Mammal Rev. 2000, Volume 30, Nos 3 & 4, 233–237. Printed in Great Britain.

The use of trackway counts to establish an index

of deer presence

B. A . MAYLE*, R. J. PUTMAN † an d I. W YLLIE‡

*Woodland Ecology Branch, Forest Research, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrecclesham, Farnham,
Surrey GU10 4LH, UK, †Behavioural and Environmental Biology Research Group,
Department of Biological Sciences, The Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton
Building, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK, ‡Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Monks
Wood Research Station, Abbots Ripton, Huntingdon PE17 2LS, UK

A B S T R AC T
The use of transect counts of faecal pellet groups together with counts of trackways cross-
ing the perimeter of a woodland block were investigated as a means of establishing an index
of deer presence and relative abundance. Surveys were undertaken in 38 sites in agricultural
landscapes in south and east England. Correlations between trackways per 100 m and faecal
pellet groups per 100 m were highly significant when all sites or sites with Roe Deer (Capre-
olus capreolus) as the main species present were considered. Deer densities were estimated
from the faecal pellet group counts and the results used to calibrate the method. Trackway
counts as described provide a quick and effective means of establishing a scalar index of deer
presence.

Keywords: densities, faecal pellet groups, Fallow Deer, index, Roe Deer, trackway counts

INTRODUCTION
Establishing the level of presence of even large animals in the wild can be particularly diffi-
cult for species which are secretive in nature, crepuscular in behaviour and frequent areas of
cover such as woodlands.
Although a number of alternative methods are now available for estimating relative or
absolute densities of wild deer populations (review by Mayle & Staines, 1998), the majority
of these are labour-intensive and time-consuming. In many instances such detailed techniques
may be inappropriate, particularly where managers require only an index of deer presence
and abundance; however, rapid survey methods have generally been considered of limited use
because of gross inaccuracy (Pucek et al., 1975; Mitchell et al., 1977).
In the course of extensive survey work described elsewhere (Packer et al., 1998) we devised
an index of relative abundance based on simple dung transects and census of trackways (deer
paths) crossing the woodland edge. Results in Packer et al. (1998) indicated close correlation
between the two measures of activity. In this paper we present a detailed comparison of the
two methods and consider whether they may be used to provide a reliable and robust index
of deer density in lowland habitats.

M E T H OD
Thirty-eight sites were surveyed in lowland agricultural areas of south and east England (33
in Essex/Suffolk, three in Gloucestershire/Somerset and two in Northamptonshire). The land-

Correspondence. B. A. Mayle

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234 B. A. Mayle et al.

Table 1. Expected level of deer presence for sites visited

Deer presence
Primary
species Low Medium High Total

Fallow 4 10 7 21
Roe 9 6 2 17

scape was typically scattered woodland blocks (of 0.5–30 ha) amongst arable fields. Sites with
primarily Roe Deer, Capreolus capreolus (17), or Fallow Deer, Dama dama (21), were selected
and stratified to provide samples at high, medium and low density of deer presence (Table
1), based on information provided by landowners. In addition to the two main species,
Muntjac, Muntiacus reevesi, were also present on 74% of sites (particularly in Essex/Suffolk
and Northamptonshire).
For each site visited, deer presence was determined during April or October 1997 by vis-
iting the largest woodland within a 25 km square centred on the site, surveying it for faecal
pellet groups and counting trackways. Where the full transect lengths could not be achieved
within the initial wood, a second wood (nearby and at least 0.5 ha in size) was visited. This
was also surveyed for faecal pellet groups and trackways and the data subsequently pooled.
This occurred for nine sites.

Faecal pellet group counts

Faecal pellet groups were counted along a transect 1 km long and 1 m wide passing through
the length of the woodland block, taking care to ensure that the transect did not follow access
pathways, etc. A pellet group was defined as six or more pellets, identified from their appear-
ance as having been produced at the same defecation. Where the transect was less than 1 km
in length, a second transect, at right angles to the first, was assessed. The transect was
initially identified on the map and the compass bearing from the most accessible end de-
termined. Transects were searched using two people; the first person followed the compass
bearing, walking slowly and measuring out the distance, whilst a second followed approxi-
mately 3 m behind, with a cane clearly marked at the centre and 0.5 m either side, searching
the 1 m strip for faecal pellet groups. The number of faecal pellet groups found within a
0.5 m strip either side of the line of the compass bearing were recorded for each species of
deer. Where more than one species of deer was present, pellet groups which could not be
identified specifically were recorded as unknown or a composite class, e.g. Muntjac/Roe,
Roe/Fallow, etc. Groups found exactly on the edge of the transect were alternately counted
and rejected. A total of six observers (trained to the same level as far as possible) collected
the data.
An index of deer presence was determined by calculating deer densities (D) from the mean
observed pellet groups per 100 m transect using:

D = pellet groups per ha [decay (days ) ¥ daily defecation rate (pellet groups per day)]

Daily defecation rate was assumed to be 20 pellet groups per day for Roe (Mitchell
et al., 1985) and 21 pellet groups per day for Fallow (Mayle et al., 1996) Deer. Faecal
pellet group decay length was taken as 180 days for all deer species (Mayle et al.,
1999).

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 The use of trackway counts 235

Table 2. Actual deer species recorded from sightings or pellet group identification

Roe and Fallow and Roe, Fallow Red, Roe

Site Roe Fallow Muntjac Muntjac Muntjac and Muntjac and Muntjac

Essex/Suffolk 6 1 5 1 16 3 1
Glos/Somerset 3 – – – – – –
Northants – – 1 – 1 – –

Trackway counts
A minimum distance of 1 km was walked around the perimeter of each woodland visited
and the number of obvious deer pathways crossing the woodland edge were recorded. Wher-
ever perimeter fencing constituted an effective barrier to deer this length was not included in
the assessment. Where the assessed perimeter was less than 1 km a second wood was visited
and the data pooled. Because all deer species are likely to use the same path it was not
possible to identify trackways to individual species. As the survey was carried out during
the summer it was assumed that all trackways counted were in current use by deer of at least
one species.

R E S U LTS
On most sites, pellet groups from more than one deer species were found (Table 2). Faecal
pellet groups that could not be identified to a specific species were also found on 11 sites.
Faecal pellet group counts for all species on any given site were totalled to enable com-
parisons with trackway counts.
Figure 1 shows the relationship between deer faecal pellet group counts (all species) per
100 m and deer trackways per 100 m for (a) sites with Roe Deer and (b) sites with Fallow
Deer as the main species present. There is a highly significant correlation for sites with Roe
Deer as the main species (Spearmans correlation rs = 0.94, P < 0.001) and a significant cor-
relation for sites with Fallow Deer as the main species (rs = 0.45, P < 0.05). When all sites are
considered together the correlation remains highly significant (rs = 0.74 P < 0.001).
Calculated deer densities were up to approximately 25 km–2 for Roe Deer sites with most
sites  10 km–2, and up to approximately 27 km–2 for Fallow Deer sites, with < 15 km–2 on
most sites (Fig. 1).

D I S C USSION
Results of the correlations between trackway counts and faecal pellet group transect counts
suggest that trackway counts, i.e. deer paths crossing a woodland perimeter, may be an effec-
tive method of establishing a reasonable index of deer presence on a site without needing to
spend many hours of detailed observation or sampling. Although the correlation was less
significant when sites with Fallow Deer as the main species present were considered sepa-
rately, the correlation was highly significant when all sites were considered together or when
sites with Roe Deer as the main species were considered. This suggests that the method is
particularly suitable for use where there is limited information on the deer species present.
Roe Deer have individual home ranges and may be expected to use pathways which are
specific to themselves or their dams. Fallow Deer are a herding species and it is usual to see
a number of animals using the same path/track when leaving or entering a wood. This may
explain why the correlation between trackways and pellet group counts was less significant

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236 B. A. Mayle et al.

Fig. 1. Relationship between deer trackways crossing the woodland perimeter and 1 km transect faecal
pellet group counts (all species) for sites with (a) Roe Deer and (b) Fallow Deer as the main species present.
Density (estimated from transect faecal pellet counts and assumed defecation and decay rates – see text) is
shown on the right-hand axes.

for Fallow Deer sites, with generally fewer trackways recorded for the same numbers of faecal
pellet groups per 100 m (Fig. 1b)
If low, medium and high density deer populations are defined as < 5, 5–15 and > 15 deer
km–2 then Fig. 1 suggests that there will be up to 2 trackways per 100 m at low densities,
2–5 trackways per 100 m at medium densities and > 5 trackways per 100 m at high deer
densities.
Deer track density counts have been widely used in Europe to indicate relative deer densi-
ties (Dzieciolowski, 1976), but are generally considered to be unreliable and a measure of
deer activity rather than absolute abundance. Cooke (1996) has also used the presence of deer
paths together with observations of droppings, slots and deer to produce a muntjac abun-
dance score. However, these scores are not directly comparable between observers, as only
frequency of presence rather than actual numbers of each variable are recorded.
Trackways across a woodland boundary may be formed by a number of animal species
(foxes, badgers, rabbits, hares and game birds) and may be used by more than one species.
Careful observation of the soil for track marks and vegetation for animal hairs aids in iden-
tifying the species using the track or path. In this study trackways across the woodland bound-

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 The use of trackway counts 237

ary were only counted where they were considered to be sufficiently large to allow deer to
pass. In practice, Roe and Fallow Deer pathways were easily distinguished from those of other
animals. Although the field data were collected during April and October we did not experi-
ence problems with ground vegetation obscuring either pellet groups or trackways during
this study, or inter-observer differences. This suggests that this quick and easy method is likely
to be applicable throughout the year and will provide landowners with a useful tool
for establishing an ‘index’ of deer presence on their land. Where a more accurate estimate of
population size is required, methods such as those discussed by Mayle et al. (1999) should
be used.

AC K N OWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded by DETR and MAFF. The opinions expressed in this paper are those
of the authors and should not be taken to represent the views of the funders. We would like
to acknowledge the owners of the sites that were visited, A. Brunt, M. Ferryman, J. Donelly,
and N. Moore who assisted with field work, and Norma Chapman, Prof. Brian Staines and
two anonymous referees for helpful comments on the manuscript.

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Submitted 25 March 1999; returned for revision 27 July 1999; revision accepted 1 September 1999

© 2000 Mammal Society, Mammal Review, 30, 233–237