently open to all citizens, including
women, but evidence is scanty. The theatre of Dionysus at Athens probably held around 12,000
people (Ley 33-34).

The presentation of the plays probably resembled modern opera more than what we think of as a
"play." All of the choral parts were sung (to flute accompaniment) and some of the actors'
answers to the chorus were sung as well. The play as a whole was composed in various verse
meters. All actors were male and wore masks, which may have had some amplifying capabilities.
A Greek chorus danced as well as sang. (The Greek word choros means "a dance in a ring.") No
one knows exactly what sorts of steps the chorus performed as it sang. But choral songs in
tragedy are often divided into three sections: strophe ("turning, circling"), antistrophe ("counter-
turning, counter-circling") and epode ("after-song"). So perhaps the chorus would dance one way
around the orchestra ("dancing-floor") while singing the strophe, turn another way during the
antistrophe, and then stand still during the epode.

Definition: Tragedy depicts the downfall of a noble hero or heroine, usually through some
combination of hubris, fate, and the will of the gods. The tragic hero's powerful wish to achieve
some goal inevitably encounters limits, usually those of human frailty (flaws in reason, hubris,
society), the gods (through oracles, prophets, fate), or nature. Aristotle says that the tragic hero
should have a flaw and/or make some mistake (hamartia). The hero need not die at the end, but
he / she must undergo a change in fortune. In addition, the tragic hero may achieve some
revelation or recognition (anagnorisis--"knowing again" or "knowing back" or "knowing
throughout" ) about human fate, destiny, and the will of the gods. Aristotle quite nicely terms this
sort of recognition "a change from ignorance to awareness of a bond of love or hate."
The tragic hero is "a [great] man who is neither a paragon of virtue and justice nor undergoes the
change to misfortune through any real badness or wickedness but because of some mistake."

a) a great man: "one of those who stand in great repute and prosperity, like Oedipus and
Thyestes: conspicuous men from families of that kind." The hero is neither a villain nor a model
of perfection but is basically good and decent.

b) "mistake" (hamartia)[*]: This Greek word, which Aristotle uses only once in the Poetics, has
also been translated as "flaw" or as "error." The great man falls through--though not entirely
because of--some weakness of character, some moral blindness, or error. We should note that the
gods also are in some sense responsible for the hero's fall.

III. Plot

Aristotle distinguished six elements of tragedy: "plot, characters, verbal expression, thought,
visual adornment, and song-composition." Of these, PLOT is the most important. The best tragic
plot is single and complex, rather than double ("with opposite endings for good and bad"--a
characteristic of comedy in which the good are rewarded and the wicked punished). All plots
have some pathos [*] (suffering), but a complex plot includes reversal and recognition.

a) "reversal" (peripeteia)[*]: occurs when a situation seems to developing in one direction, then
suddenly "reverses" to another. For example, when Oedipus first hears of the death of Polybus
(his supposed father), the news at first seems good, but then is revealed to be disastrous.

b) "recognition" (anagnorisis or "knowing again" or "knowing back" or "knowing throughout" )

[*]: a change from ignorance to awareness of a bond of love or hate. For example, Oedipus kills
his father in ignorance and then learns of his true relationship to the King of Thebes. Recognition
scenes in tragedy are of some horrible event or secret, while those in comedy usually reunite
long-lost relatives or friends. A plot with tragic reversals and recognitions best arouses pity and
fear.

c) "suffering" (pathos)[*]: Also translated as "a calamity," the third element of plot is "a
destructive or painful act." The English words "sympathy," "empathy," and "apathy" (literally,
absence of suffering) all stem from this Greek word.

The Prominent Tragedians

There are several tragedians; yet, three are considered the most well known. All the tragedies

that can be read today were written by these three tragedians below:

Aeschylus (525–456 B.C.) Only seven of his plays have survived: the trilogy known as The
Oresteia (Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers and The Eumenides), Seven Against Thebes, The
Persians, and The Suppliants.
Sophocles (496–406) The titles of 118 plays are known, yet only seven have survived: The
Oedipal Trilogy (Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone), Philoctetes, Electra,
Ajax, and Trachiniae.
Euripides (480–406) Only eighteen plays of his have survived. The most known ones are The
Trojan Women, Medea, Alcestis, The Bacchae, and Hippolytus.

The Five Characteristics of Tragedy

The subject of the tragedy was drawn solely from traditional myth. Traditional myths had been
providing the tragedies' basic plots. Though tragedies were prone to focus on the conflict in a
family leading to its destruction, there was also the sole hero facing his own inevitable destiny.
The conflict of the plot involved wider themes such as justice, destiny, political power, and the
relationship between genders. Overall, there are four characteristics of Ancient Greek Tragedy.
Oedipus the King by Sophocles can be used as an example to explain these terms:
Tragic Hero: The hero facing his destiny with dignity. His virtuous character forms a bond with
the audience, while his tragic flaw results in the audience’s fear for him, and his terrible
punishment reveals a sense of pity.
Tragic Flaw: The human limitations of the hero or an error in judgement leading to the downfall.
He attempts to escape from his destiny; however, he unknowingly runs toward it. His attempt
leads him to his “damnation”.
Catastrophe: The horrible ending of the play: death, suicide, ruin etc. Upon the truth being
revealed about Oedipus’ origin, Queen Jocasta commits suicide by hanging herself, Oedipus
stabs his eyes with the pin on Jocasta’s dress and pleads to be exiled from the city.
Central Belief of Destiny: The belief of the fact that the actions were preordained by the gods
and the flaw was inevitable. Even though Oedipus attempts to flee from his preordained destiny,
the belief in inevitable destiny becomes the reason for his destruction.
The Chorus: Approximately twelve masked men, forming a specific group, make comments on
the ongoing play by singing and dancing.

The Main Components of Tragedies

Ancient Greek Tragedies consisted of several main parts. The Prologue is a short introductory
speech before the Chorus enters the stage. After the scene is set, the play begins with the Chorus’
entrance which is called the parodos. It presents the identity of the Chorus with background
information. After the parodos, the play officially begins and the actions are developed through
several episodes which are separated with choral songs. The final section of a tragedy is the
exodos that includes one last short choral song and the Chorus leaves the stage. In addition to
these components, crucially important events that happen offstage are narrated by a witness. This
is called the messenger speech.

Related Terms

Ancient Greek terms to be reviewed before analyzing a play:

Anagnorisis: the point in the play where the hero begins to realize the truth or his destiny (from
ignorance to knowledge).
Catharsis: the point in the play where the hero understands and accepts his damnation at the end
of the play. It leaves an emotional effect on the audience.
Hamartia: the tragic flaw of the hero.
Hubris: the excessive pride of the hero, which results in Hamartia (tragic flaw).

Accordingly, Ancient Greek Tragedy, which emerged in sixth century B.C., was a festival
competition for the honour of god of Dionysus. It was a form of theatre that consisted of male
actors and a Chorus. The main characteristic of Greek Tragedies is that the tragic hero
experiences a tragic flaw, because of his human limitations or an error in judgement, leading to
his catastrophic end rooted in the belief in fate. With the contributions of the prominent
tragedians, such as Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, Greek Tragedy has had a significant
impact and nurtured itself up to a point where it has still being discussed in Literature, Art,
Psychology, Sociology, Culture or History.

FEATURES OF SHAKESPEAREAN TRAGEDY

Shakespearean tragedy has got its own specific features, which distinguish it from other kinds of
tragedies. It must be kept in mind that Shakespeare is mostly indebted to Aristotle’s theory of
tragedy in his works. The elements of a Shakespearean tragedy are discussed below.

The 9 Elements of Shakespearean Tragedy at a Glance:

All Shakespearean tragedies include these elements in some shape or form.
Elements Explanation

Tragic Hero A main character cursed by fate and possessed of a tragic flaw.
A Struggle Between This struggle can take place as part of the plot or exist within the main
Good and Evil character.
Hamartia The fatal character flaw of the tragic hero.
The good being destroyed along with the bad at the resolution of the play.
Tragic Waste Often played out with the unnecessary loss of life, especially of "good
guy" characters.
This can be a problem facing the hero as a result of the plot or a "bad guy"
External Conflict
character.
Internal Conflict The struggle the hero engages in with his/her fatal flaw.
The release of the audience's emotions through empathy with the
Catharsis
characters.
Supernatural Elements Magic, witchcraft, ghosts, etc.
Lack of Poetic Justice Things end poorly for everyone, including the "good guys."
One or more humorous characters who participate in scenes intended to
Comic Relief
lighten the mood.
The word tragedy was derived from the Greek word tragoidia, which means ‘the song of the
goat.’ It is called "the song of the goat" because in ancient Greece the theater performers used to
wear goatskin costumes to represent satyrs.
Good vs. Evil
Shakespearean tragedies play out the struggle between good and evil. Most of them deal with the
supremacy of evil and suppression of good. According to Edward Dowden, a 19th century noted
poet and literary critic, “Tragedy as conceived by Shakespeare is concerned with the ruin or
restoration of the soul and of the life of man. In other words, its subject is the struggle of Good
and Evil in the world.” Evil is presented in Shakespearean tragedies in a way that suggests its
existence is an indispensable and ever-enduring thing. For example, in Hamlet, the reader is
given the impression that something rotten will definitely happen to Denmark (foreshadowing).
Though the reader gets an inkling, typically the common people of the play are unaware of the
impending evil.

In Julius Caesar, the mob is unaware of the struggle between good and evil within King Caesar.
They are also ignorant of the furtive and sneaky motives of Cassius. Goodness never beats evil in
the tragedies of Shakespeare. Evil conquers goodness. The reason for this is that the evil element
is always disguised, while goodness is open and freely visible to all. The main character (the
most pious and honest person in the tragedy) is assigned the task of defeating the supreme evil
because of his goodness. As a result, he suffers terribly and ultimately fails due to his fatal flaw.
This tragic sentiment is perfectly illustrated by Hamlet in the following lines:

Tragedy is a serious play or drama typically dealing with the problems of a central character,
leading to an unhappy or disastrous ending brought on, as in ancient drama, by fate and a tragic
flaw in this character, or, in modern drama, usually by moral weakness, psychological
maladjustment, or social pressures.”

— Webster Dictionary

3. Hamartia
Hamartia is the Greek word for “sin” or “error”, which derives from the verb hamatanein,
meaning “to err” or “to miss the mark”. In other words, hamartia refers to the hero's tragic flaw.
It is another absolutely critical element of a Shakespearean tragedy. Every hero falls due to some
flaw in his or her character. Here I will once again reference A. C. Bradley, who asserts, “The
calamities and catastrophe follow inevitably from the deeds of men and the main source of these
deeds is character.” As a result of the fatal flaw, the hero falls from a high position, which
usually leads to his/her unavoidable death.

A good example of hamartia can be seen in Hamlet when Hamlet's faltering judgment and failure
to act lead him to his untimely death. He suffers from procrastination. He finds a number of
opportunities to kill his uncle, but he fails because of his indecisive and procrastinating nature.
Every time, he delays taking action. In one case he finds an opportunity to kill Claudius while
Claudius is praying. Still, Hamlet forgoes the excellent opportunity to achieve his goal with the
excuse that he doesn’t want to kill a man while he is praying. He wants to kill Claudius when he
is in the act of committing a sin. It is this perfectionism, failure to act, and uncertainty about the
correct path that ultimately result in Hamlet's death and lead Denmark into chaos.
How Is a Shakespearean Tragedy Different From a Regular
Tragedy?
A Shakespearean tragedy is a specific type of tragedy (a written work with a sad ending where
the hero either dies or ends up mentally, emotionally, or spiritually devastated beyond recovery)
that also includes all of the additional elements discussed in this article..

1. The Tragic Hero

A tragic hero is one of the most significant elements of a Shakespearean tragedy. This type of
tragedy is essentially a one-man show. It is a story about one, or sometimes two, characters. The
hero may be either male or female and he or she must suffer because of some flaw of character,
because of inevitable fate, or both. The hero must be the most tragic personality in the play.
According to Andrew Cecil Bradley, a noted 20th century Shakespeare scholar, a Shakespearean
tragedy “is essentially a tale of suffering and calamity conducting to death.” (Usually the hero
has to face death in the end.)

An important feature of the tragic hero is that he or she is a towering personality in his/her
state/kingdom/country. This person hails from the elite stratum of society and holds a high
position, often one of royalty. Tragic heroes are kings, princes, or military generals, who are very
important to their subjects. Take Hamlet, prince of Denmark; he is intellectual, highly educated,
sociable, charming, and of a philosophic bent. The hero is such an important person that his/her
death gives rise to full-scale turmoil, disturbance, and chaos throughout the land. When Hamlet
takes revenge for the death of his father, he is not only killing his uncle but inviting his own
death at the hands of Laertes. And as a direct result of his death, the army of Fortinbras enters
Denmark to take control.

4. Tragic Waste
In Shakespearean tragedies, the hero usually dies along with his opponent. The death of a hero is
not an ordinary death; it encompasses the loss of an exceptionally intellectual, honest, intelligent,
noble, and virtuous person. In a tragedy, when good is destroyed along with evil, the loss is
known as a "tragic waste." Shakespearean tragedy always includes a tragic waste of goodness.
Hamlet is a perfect example of tragic waste. Even though Hamlet succeeds in uprooting the evil
from Denmark, he does so at the cost of his death. In this case, the good (Hamlet) gets destroyed
along with evil (Claudius). Neither of them wins. Instead, they fail together.

5. Conflict
Conflict is another imperative element of a Shakespearean tragedy. There are two types of
conflicts:

External Conflict
External conflict plays a vital role in the tragedies of Shakespeare. External conflict causes
internal conflict in the mind of the tragic hero. Every tragic hero in a Shakespearean play is
confronted with external conflicts that must be addressed. Hamlet, for example, is confronted
with external conflict in the shape of his uncle, Claudius. He has to take revenge, but as a result
of his uncle's craftiness and effective security, Hamlet isn’t able to translate his ideas into action.
This external conflict gives rise to internal conflict, which hinders Hamlet from taking any
action.

Internal Conflict

Internal conflict is one of the most essential elements in a Shakespearean tragedy. It refers to the
confusion in the mind of the hero. Internal conflict is responsible for the hero's fall, along with
fate or destiny. The tragic hero always faces a critical dilemma. Often, he cannot make a
decision, which results in his ultimate failure. Again, Hamlet is a perfect example. He is usually
a doer, but over the course of the play, his indecision and frequent philosophical hangups create a
barrier to action. Internal conflict is what causes Hamlet to spare the life of Claudius while he is
praying.

6. Catharsis
Catharsis is a remarkable feature of a Shakespearean tragedy. It refers to the cleansing of the
audience's pent-up emotions. In other words, Shakespearean tragedies help the audience to feel
and release emotions through the aid of tragedy. When we watch a tragedy, we identify with the
characters and take their losses personally. A Shakespearean tragedy gives us an opportunity to
feel pity for a certain character and fear for another, almost as if we are playing the roles
ourselves. The hero's hardships compel us to empathize with him. The villain's cruel deeds cause
us to feel wrath toward him. Tears flow freely when a hero like Hamlet dies. At the same time
we feel both sorry for Hamlet and happy that Claudius has received his proper punishment.

7. Supernatural Elements
Supernatural elements are another key aspect of a Shakespearean tragedy. They play an import
role in creating an atmosphere of awe, wonder, and sometimes fear. Supernatural elements are
typically used to advance the story and drive the plot. The ghost Hamlet sees plays an important
role in stirring up internal conflict. It is the ghost who tells Hamlet his father was killed by his
uncle Claudius and assigns him the duty of taking revenge. Similarly, the witches in
Macbethplay a significant role in the plot. These witches are responsible for motivating Macbeth
to resort to murder in order to ascend the throne of Scotland.

8. Absence of Poetic Justice

Poetic Justice means good is rewarded and evil is punished; it refers to a situation in which
everything comes to a fitting and just end. There is no poetic justice in the tragedies of
Shakespeare, rather, these plays contain only partial justice. Shakespeare understood that poetic
justice rarely occurs outside of fiction. Good deeds often go without reward and immoral people
are often free to enjoy life to its fullest. “Do good and have good” was considered an outdated
ethos in the time of Shakespeare, which is why we don’t find any poetic justice in his tragedies.
Good is crushed along with evil. Hamlet dies along with Claudius.

9. Comic Relief
Comic relief is our final key element. Shakespeare didn’t follow in the footsteps of his classical
predecessors when writing tragedies. Greek and Roman writers didn’t use comic relief. But
Shakespeare wanted to relieve the tension for the reader and lighten up the mood here and there.
A few examples of comic relief scenes include the grave digger scene in Hamlet, the drunken
port scene in Macbeth, the fool is smarter than the king dialogue in King Lear, and the Polonius
in the wings speech in Hamlet. We also have the following scene in Romeo and Juliet:

MERCUTIO: “No, ‘tis not so deep as a well, nor so wide as a church-door, but ‘tis enough;
‘twill serve. Ask for me to-morrow, and you shall find me a grave man. I am pepper’d, I warrant,
for this world.”

HAMLET: Whose Grave’s this, sirrah?

CLOWN/GRAVEDIGGER: Mine, sir….

HAMLET: What man dost thou dig it for?

CLOWN: For no man, sir.

HAMLET: What woman then?

CLOWN: For none neither.

HAMLET: Who is to be buried in’t?

CLOWN: One that was a woman, sir; but, rest her soul, she’s dead.

HAMLET: How absolute the knave is! We must speak by the card, or equivocation will undo us.

— Shakespeare

Element 1- The Tragic Hero

Usually there is only one tragic hero. Exceptions- The Love Tragedies
Only Great Men are Tragic Heroes
Peasants (merely because they are human beings) do not inspire pity and fear as great men do.
For example- The pangs of despised love and the anguish of remorse are the same in a peasant as
in a prince. However, a peasant’s emotional
distress will not affect the welfare of a nation or empire. So when a great man falls suddenly
from the heights of earthly greatness, his fall
produces a sense of contrast.
Common Qualities of the Tragic Hero
1. Tragic heroes are exceptional beings. They are from a high estate, but the tragic hero’s nature
generally raises him in some respect much
higher than the average level of humanity. The tragic hero carries a touch of greatness (fierce
determination, fixed ideas,) which stirs not only
sympathy and pity, but also admiration, terror, and awe.
2. Tragic heroes contribute to their own destruction by acts in which the reader sees a flaw in
their character. The flaw often takes the form of
obsession.
3. The difficulty is that the audience must desire the defeat/destruction of the tragic hero, but this
in itself does not constitute tragic feeling.
4. Shakespeare’s tragic heroes need not to be “good,” though they generally are.
5. Shakespeare’s tragic heroes project that man is not small or contemptible, no matter how
rotten he can be.
6. Shakespeare’s tragic heroes illustrate the center of the tragic impression: the sense of waste.
There is a profound sense of sadness and
mystery which is due to this impression of waste.
7. Shakespeare’s tragic heroes live for what seems to be a type of the mystery of the whole
world. Shakespeare tries to show the reader the
tragedy that is all around and the waste that it creates.
Element 2- The Tragic Flaw
Hamartia (Greek)- In a tragedy, the quality within the Tragic Hero or heroine which leads to his
or her downfall.
The flaw often takes the form of obsession.
Element 3- The Tragic “Story”
Plot
1. The tragic story leads up to, and includes, the death of the hero.
2. The suffering and calamities that befalls the hero are unusual and exceptionally disastrous.

Explanation of the Calamity-

The suffering befalls to a conspicuous person.

The suffering is itself of a striking kind.

The suffering, as a rule, is unexpected.
The suffering, as a rule, contrasts with previous happiness and/or glory.

Tragedy, Human Flaws, and Responsibility

1. The calamities of a tragedy do not simply happen, nor are they sent.
2. The calamities of tragedy proceed mainly from actions, and those, the action of men.
3. Shakespeare’s tragic heroes are responsible for the calamity of their falls. The center of the
tragedy, therefore, lies in the action issuing
from the character, of flawed perceptions, and human frailty for which the hero is ultimately
responsible. The hero recognizes his own
responsibility for the calamity too late to prevent his own death.
Element 4- The Abnormal, The Supernatural, Fate/Fortune/Chance
1. Shakespeare occasionally represents abnormal conditions of mind: insanity, hallucinations etc.
The abnormal conditions of the mind
are never introduced as the origin of any deeds of any dramatic moment.
2. Shakespeare also introduces the supernatural: ghosts and witches who have supernatural
knowledge. The supernatural elements cannot
be explained away as an illusion in the mind of one of the characters. It does contribute to the
action, but it is always placed in the
closest relation with the character. It gives a confirmation and a distinct form to inward
movements already present and exerting an
influence: to the half-formed thought or the memory of guilt or suspicion.
3. Shakespeare, in most tragedies, allows “chance” in some form to influence some of the action.
Finally, chance is a prominent feature in
life. That men may start a course of events but can neither calculate nor control it, is a tragic fact.
However, any large use of chance
would weaken the sense of the casual connection of character, deed, and calamity.

Element 5-Tragic Conflicts

The action of the protagonist/tragic hero is most often motivated by external and internal
conflicts, which lead to complications from which
further conflicts arise- all in a kind of snowballing effect, driving the action toward a tragic
resolution.
External Conflict
1. Usually, there are two persons, of whom the hero is one.
2. Two Parties or Groups, one of which the hero leads
3. The passions, tendencies, ideas, principles, forces, which animate these persons or groups
Internal Conflict
1. Shakespeare’s tragic hero, though he pursues his fated way, is, at some point, torn by an
inward struggle.
2. A comparison of the earlier and later tragedies show this struggle is most emphasized in the
later tragedies.
3. The conception of outer and inner struggle includes the action of “spiritual forces.” The
“spiritual forces” generating the internal turmoil for
the hero is the combination of the pressures of the external and internal struggles or conflicts.
Element 6- The Tragic Pattern
1. A man of high estate- A king, a prince, a general
2. A flaw of character- Within the first two acts, the reader will become aware of the Tragic
Hero’s obsession.
3. Intrusion of time and a sense of urgency- As the inner and outer conflicts intensify, the reader
sees the
Tragic Hero’s actions snowball to his final demise. (Act 3)
4. Misreadings and Rationalizations- The occurrence of the third element will increase the Tragic
Hero’s urgency. The Tragic Hero operates
on what he believes to be the case rather than what he actually knows to be the case.
5. Murder, exile, alienation of enemies and allies- Brought on by new conflicts
6. Gradual Isolation of the Tragic Hero- Brought on by new conflicts, which forces the Tragic
Hero to face the responsibility for his actions alone.
7. Mobilization of the opposition- The stage will occur when the opposing forces mobilize
against the Tragic Hero to bring the tragedy to his
conclusion. Often times, the Tragic Hero is confronted by an enemy in the fifth act who has a
good reason for seeking his death.
8. Tragic recognition of the Flaw by the Tragic Hero: too late- At the point of number 7, the
Tragic Hero realizes his error. The Tragic Hero
must accept responsibility for what has happened.
9. Last courageous attempt to restore lost
10. Audience recognizes potential for greatness- This occurs when the Tragic Hero shows the
audience the nobility of his heart, and the audience
recognizes his loss as a waste.
11. Death of the Tragic Hero
12. Restoration of order
Element 7- Tragic Structure in the Plays
As a Shakespearean tragedy represents a conflict which ends in calamity, any such tragedy can
be divided into four parts.
1. Exposition- The exposition is the task of the first and second act. Here the reader learns about
the general setting, the persons, the character
traits, problems of the play, the major conflict, and the tragic hero’s flaw.
2. Development/Rising Actions- This comprises the second, third, and fourth acts. Time and
urgency becomes important and the action
increases. Eventually, the tragic hero will end up alone.
3. Development/Falling Action- In act four, opposing forces begin to openly resist and make
plans for the removal of the tragic hero, and the
tragic hero's power is declining as the opposition’s power advances.
4. Resolution- In the final act, the opposition reaches its full strength (Climax) and
defeats/destroys the isolated, weakened hero. This is where
Tragic Recognition takes place, the reader becomes aware of the greatness of the man just loss,
and order is restored.

IMPORTANCE OF CHORUS IN GREEK TRAGEDY

A Greek Chorus is a theatrical device originating in ancient Greek theater involving a small
group of performers—who are usually unrelated to the central action of a story—commenting on
the central action of a play. The chorus speaks directly to the audience and may not interact with
the main characters of a story at all. Their purpose is to underscore the moral themes, actions,
character development, and messages of a story to the audience.

The Greek chorus was prevalent in classical Greek drama of the 5th century BCE. Classical
tragedy originated in Ancient Greek theater, with the chorus acting as a guiding voice to the
audience, cluing them in on shifts in the plot or a character’s inner state. The chorus also would
typically pronounce judgment on the fate of the characters in the drama, heightening the tragic
elements of the play. The Greek chorus appears in famous Greek tragedies and dramas such as
Oedipus Rex, Electra, and The Eumenides.
What Is the Structure of a Greek Chorus?
Greek choruses originally had anywhere between 12 and 50 singers and dancers, but many
modern iterations of the Greek chorus are smaller. There is always a chorus leader, called the
coryphaeus, who speaks for the rest of the group.

Typically, the chorus enters after a principal character has explained part of the action. From
there, the chorus appears after scenes in the play to perform choral odes commenting on the
action, and imagining where the story might go. The chorus will also typically close out the
action of a play with an epilogue reflecting its message.

What Are the Functions of a Greek Chorus?

The role of the chorus is to provide context, summary information, and commentary on the
drama of the play for the audience. Here is a general overview of some of the functions of a
Greek chorus.

 Provides commentary on the action of a play: Chorus members commenting on the

themes, messages, and unseen action of a play helped to guide audiences to understand
the intended progression of a narrative. Ancient Greek theater typically involved one
actor playing many different roles, and the Greek chorus helped to clarify what was going
on.
 Draws the audience in: The Greek chorus addresses the audience directly, often
engaging in wry commentary seeking to let the audience in on privileged information.
 Expresses a characters’ inner thoughts: The Greek chorus is able to reveal a main
character’s emotions and motivations to the audience, even when they are trying to hide
them.
 Gives principal actors a moment offstage: Choral interludes allowed actors in ancient
Greece a moment to change backstage, often with actors playing multiple characters
needing a breather.
 Although the historical origins of Greek drama are unclear it may be said it had relevance
to religion, art and to the love of expression and perceptive storytelling in general. The
origins of the chorus in particular may have stemmed out of ancient rites and rituals with
elements of song and dance, and most importantly – the gathering of people.
 In order to understand the function of the chorus one must remember that at the origins of
Greek drama there was only one actor; and even at later dates no more than three actors
occupied the stage, each of whom may have played several roles. As there was this clear
need to distract the audience while the actors went off-stage to change clothes and
costumes, and perhaps prepare for their next role, the function of the chorus may have
had more to do with practicality, than with artistic or philosophical considerations.
 Aside from the practical the chorus would have had numerous functions in providing a
comprehensive and continuous artistic unit. Firstly, according to a view accepted by
many scholars, the chorus would provide commentary on actions and events that were
taking place before the audience. By doing this the chorus would create a deeper and
more meaningful connection between the characters and the audience. Secondly, the
 chorus would allow the playwright to create a kind of literary complexity only achievable
by a literary device controlling the atmosphere and expectations of the audience. Thirdly,
the chorus would allow the playwright to prepare the audience for certain key moments in
the storyline, build up momentum or slow down the tempo; he could underline certain
elements and downplay others. Such usage of the choral structure-making functions may
be observed throughout many classical plays but may be more obvious in some than in
others.
 In Aeschylus’ “Prometheus Bound”, the chorus is composed of Oceanids (nymphs from
the ocean, the children of the sea god Oceanus and his wife Tethys). Aeschylus changed
the role of the chorus which brought criticisms from Aristotle who his Poetics suggested
that “he diminished the importance of the Chorus” (Aristotle 5), and by more modern
writers such as H. D. F. Kitto who in his Greek Tragedy: A Literary Study writes
“Aeschylus arranges things differently. He makes the chorus do what Greek choruses are
supposed never to do: to take a part in the action.” (Kitto 85) Nonetheless such
rearrangements might have made the chorus more convincing because it could remain on
the stage with Prometheus for the entire play as witness and commentator. Here the
chorus could express it’s sympathy for the lead character:
 “I mourn for thee, Prometheus, minished and brought low,
Watering my virgin cheeks with these sad drops, that flow
From sorrow's rainy fount, to fill soft-lidded eyes
With pure libations for thy fortune's obsequies.” (Aeschylus)
 In the works of Nietzsche the chorus takes on a completely new and profound
philosophical meaning. In his The Birth of Tragedy Nietzsche presents a view of a
distinct dissonance between what he calls the Apollonian and the Dionysian paradigms,
referencing to the dramatic and choral qualities of Greek drama respectively. In a
metaphysical framework the chorus is the essence of the play and embodies a certain
Dionysian consciousness which deals with the primal realms of the human condition.
Nietzsche goes to the extreme of suggesting that the “tragic myth can only be understood
as a symbolic picture of Dionysian wisdom by means of Apollonian art.” (Nietzsche 261)
 These primal forces would be at the command of the playwright through the choice of
character and composition of the chorus. It might well consist of sea nymphs, as in
Prometheus Bound, or 15 Theban elders as in Oedipus Rex, or of any other sort of people
who would represent the unison of people. It could be argued that the thing that unified
the chorus was their mode of communication – more often than not the chorus would
elevate its meaning in song. Moreover, and perhaps partly for practical reasons (for it
may have been difficult to see the characters from afar because of the relatively large size
of the theatre) the chorus would emphasize certain elements of the story through the use
of attributes such as masks and weapons.
 The chorus may have distinguished itself by an elaborate use of language or style,
varying the voice of reason or that of emotion depending on occasion and the intention of
the playwright. More importantly though, the chorus could have represented the prevalent
views of the contemporary society holding up certain moral and cultural standards –
much like the media does for modern people throughout their daily lives
 In case of Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex the audience may have already been familiar – and in
many cases probably was - with the outcome of the play. This made the task of engaging
the viewer ever more difficult. Hence the chorus would create interest by presenting an
 alternative or additional viewpoint. It may have negotiated sympathies for one or another
character, or perhaps depending on the sophistication of the particular character, it may
have even guided the characters through problematic situations. This is exemplified by
how Oedipus’ (who is all but blind to his fate) and Teiresias’ conversation is affected by
the chorus.
 “To us it sounds as if Teiresias
has spoken in anger, and, Oedipus,
you have done so, too. That’s not what we need.
Instead we should be looking into this:
How can we best carry out the god’s decree?” (Sophocles 485)
 Both in the works of Aeschylus and Sophocles and in Ancient Greek drama in general,
the role of the chorus may have been important because of structural and practical
reasons. At the same one may praise primarily as an enhancer and amplifier of
impression, and sometimes the voice of a moderator, or the moral voice of the people.
Certainly it also had a similar role to music in modern drama underlining important
events and downplaying the less important ones. Perhaps most generally though, the
chorus would give the ancient playwright a multifunctional literary device for the
creation of an award-winning play on the Dionysian festival.

“The chorus in Classical Greek drama was a group of actors who described and commented
upon the main action of a play with song, dance, and recitation.”

Choral music is interwoven into the drama to develop a deeper sense of emotional urgency, to
express meaning emotionally rather than simply logically. Of course, Greek tragedies are cool
and Broadway musicals suck, but that’s a different subject. Most modern lyrical music (as in
music with lyrics), whether it’s pop, rock, metal, hip-hop, country, whatever, also continues the
tradition of using a chorus to further develop verse. So thinking about the role of a chorus in
modern music should help us understand the chorus in tragedy: it is essentially the same.

The origins of the chorus in particular may have stemmed out of ancient rites and rituals with
elements of song and dance, and most importantly – the gathering of people. One of the
ingredients of Tragedy as specified by Aristotle is thought. Chorus is one of the principal
vehicles of thought. Tragedy arouse out of the chorus, whether Dithyrambic or some other sort.

Chorus serves different purposes for the playwright. As there was this clear need to distract the
audience while the actors went off-stage to change clothes and costumes, and perhaps prepare for
their next role. Aside from the practical the chorus would have had numerous functions in
providing a comprehensive and continuous artistic unit. Firstly, according to a view accepted by
many scholars, the chorus would provide commentary on actionsand events that were taking
place before the audience. By doing this the chorus would create a deeper and more meaningful
connection between the characters and the audience. Secondly, the chorus would allow the
playwright to create a kind of literary complexity only achievable by a literary device controlling
the atmosphere and expectations of the audience. Thirdly, the chorus would allow the
playwright to prepare the audience for certain key moments in the storyline, build up momentum
or slow down the tempo; he could underline certain elements and downplay others.
Chorus, however, plays different role in different tragedies. It is the protagonist in in The
Suppliants. In the Prometheus Bound and the Agamemnon, the chorus is the sympathetic
observer rather than an active participant. In The Choephorae, it takes a minor share in the
action of misleading Aegisthos, but in The Eumenides, the chorus is a prominent participant in
the action.

In Aeschylus’ “Prometheus Bound”, the chorus is composed of Oceanids (nymphs from the
ocean, the children of the sea god Oceanus and his wife Tethys). Aeschylus changed the role of
the chorus which brought criticisms from Aristotle who his Poetics suggested that
“he diminished the importance of the Chorus” (Aristotle 5), and by more modern writers such as
H. D. F. Kitto who in his Greek Tragedy: A Literary Study writes

“Aeschylus arranges things differently. He makes the chorus do what Greek choruses are
supposed never to do: to take a part in the action.”

In the works of Nietzsche the chorus takes on a completely new and profound philosophical
meaning. In his The Birth of Tragedy Nietzsche presents a view of a distinct dissonance
between what he calls the Apollonian and the Dionysian paradigms, referencing to the dramatic
and choral qualities of Greek drama respectively. In a metaphysical framework the chorus is the
essence of the play and embodies a certain Dionysian consciousness which deals with the primal
realms of the human condition.

The use of the Chorus in Elizabethan plays derives ultimately from its use in Ancient Greek
drama. In Shakespeare’s King Henry V (1599), for instance, a play which includes military
sieges and battle scenes, the Chorus is used to ask the audience to exercise their imaginations to
conceive of such vast doings taking place in so small a theatre. Marlowe employs chorus
in Doctor Faustus for a number of functions.

In the modern theatre chorus has become almost of no use. G. B. Shaw has used prefaces and
elaborate stage directions which serve the purpose of the Greek chorus.

The chorus comments on the action in lyrical speeches. Thus they add lyrical splendour to the
drama and help in transforming horror and pain to beauty and music. It also knows the past,
observes the present and has shrewd sense of the future. It participates in the action in the sense
that it suffers it consequences.

Aristotle says in his Poetics that chorus “should be an integral part of the whole, and take share
in the action.” The main function of chorus is dancing and singing. Twelve or more persons
always standing on the stage can not effectively participate in any action. They interfere with
dramatic probability and movement. It has been rightly said that the chorus contributes

“in some degree to the progress of the action, by active offices of friendly assistance as, for
example, in the Philoctetes, and the Ajax of Sophocles”.

USE OF COMIC RELIEF IN SHAKESPEARE’S TRAGEDIES:

Greek tragedy did not allow any comic relief within the drama. But in the Renaissance England
Christopher Marlowe among the University Wits introduced comic relief through the
presentation of crude scenes in Doctor Faustus following the native tradition of Interlude which
was usually introduced between two tragic plays. In fact, in the classical tradition the mingling of
the tragic and the comic was not allowed. Comic relief moments serve the purpose[4] to allow the
audience to break from the dark and heavy content. It can be a breath of fresh air and advance the
plot, though most people view it as a distraction.

Examples
William Shakespeare deviated from the classical tradition and used comic relief in Hamlet,
Macbeth, Othello, The Merchant of Venice and Romeo and Juliet. The grave-digger scene in
Hamlet, the gulling of Roderigo, and the mockery of the fool in King Lear provide immense
comic relief.[5]

Take the Porter scene in Macbeth:[6]

"Here's a knocking indeed! If a man were porter of hell-gate, he should have old turning the
key…Who's there, i' the name of Beelzebub? Here's a farmer, that hanged himself on the
expectation of plenty: come in time; have napkins enow about you; here you'll sweat for't…
Faith, here's an English tailor come hither, for stealing out of a French hose: come in, tailor; here
you may roast your goose."[7]

In this scene, the Porter serves as the comedic relief. In the scene before, King Duncan is
murdered by the Macbeth duo. After the scene, his body is discovered and the castle is thrown
into hysteria. His chaotic scene in between serves as a comic relief moment to distract the
audience from the gruesome content.

Comic relief in tragic drama is introduction of comic scenes which relieve the tension created
by a tragic situation. And by contrast comic relief heightens the significance of the tragic theme.
The drunken porter’s speech in Macbeth is an example in comic relief. The mixture of comedy
and tragedy is also justified by the laws of contrast and relief. When a monotony of horror can
no more be endured and the nerves are strained to the uttermost, some sort of relaxation seems
absolutely needed. The intrusion of the comic according to the psychological law of contrast
often heightens the tragic effect as well as gives relief. The most successful example from the
point of view of creating a profound impression by the introduction of the comic in tragedy is
provided by the wonderful Fool in King Lear. Without the Fool, the tragedy would not have
been what it is.

Comic Relief in Greek Tragedy

Aristotle says that tragedy must represent an action that is serious; and hence there was no comic
relief in Greek tragedy.
Comic Relief in the Elizabethan Period

In the Middle Ages, the mixture of tragic and comic was natural and freely accepted. (The
Doctor’s Servant in The Play of the Sacrament) In fact, it was a regular medieval tradition to
mix comedy with tragedy. Scenes of comic relief or comic interludes were inherited by
Elizabethan drama from the native Mysteries’ and ‘Moralities’. Even in the Elizabethan Age, in
spite of the protests of scholars, the general practice was to use comic scenes to relieve the
tension of tragedy-Polonius, Macbeth‘s Porter, Lear’s Fool and others are living examples of this
practice. Character also gains by such addition of comic scenes by the acquisition of a sense of
humour. Thus ‘comic relief’ serves two purposes to relieve the tension of emotion and to
heighten the tragedy by contrast.

Comic Relief in Macbeth

The Porter Scene in Macbeth relieves the tragic tension : it suggests the irony-the porter is a
porter of hell gate, Macbeth’s castle being a very hell. It also serves a dramatic purpose-it gives
Macbeth time to wash his hands and put on his night gown-it covers the gap between the crime
and its discovery.

Comic Relief in Hamlet

The professional indifference of the clown who has been grave-digger contrasts comically with
the sensitivity and skepticism of the hero and there is bitter irony in Hamlet’s jests with the
clown at the grave of the girl he himself has driven to madness and death. The audience knows
that this gentle woman was Ophelia, but Hamlet does not.

Comic Relief in Romeo and Juliet

Mercutio and the Nurse are two comic characters in Romeo and Juliet play comic interlude in
a few scenes. In Act II, Scene 1, Mercutio and Benvolio's search for Romeo after the feast
provides a comic interlude between Romeo and Juliet's first meeting and the famous balcony
scene in Act II, Scene 2, juxtaposing two very different and conflicting attitudes to love.
Mercutio and Benvolio call to Romeo, who has climbed into Capulet's orchard in the hope of
seeing Juliet again. Mercutio's teasing is ironic because he is unaware that Romeo has fallen in
love with Juliet and mistakenly invokes images of Rosaline to call him:

I conjure thee by Rosaline's bright eyes,

By her high forehead and her scarlet lip,
By her fine foot, straight leg, and quivering thigh,
And the demesnes that there adjacent lie.
(II.1.17-21)

Mercutio's coarse physical imagery and sexual jokes contrast sharply with Romeo's religious
imagery for love. Romeo describes Juliet as "bright angel" and "dear saint." Shakespeare uses
Mercutio's cynical attitude to distinguish Romeo and Juliet's love as innocent, spiritual, and
intense. Because the audience is aware that Mercutio's speech falls on deaf ears, Mercutio's
speech illustrates that the Romeo, the lovestruck youth, has begun to mature in his outlook on
life and love.

Like Mercutio, Juliet's Nurse views love as a purely sexual and temporary relationship, as
opposed to Romeo and Juliet's love which is presented as fragile and eternal. The Nurse's bawdy
humor is less sophisticated than Mercutio's. Her comedy comes from the Nurse's
misunderstanding of language and her habit of repeating herself, rather than clever wordplay. For
example, in Act I, Scene 3, the Nurse exasperates Lady Capulet, who has come to talk to Juliet of
the proposed marriage to Paris, with her repeated and unrelated assertions that Juliet is only 13
years old.

Likewise, when the Nurse laughingly recounts the lewd joke her husband made when Juliet fell
over learning to walk — "Thou wilt fall backward when thou hast more wit" — her earthy
humor contrasts with Juliet's adolescent innocence, while simultaneously pointing to Juliet's
sexual development from a girl to a woman. Reflecting on the sensual pleasures that await Juliet
on her wedding night, the Nurse puns about the likely consequence of pregnancy for her young
charge: "I am the drudge, and toil in your delight, / But you shall bear the burden soon at night."

The Nurse's preoccupation with sexual love prevents her from understanding the nature of
Juliet's love for Romeo. Even though she fully understands that Juliet is being bartered like
livestock, she cannot see that any other social fate could exist for women. So, in Act III, Scene 5,
the Nurse advises Juliet to forget Romeo and marry Paris when Capulet demands it. This
development of her character further isolates the couple and fuels the tragic consequences of
their elevated love. Thus, while the Nurse drives some of the most comedic scenes in the play,
within her comic commentaries are woven the subtler threads of tragedy created by enslavement
to social conventions.

Shakespeare uses the comic roles of Mercutio and the Nurse to develop the roles of Romeo and
Juliet as young tragic lovers. Prior to Tybalt and Mercutio's deaths, the Nurse had served
primarily as comic relief. After Mercutio dies, the Nurse's comic role changes to a less
sympathetic one — helping to shift the focus to the tragic plight of Romeo and Juliet. Both
comic characters' rejection of the ideal of love shared by Romeo and Juliet emphasizes the
vulnerable quality of that love and its inability to survive in the world of the play.

Shakespeare uses humor in Hamlet to distract from the tragedies and dark plot turns throughout
the play. Shakespeare puts these comedy scenes either directly before or directly after a scene of
great intensity. He used these comic reliefs as a break for the audience; Shakespeare knew that
this was almost overwhelmingly emotion to the audience. There’s only so much intensity that his
audiences could take, after every death or emotional tragedy there has to be some sort of humor
to allow the audience to relax for a little bit. Normally in a tragedy there’s a minimum of five
people who die. In hamlet there’s many more that, this is a major reason of why Shakespeare
uses comic relief in this story. The gravedigger scene is one of the best.

Hamlet: But what is your affair in Elsinore? …

Horatio: My lord, I came to see your father’s funeral.

Hamlet: I pray thee, do not mock me, fellow-student; I think it was to see my mother’s wedding.

Horatio: Indeed, my lord, it follow’d hard upon.

Hamlet: Thrift, thrift, Horatio! the funeral baked-meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage
tables. (William Shakespeare, Hamlet)

Shakespeare was a master of comic relief. This scene comes from Hamlet, a dark tragedy full of
betrayal, murder, madness, and lust. Yet in this scene, Hamlet makes a dry joke about his
mother’s marriage – his father died very recently, and Hamlet is offended by the fact that his
mother is remarrying so quickly. He feels intense pain at this, but he still makes a joke about it,
commenting that his mother is just trying to save money by serving the same food at both the
funeral and the wedding.

THE THREE UNITIES

The classical unities, Aristotelian unities, or three unities represent a prescriptive theory of
dramatic tragedy that was introduced in Italy in the 16th century and was influential for three
centuries. The three unities are:

1. unity of action: a tragedy should have one principal action.

2. unity of time: the action in a tragedy should occur over a period of no more than 24 hours.
3. unity of place: a tragedy should exist in a single physical location.
4. Place. The setting of the play should be one location: in Oedipus Rex the steps before the
palace.
5. Time. The action of the play should represent the passage of no more than one day.
Previous events leading up to the present situation were recounted on stage, as Prospero
tells Miranda of the events which led to their abandonment on the island.
6. Action. No action or scene in the play was to be a digression; all were to contribute
directly in some way to the plot.

Classical Greek and Latin dramas were strict in form. The concept of the three unities, in
relation to classical drama, derives from Aristotle’s Poetics but is not directly formulated by the
Greek philosopher. He merely states that a tragedy should have unity of action.

The Poetics was unknown in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance a
Latin translation is published in Italy, after which there is much discussion of classical literary
principles. However it is not until 1570, in a book by Lodovico Castelvetro, that the concept of
three unities evolves:

1. Unity of Time:

The action of the play should take place in a short internal chronology, ideally, no more than 24
hours. The neo-classicists believe that the spectators would not believe in the reality of an action
that compressed several days or years into a three-hour drama. If the spectators did not believe in
the reality of an action, the tragedy would not have its proper effect.

2. Unity of Place:

It was said that in drama there should be no change of place, and even if the scene changes it
must not be too great a distance. A public square or palace courtyard would usually serve this
purpose well. But the plays of the Elizabethans incorporate scenes of various places and action
and their plays moves from one city to another city, from one country to another.

3. Unity of Action:

It is the unity of action which makes the plot intelligible, coherent, and individual. The events
and incidents are connected with each other logically and inevitably on the principle of
probability; they move towards a common goal, the Catastrophe, aimed at by the dramatist. The
plot must have “a beginning, a middle and an end”

Dr. Jonson in his Preface to Shakespeare rejected the “three unities”. However in England, the
unities of time and place are optional device for the playwrights. An example of modern plays
composed strictly according to the unities is TennesseWilliams’ Cat on a Hot Tin Roof.

catharsis, the purification or purgation of the emotions (especially pity and fear) primarily
through art. In criticism, catharsis is a metaphor used by Aristotle in the Poetics to describe the
effects of true tragedy on the spectator. The use is derived from the medical term katharsis
(Greek: “purgation” or “purification”). Aristotle states that the purpose of tragedy is to arouse
“terror and pity” and thereby effect the catharsis of these emotions. His exact meaning has been
the subject of critical debate over the centuries. The German dramatist and literary critic
Gotthold Lessing (1729–81) held that catharsis converts excess emotions into virtuous
dispositions. Other critics see tragedy as a moral lesson in which the fear and pity excited by the
tragic hero’s fate serve to warn the spectator not to similarly tempt providence. The
interpretation generally accepted is that through experiencing fear vicariously in a controlled
situation, the spectator’s own anxieties are directed outward, and, through sympathetic
identification with the tragic protagonist, his insight and outlook are enlarged. Tragedy then has a
healthful and humanizing effect on the spectator or reader.

revenge tragedy, drama in which the dominant motive is revenge for a real or imagined injury;
it was a favourite form of English tragedy in the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras and found its
highest expression in William Shakespeare’s Hamlet.

The revenge drama derived originally from the Roman tragedies of Seneca but was established
on the English stage by Thomas Kyd with The Spanish Tragedy (performed c. 1587). This work,
which opens with the Ghost of Andrea and Revenge, deals with Hieronimo, a Spanish gentleman
who is driven to melancholy by the murder of his son. Between spells of madness, he discovers
who the murderers are and plans his ingenious revenge. He stages a play in which the murderers
take part, and, while enacting his role, Hieronimo actually kills them, then kills himself. The
influence of this play, so apparent in Hamlet (performed c. 1600–01), is also evident in other
plays of the period. In John Marston’s Antonio’s Revenge (1599–1601), the ghost of Antonio’s
slain father urges Antonio to avenge his murder, which Antonio does during a court masque. In
George Chapman’s Revenge of Bussy d’Ambois (performed c. 1610), Bussy’s ghost begs his
introspective brother Clermont to avenge his murder. Clermont hesitates and vacillates but at last
complies, then kills himself. Most revenge tragedies end with a scene of carnage that disposes of
the avenger as well as his victims. Other examples are Shakespeare’s Titus Andronicus
(performed 1589–92), Henry Chettle’s The Tragedy of Hoffman (performed 1602), and Thomas
Middleton’s The Revenger’s Tragedy (1607).

hamartia, also called tragic flaw, (hamartia from Greek hamartanein, “to err”), inherent defect
or shortcoming in the hero of a tragedy, who is in other respects a superior being favoured by
fortune.

Aristotle introduced the term casually in the Poetics in describing the tragic hero as a man of
noble rank and nature whose misfortune is not brought about by villainy but by some “error of
judgment” (hamartia). This imperfection later came to be interpreted as a moral flaw, such as
Othello’s jealousy or Hamlet’s irresolution, although most great tragedies defy such a simple
interpretation. Most importantly, the hero’s suffering and its far-reaching reverberations are far
out of proportion to his flaw. An element of cosmic collusion among the hero’s flaw, chance,
necessity, and other external forces is essential to bring about the tragic catastrophe.

In Greek tragedy the nature of the hero’s flaw is even more elusive. Often the tragic deeds are
committed unwittingly, as when Oedipus unknowingly kills his father and marries his own
mother. If the deeds are committed knowingly, they are not committed by choice: Orestes is
under obligation to Apollo to avenge his father’s murder by killing his mother. Also, an apparent
weakness is often only an excess of virtue, such as an extreme probity or zeal for perfection. It
has been suggested in such cases, since the tragic hero is never passive but struggles to resolve
his tragic difficulty with an obsessive dedication, that he is guilty of hubris—i.e., presumption of
being godlike and attempting to overstep his human limitations.