Introduction to the General Errors of Terminologies in African Traditional

Religion
Ignorance of African cultures among early travelers, racial and cultural superiority complex among
some European writer’s brought about colonial domination. An error of terminology can be explained
as when one tries to describe or give a name to that which he does not really understand. European
writers and even some Africans have designated African Traditional Religon in a number of wrong and
disparaging terms which has been used over the years and have led some African Scholars to use the
same terms and hold the same views about their indigenous religion.
Errors of Terminologies in African Traditional Religion
i) Primitive: It has its etymological root in a Latin word ‘primus’ which means “first in relation to
second”. From its etymological origin, Primus connotes that, from which, other things are derived. By
extension, primitive means old fashioned, ancient, simple, outdated and original. In fact, Western
scholars used this word to describe anything that did not meet up with their set standards or expectations
or in describing certain cultural patterns that did not conform to their accepted behaviour. So, out of
ignorance and prejudice, these scholars used this term ‘primitive’ freely to apply to Africa and her
religion.
ii) Animism: The Latin word “anima” which means soul is the root word from where animism is
derived. Edward Burnet Tylor, a renowned cultural anthropologist defines it as the doctrine of souls
and other spiritual beings in general. Animism is a religious and ontological position that attaches
spiritual significance to the natural world. In other words, it is a belief that everything in the natural
world (objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence) and that they are animated
by spirits. Animism manifests itself in different kinds of spirits which include:
 Spirits associated with human beings such as souls of human beings departed, ancestral spirits,
malevolent spirits of people who die under unnatural circumstances.
 Spirits of non-human natural objects like water falls, rocks, mountains etc.
 Spirits associated with social groups like gods, demons and angels etc.
 Spirits associated with natural forces like wind, thunder, flood, fire etc.
Animism applies to all religions and African Traditional Religion cannot be described solely as
Animistic. Any religion that practices animism, accepts belief in spirits and recognition of spirits as
having separate and separable entities from the objects which are their symbols. To say that there are
spirits in the world does not mean that people’s religion is only about the spirits. Christianity and Islam
acknowledge existence of spirits but neither of them is animism. Therefore, the term is erroneous.
iii) Totemism: The word ‘totem’ is variously written as ‘totem’, ‘totam’ or ‘dotam’. It is a system of
beliefs and practices embodying a certain idea of mystical or ritual relationship between members of
the social group and a species of animals or plants. It implies respect and injunctions such as
prohibitions against killing or eating the totem animal or plant, or against interfering with the totem
animal or plant. The early European scholar’s and missionaries conceived these totemic symbols as
idols and thus label Africans as idol worshipers because of lack of understanding as they see these
symbols, images or idols which are emblems of worship to which worshippers bow down and they are
shocked and confused. Adherents are worshipping the spiritual beings represented by the symbols, not
the symbols.

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v) Paganism: Paganism or pagan carries the meaning of someone removed from a civilized
community. The term was used by Christian missionaries to describe village settlers who have not yet
converted to Christianity. It is one of the oldest terms used to belittle Africans. Yet there are many
people in Europe and America who do not follow either of these world religious and are often wholly
irreligious but they are never called pagans. Therefore, it is wrong to speak of ATR practitioners as
pagans or regard their religion as paganism.
vi) Tribe: The term refers to a group of people in a primitive or barbarous stage of development under
the authority of a chief and regarding themselves a as having a common ancestor. This is seen as a
racial group especially one united by language and customs, living as a community under one or more
chiefs. This should not be used to refer to Africans. The term ethnic group has replaced the word tribe
as it is more appropriate to describe a people and not just African peoples only.
vii) Native: It means a people’s place of birth. African Traditional Religion was born in Africa, hence
it is native to the area. The Europeans use the word native to imply that the African people are
underdeveloped and backward and as such should not be used to describe African peoples and their
religion.
viii) Savage: It is used to describe the uncivilized nature of Africans. In the past, they were looked
upon as wild and uncivilized people, no wonder, the Europeans described Africans as ‘black monkeys’.
This was because some European travelers were only concerned in emphasizing the dark side of the
African people. They popularized the bad aspects of the Africans and took to the Western world pictures
of nude people sitting with wild animals. Also, some practices carried out by the Africans, such as
human sacrifice and the throwing away of twins, attracted the name savage to them. Of late, there is
wicked wrestling, wanton shooting, murder and all forms of violence going on in the developed
countries but they are not described as savage. Just to show the superiority posture of colonial agents
and missionaries from Europe.
ix) Idolatry: This is a belief in the worshipping of false divinities/ gods. Africans have been called idol
worshippers due to misunderstanding by the Europeans. Idols and other images which the Africans
venerate are intermediaries between God and man in African religious beliefs. The word IDOL is used
to describe the object which is an emblem of that which is worshipped by the Africans, The object may
be a piece of wood or of iron or a stone. For the Africans these objects are merely symbolic. Each of
them has a meaning beyond itself, and therefore it is not the subject of worship in itself but a means to
the real subject of worship. For instance for a piece of wood representing Obatala (a Yoruba Deity) is
eaten by termites, the worshippers of Obatala will not feel that their god has been destroyed by the
termites, because the piece of wood is only a symbol, serving as a visible or concrete embodiment of
that which is symbolized. It should be noted however, that symbolic representation is not peculiar to
African Traditional Religion. It is found in most religions like Christianity, Buddhism, and Shintoism
etc. It is used to facilitate principally man’s perception and concentration and to remind the worshiper
of the divine presence.
The heart of idolatry is looking to source outside of God for human basic needs and desires in life. The
typical things people look for to idols to provide for them are: guidance, wealth, fertility, and health.

Justification for the Study of African Traditional Religion and Culture

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The importance of religion in any given society
• Religion permeates culture and mediates in social structures.
• It helps a lot of people to relate harmoniously with one another, and with their creator, God
The role of religion in the society (positive roles)
As a functional system, religion performs the following functions
 Religion introduces a new life style: a new look, thinking etc. are created, maintained and
sustained through religious doctrines.
 New relationships are also established: several friendships levels-women, adult, males and
youths are created as an opportunity to interact socially and religiously.
 The introduction of new institutions: Christian missionaries introduced new institutions like
hospitals, schools, a new legal system, a new form of marriage (monogamy) etc., similarly Islam
introduces Islam education and the sharia legal system.
 Dissemination of ideas and information: Christian missionaries brought new ideas and
information about education, medicine, business, enterprises, agriculture etc. the Islamic
religion introduced Islamic education, laws, Arabic language, Arabic writing etc. There were
also establishment of communication channels such as newspapers, television, radio, religious
literature etc. to enlighten members of the public about their activities, and current thrives in
the mass media.
 Religion transforms the society: it introduced new cultural elements such as religious doctrines,
dogma, laws, organization, patterns of marriage, training of children etc. Christianity abolished
the killing of twins, slavery, female circumcision etc.
(Negative roles)
 Religion serves as a source of conflict between individuals and communities.
 Religious intolerance and fanaticism often disrupt peaceful co-existence among families,
communities and nations.
 Occasionally, religion leads its adherents away from attending to their social needs and actions
that could have improved their condition in society.
The role of religion in the society (positive roles)
As a functional system, religion performs the following functions
a) Religion introduces a new life style: a new look, thinking etc. These are created, maintained
and sustained through religious doctrines.
b) New relationships are also established: several friendship levels among women, adult males
and the youth are created. These provide opportunities to interact socially and religiously.
c) The introduction of new institution: Christian missionaries introduced new institutions like
hospitals, schools, a new legal system, a new form of marriage (monogamy) etc. similarly, Islam
introduced Islamic education and the sharia legal system.
d) Establishment of new social groups: Christian missionaries introduced boys’ brigade, girls’
brigade, boys scout etc. members in this group learn both religious and social values which
helps them to be faithful Christians and patriotic citizens.

3
 e) Dissemination of ideas and information: Christian missionaries brought new ideas and
information about education, medicine, business enterprises, agriculture etc. the Islamic religion
introduced Islamic education, laws, Arabic language, Arabic writings etc. there were also
establishment of communication channels such as newspapers, television, radio, religious
literature etc. to enlighten members of the public about their activities, and current issues in the
mass media.
f) Religion transforms the society: it introduces new cultural elements such as religious
doctrines, dogma, laws, organization, patterns of marriage, training of children etc. For instance
Christianity helped in discouraging human sacrifice such as the killings of twins, and the
abolishment of slavery, and other dangerous cultural practices.
Some of the negative roles
a) Religion serves as a source of conflict between individuals and communities.
b) Religious intolerance and fanaticism often disrupt peaceful co-existence among families,
Communities and Nations
c) In some instances religion leads its adherents away from attending to their social needs, and
actions that could have improved their condition in society
Since culture is a vehicle through which religious experiences are born, preserved and
transmitted it is important to keep in mind a few aspects on culture.
 Culture is socially determined: it has to do with human relationships where they share set goals
and values in life.
 Culture is transmissible: it can be transmitted or passed from one generation to another.
 Culture is general: this refers to generally held and shared experiences by a group of people at
the same time.
 Culture is obligatory: here, every member of the society is more or less under obligation to
accept it. Though, when a few rejects it, society looks at them as having deviant behavior or
social maladjustment.
 Culture is variable and dynamic: it is not static. It changes and evolves out of other cultural
patterns.
Significant roles of culture
1) Culture provides the impetus of peoples thinking, speaking, behaving, hearing, feeling, seeing,
evaluating etc.
2) Culture spells out conditions for common agreement or consensus for establishing and maintain
relationships, interacting and cooperating, contacting and assisting one another.
3) Culture helps members of a community in accepting to integrate the individual into groups and
consequently enhancing the unity of the group.
4) Culture preserves historical and social ideas, knowledge, techniques, methods, beliefs, procedures.
5) Culture assists in explain a people’s action, conditions and experiences.
6) Culture serves to maintain safeguard against attack and extinction of a people’s values, norms,
beliefs, moral codes etc.

Justification for the study of African traditional religion – reasons for the study
a) Cultural reasons
• The study leads to cultural and religious rejuvenation
• This study reveals the glorious aspect of our cultural heritage
• The study may inspire the re-shaping of the African history and culture

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  Helps scholars and religious practitioners to critically draw a separation between what is
virtuous of ATR and what is possibly vicious
a) Academic reasons
• To generate knowledge on basic information about the indigenous religion of the African people.
• To have fair knowledge of what our fore fathers left behind in order to add value to it.
• To begin to document for future records the beliefs and practices of our fore fathers for the purpose
of continuity.
• To provide the basis for dialogue with other world religions towards identifying points of convergence
and divergence.
b) Psychological reasons
• To eradicate prejudice or sentiments and errors of terminology.
• Close psychological and emotional barriers between African and the westerners.
• Clear understanding of a person’s psyche or mindset in order to sell an idea of the person.

Some of the problems that may have complicated the authentic study of ATR
 Geographical location: The location of Africa made it difficult as it remained unknown to the
outsiders and penetrating remote areas became a huge challenge. This is the reasons why the
foreigners gave Africa a derogatory name as “dark continent:”.
 Problems of communication: Foreign investigators were confronted with a multitude of
languages and they could not cope with many languages that they were faced with in Africa.
This made it difficult to understand well African various religious experiences which was
expressed differently in different languages.
 Climatic conditions .Some scholars may have faced climatic challenges that made it very
difficult for them to survive in Africa. Studying African religious experienced needed scholars
to live among Africans for an extended period of time but this may have been very difficult for
the foreigners to comply with. They faced intense heat which could lead to death of some of
them.
 It was also difficult to trace the origin of every tribe in Africa because there was no written
records for them.
 Generalization: Most authors often fell in the trap of generalizing experiences of the African
people. ATR was not exceptional.
 Other Religions: The influence of other religion made it difficult to discover the original beliefs
of the Africans. Foreign scholars often resorted to making biased comparisons other than being
objective.
 Western education: African educated sons and daughters migrated to big towns and cities for
jobs, losing contact with their homes and traditions as well. It therefore became common to find
educated Africans living in cities or urban centers without sufficient knowledge of their
traditions.
 The death of important people like priests and the old men and women who were custodians
of knowledge affected the study of this religion. These old men and women were great resources
on knowledge about ATR, however, when they died there is always a vacuum created as far as
knowledge about African traditions is concerned
 The absence of any written records was a major setback to the study of ATR.
 The religion is full of mysticism and it is often shrouded in secrecy.

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 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
ISSN Print: 2156-1540, ISSN Online: 2151-1559, doi:10.5251/ajsms.2010.1.2.209.218
© 2010, ScienceHuβ, http://www.scihub.org/AJSMS

God, divinities and spirits in African traditional religious ontology

Rev. Emeka C. Ekeke1 and Dr. Chike A. Ekeopara2
1
Lecturer, Department of Religious Studies, University of Calabar, Pmb1115 Calabar, Crossriver
State, Nigeria, Email revekekemekus@yahoo.com
2
Senior Lecturer, Department of Religious Studies, University of Calabar, Pmb1115 Calabar,
Crossriver State, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
The concept of God, divinities and spirits in African traditional religious ontology has been so
misunderstood by many scholars to the point of seeing Africans as people who did not know the
Supreme Being nor worship Him. This paper seeks to examine how Africans conceive of the
Supreme Being, divinities and spirits. The paper shows that the concept of God is not strange to
Africans but in traditional Africa there is no atheist. It sees the divinities as beings who receive
authority from the Supreme Being to serve in the unitary theocratic system of government. The
paper sees the spirits as strangers, foreigners and outsiders in the category of things that should
be defeated using spiritual powers.

Keywords: Religious Ontology, African tradition, Divinities, Spirits

INTRODUCTION especially those Eurocentric ones whose religious

The concept of God, divinities and spirits in African
traditional religious ontology has been a controversial
and misunderstood concept. Various factors led to
this controversy and misunderstanding, such as
prejudice by Western scholars who measured African
traditional religious concept with Christianity. Other
factors include lack of indebt study of African religion
leading to hasty conclusion. Most of those who came
to study the religions of Africa were armchair scholars
who depended on data from missionaries who
themselves concentrated in one community or tribe.
They used the scanty information derived from one or
two localities in Africa to draw conclusion about the
ontology of God, divinities and spirits in Africa.
These armchair scholars went as far as believing that
the sub-Saharan Africa is one country with one
religious belief and practice.
This misunderstanding continued until indigenous
African scholars like John S. Mbiti and E. Bolaji
Idowu, in 1970s and 1980s, set out to refute some of
the erroneous claims about African religions. They
echoed the fact that “Africans had known God before
the missionaries came” (Ray XI). This view gave
Africans and their religion, which was battered and
shattered by the missionaries who condemned and
denigrated their religion, a new hope and integrity.
In this paper, our attention is drawn to the fact that
there are realities in African religion which has not
been properly echoed by Africans themselves
inclination has blinded them to the fact that Africans
are not strangers to the worship of One True God –
Supreme Being, who is called by different names in
Africa.
This paper also shows the position of the divinities
and spirits in African religious metaphysics stressing
that their belief in these other beings do not in any
way contradict their belief in the Supreme Being as
some opine. In most of the religions of the world, the
concept of the Supreme Being is clearly spelt out just
as it is in African religion with the divinities and spirits
clearly set forth as messengers of the Supreme
Being. This work is therefore focused on showing the
place of God, divinities and spirits in African religious
ontology.
God in African Religious Ontology: When we refer
to the word ‘God’, we are talking about the living
eternal Being who is the source of all living and
whose life existed from the dateless past. He is self
existed and is the one whose power sustains the
universe. He is an all-knowing Being who knows and
sees all things at the same time without any modern
instrument. He even knows the end from the
beginning.
This Great Being has revealed Himself in many
different ways, “and human beings in particular have
always felt His presence and responded to Him in
worship” (Brown 1). This manifestation or revelation
of God has brought about a living relationship

between God and Man leading to what we now call
religion. Some people who received this revelation
have seen God as a personal Being such as the
Jews and Muslims, while others like the Buddhists do
not think of God as a personal Being at all.
The greatness of this Being has been described by
many scholars, religious people and many religious
scriptures. In describing God, Al-Ghazzali wrote:
He is the power and the kingdom and the glory and
the majesty and to Him belongs creation and the
rule over what He created: He alone is the Giver of
life; He is omniscient, for His knowledge
encompasseth all things, from the deepest depths of
the earth to the highest heights of the heavens. The
smallest atom in the earth or the heavens is known
unto Him. He is aware of how the ants creep upon
the hard rock in the darkness of the night. He
perceives the movement of specks of dust in the air.
He beholds the thoughts which pass through the
minds of men, and the range of their fancies and the
secrets of their hearts, by His knowledge, which was
from aforetime (qtd in Brown 2).
The Arjuma’s Hymn written in about 500 – 100 BC in
ancient Hindu Gita, expresses the same belief in the
greatness of this great God and his relationship with
humanity and the universe:
Why should they not revere You? … You are the
first Creator, Infinite, Lord of the gods, home of the
Universe. You are the Imperishable. You are the
last Prop-and-resting Place of the universe. You are
the Knower and what is to be Known … The whole
universe was spun by You … Your strength is
infinite, Your power is limitless. You bring all things
to their fulfillment: hence You are All … You are the
Father of the world of moving and unmoving things
(qtd in Brown 3).
These descriptions as given above shows the extent
of the greatness of this Supreme Being by many
religions.
The greatness of this Supreme Being – God is also
portrayed in African religions. The fact that there are
no written scriptures by the votaries of African
traditional religion, does not in any way mean that the
concept of the Supreme Being does not exist in their
ontology. John S. Mbiti explains that though the
knowledge of God as the Supreme Being is not
documented in any sacred book, yet it is “expressed
in proverbs, short statements, songs, prayers,
names, myths, stories and religious ceremonies”
(African Religions and Philosophy 29). This means
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that for one to understand the concept of God – the
Supreme Being in African, he has to study carefully
the entirety of the culture of the people. This agrees
with what Mbiti said, “One should not, therefore,
expect long dissertations about God. But God is no
stranger to African peoples, and in traditional life
there are no atheists” (29). This is further supported
by an Ashanti proverb which says ‘No one shows a
child the Supreme Being. This proverb means that
anyone born in Africa does not need to go to school
to learn about the existence of the Supreme Being,
but God’s existence is known by all including
children.
The Origin of Belief in God in Africa: There are
divergent views of scholars as per the origin of
religion. Some see religion as originating from fear.
People saw the vastness of the universe and the
rumblings of thunder and lightening and the vastness
of the sea and so many other things that caused
them fear and so developed faith in something that
will shield them from what they feared. Others see
religion as originating from magic while others see
religion as the creation of the priestly class.
As there are divergent views of scholars concerning
the origin of religion, in the same way many scholars
have various views as per the origin of belief in God
in Africa. Three important views exist which are here
explained.
1. Through reflections on the universe, Africans
came to believe in God.
This view has its bases on the fact that Africans
believe in God as the Creator of the universe. This
belief may have led them to reflect on the vastness of
the universe. Their imagination led them to this
conclusion that there must be a Supreme Being
whose power not only created this vast and complex
universe but also sustains it. They therefore began
to give this being worship and adoration. Mbiti,
writing in his work Introduction to African Religion,
explains that the process of arriving at this conclusion
of belief must have taken a long time “and there must
have been many myths and ideas which tried to
explain these mysteries of the world” (40).
2. Through realization of their own limitations
Africans came to believe in God.
This second view or explanation of the origin of belief
in God in Africa has its root in man’s limitations and
the insatiable nature of man’s needs. Africans saw
that they were limited and weak in many respects,
including knowledge and power, particularly in the

face of death, calamity, thunderstorms, earthquakes,
mighty rivers and great forests which are beyond
man to control. These limitations and powerlessness
rather led them to speculate that there must be a
Supreme Being who is superior to these other
powers that can be drawn to help them through
appeasement and or sacrifice. Mbiti argues that “this
idea made it logical and necessary for man to depend
on the one who was more powerful than people”.
(Introduction to African Religions, 41). This made
Africans to feel that they needed the help of this
Supreme Being in their experiences of limitations and
powerlessness. This is the Great God that the
Africans worship. It should be observed that the
process of this formulation took a long period before
it was actually conceptualized.
3. As Africans observed the forces of nature,
they came to believe in God.
This third view of the origin of belief in God in Africa
is so important because it has to do with the various
forces of nature. From time immemorial; man has
been in the habit of looking at the forces of nature
with awe and reverence. This made man to worship
these forces as having one supernatural power or
another. As Africans looked at the weather, storms,
thunder and lightening, and other phenomena such
as day and night, the firmament, the sun, moon and
stars, seeing their enormous benefit to man yet
unreachable, the Africans began to associate the sky
with a great God who is very close to man, supplying
man’s needs such as rain for his land to produce
abundant fruit. Mbiti argues that this may be the
reason “that God is so much associated with the sky
and the heavens”.
He argues further that:
It is very likely that … [Africans] came to believe in
God’s existence through such a link between
heaven and earth. Man was at the centre of the
universe. Standing on the earth but looking up to the
heavens, and that belief began to make sense and
fit into man’s continued attempts to understand and
explain the visible and the invisible universe, the
earthly and heavenly worlds of which man is the
centre (Introduction to African Religions, 41, 42).
African religion centres on belief and practices. This
knowledge of God through belief; became the
cardinal point of the religion of Africans.
Attributes of God (Supreme Being) in Africa:
Attributes of God refers to words or phrases ascribing
traits, properties, qualities or characteristics to the
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Supreme Being. These attributes are
anthropomorphic in nature. This is because any
religion that stripes the Supreme Being of
anthropomorphic phenomenon will eventually end up
as an abstract religion that does not have human
feelings and is not fully realizable in the world.
Anthropomorphism is the ascribing of human
character to God. J. Omosade Awolalu and P.
Adelumo Dopamu explain that anthropomorphism
has been found in all religions as a way of expressing
ideas or concepts about the preternatural world of
realities. For this reason, they argued that it cannot
be accepted as a part of the structure of African
religion (32).
As we study these attributes of God in Africa, we
must be conscious of this fact that there are no
sacred scriptures of African religion for us to consult
and know what these attributes are, as one who
wishes to study the attributes of God in Christianity or
Islam will do. Rather attributes of God in African
religion can be found in the songs, proverbs, sayings,
recitals and liturgies of so many African people.
(a) God is real to Africans: Africans do not
perceive of God as an abstract entity whose
existence is in the mind. He is seen and perceived
as a real personal entity whose help is sought in
times of trouble and who is believed to be the
protector of the people. The various names given to
God in African attest to this. The fact that God is real
to Africans is enshrined in the meaning of the name
they call him. The Yoruba of Nigeria call God
Olodumare or Edumere meaning “The King or Chief
unique who holds the sceptre, wields authority and
has the quality which is superlative in worth, and he
is at the same time permanent, unchanging and
reliable.” Another Yoruba name for God is Olorun
meaning “the owner of heaven” or “the Lord of
heaven” showing God as the author of all things both
visible and invisible.
The Igbo of Nigeria call God by these names Chukwu
meaning “Source Being” which connotes “the Great
One from whom being originates”. Chineke meaning,
“The Source Being Who creates all things”. The Edo
of Nigeria knows God as Osanobua or Osanobwa
which means “the source of all beings who carries
and sustains the world or universe”. Among the Nupe
of Nigeria God is called Soko which means “the
creator or supreme deity that resides in heaven”.
The Ewe and Fon people of Dahomey call God Nana
Buluku which means the great ancient Deity. Among
the Akon and Ga people of Ghana, God is known by

these names: Odamankoma, meaning “He who is
uninterruptedly, infinitely and exclusively fully of
grace” or “He who alone is full of abundance or
completeness” or “He who in His grace has
completed everything in heaven and on earth”.
Nyame or Onyame meaning “if you possess or get
him, you are satisfied” which expresses God as God
of fullness or God of satisfaction.
Among the Mende people of Sierra-Leone God is
called Ngewo which means “the eternal one who
rules from above”. (Awolalu and Dopamu 38-43).
These names were not created by Africans after the
colonial era but shows how real God is to Africans. If
God were not real to Africans how did they
manufacture these names and given to the Being
they do not know?
b) God is unique in African religious ontology
When the word unique is used in reference to the
attribute of God in Africa we are looking at God as
having no equal or non like Him and being the only
One of its sort.
We earlier explained that the Yoruba people of
Nigeria refer to God as Olodumare meaning “The
king or chief unique, who holds the scepter, wields
authority and has the quality which is superlative in
worth, and he is at the same time permanent,
unchanging and reliable”. This description shows the
uniqueness of God in Africa. Not only is God seen as
unique but He is also seen as permanent,
unchanging and reliable. This is why in Africa there
are no images attributed to the Supreme Being. In
most cases there are no temples except in few
places, dedicated to the Supreme Being.
No body in Africa has produced any picture attributive
to the Supreme Being because the concept of God is
embedded deeply in their ontology that the Supreme
Being is unique and nothing is comparable to Him.
Idowu has this to say concerning the uniqueness of
God:
The uniqueness of Deity is one reason why there are
no images – graven or in drawing or in painting of him
in Africa. Symbols there are copiously, but no images.
The African concept of God, in this regard is an
emphatic ‘No one’ and ‘None’ to the question, ‘To
whom then will you liken God or what likeness
compare with Him? (African Traditional … 152).
Alice Werner in describing Leza, the name used for
the High God by the Baila, Botanga, and other tribes
of Northern Zambia explains that Leza is described
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as “the One who does what no other can do” (51). In
writing about the Ruanda people Werner described
their Supreme Being (Imana) in a proverb thus:
“There is none to equal Imana” (44). These
descriptions show the uniqueness of the Supreme
Being in African religious ontology.
Evans – Pritchard in his definite view of God, known
as Kwoth among Nuer people of Sudan says:
The Nuer word we translate ‘God’ is Kwoth, Spirit …
We may certainly say that the Nuer do not regard
the sky or any celestial phenomena as God, and this
is clearly known in the distinction made between
God and the sky in the expression spirit of the ‘sky’
and spirit who is in the sky’. Moreover, it would even
be a mistake to interpret ‘of the sky’ and ‘in the sky’
too literally… They may address the moon, but it is
God to whom they speak through it, for the moon is
not regarded, as such, as Spirit or as a person.
Though God is not [sky, moon, rain, and others]…
He reveals Himself through them. (12).
Evans-Prichard has carefully explained that though
the various natural phenomena are not God from the
African concept of God, they are vehicles through
which God reveals Himself to people. We still
maintain that God is unique and that is how Africans
see the Supreme Being.
(c) God is Transcendent and Immanent
These two words, transcendent and immanent could
be seen as two sides of the same coin.
Transcendent means that something is beyond what
is natural and normal, and different from it. When
Africans see God as transcendent, it means that (a)
God is not limited to a particular place and time as
human beings are. (b) It means that God lives
outside the natural world in which human beings live.
(c) It also means that human beings can never fully
comprehend the will or thoughts of the Supreme
Being. He is beyond their understanding. (d) It further
means that God is always there first: He is the
creator of all things and the initiator of all events. (e)
Finally, it means that human beings feel awe when
they remember the presence of God. He is good and
trustworthy in a way that they are not (Brown 2).
As an immanent God, Africans see Him as God
whose presence is felt by people within the natural
world. This means that they feel his presence around
their surroundings, and through what happens to
them and their families. Africans see God as very
present within the natural world to help protect and
deliver his creation, although at the same time, He

transcends the natural realm. When we say that God
is immanent in the world, we are presenting an
attribute that shows God as dwelling among us or
within us.
So many writers especially the armchair scholars
from the West argue that God in the African concept
is far removed that they see Him as “Absentee
Landlord”. They conclude that though Africans have a
faint knowledge of God, but that God is far removed
from them so that they rather go to the divinity for
help. This is a big error. You cannot emphasize
God’s remoteness to Africans to the exclusion of His
nearness.
Awolalu and Dopamu argue that to the Africans “the
transcendence and immanence of God are two divine
attributes that are paradoxically complementary” (50).
This is revealed in the Nupe song: “God is far away.
God is in front, He is in the back”. This Nupe song
means that though God is not on earth yet He is very
present, always, and everywhere. To show the
immanence of God among the Yoruba of Nigeria they
ask “What can you do in concealment that God’s
eyes do not reach?” And they also add another
statement “He who steals under concealment, even
though the eyes of the earthly ruler do not see him,
those of the King of Heaven are looking at him”
(Awolalu and Dopamu 51). The above sayings
reveal the immanence of God in African religious
ontology. They show that Africans believe that
though God is transcendent, yet He is immanent.
d) In Africa God is Eternal and Immortal.
The Africans do not see the Supreme Being as One
who will one day cease to be or one who will
eventually die. They rather see Him as the eternal
and immortal One who lives forever to satisfy the
human soul. This is why “they hold that the Supreme
Deity is the Ever-living Reality Whose Being
stretches to eternity” (Awolalu and Dopamu 52). A
Yoruba epithet of praise describes this eternal and
immortal attribute of the Supreme Being in Africa:
Oyigiyi Ota Aiku – “The mighty, immovable, hard,
ancient, durable Rock that never dies”.
The Kono people of Sierra Leone call God by the
name Yataa which means that “God is the One you
meet everywhere”. They also call God by another
name Meketa implying “the Everlasting One”, “The
One who remains and does not die” showing that
people of many generations experience God living
(Awolalu and Dopamu 52).
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There are so many other great attributes of God in
African religious ontology which we may not expatiate
in this work such as: God is the absolute controller of
the universe, God is Omnipotent, Omnipresent and
Omniscient in Africa; the Supreme Being is one in
Africa; God is good and merciful, and God is Holy.
The attributes as enumerated above are not the
product of missionary activities or colonial era. They
are part and parcel of Africans. Every child born into
African culture grows with these concepts of God and
he does not need to learn them because they are
imbued in their folklores, myths, short stories, short
sayings, proverbs, ceremonies and everything
around them. These attributes show the place of the
Supreme Being in the African traditional religious
ontology. No one under any guise should say that
Africans did not know God before colonial era or
before the coming of the missionaries. The
knowledge of God as the Supreme Being in Africa
has been part of our culture from time immemorial.
Divinities in African Religious Ontology: The
African religions partly recognize a group of being
popularly known as divinities. These beings have
been given various names by various writers such as
‘gods’, ‘demigods’, ‘nature spirits’, divinities, and the
like. Mbiti explains that the term “covers
personification of God’s activities and manifestations,
the so-called ‘nature spirits’, deified heroes, and
mythological figures” (Concept of God in Africa, 117).
This belief in divinities is a common phenomenon
especially in West Africa, while in other parts of
Africa; the concept is not succinctly expressed. This
is what Francis O. C. Njoku means when he said,
“The phenomenon of belief in divinities is not
everywhere prominent in Africa” (125).
In West Africa where the concept is clearly
expressed, there are so many of such divinities. In
Yoruba pantheon, for example, Idowu explains that
there are as much as 201, 401, 600, or 1700
divinities (Qtd in Njoku 127). In Edo of Nigeria, Mbiti
narrates that there are as many divinities as there are
human needs, activities and experiences, and the
cults of these divinities are recognized as such. In
his words “One [divinity] is connected with wealth,
human fertility, and supply of children (Oluku);
another is iron (Ogu), another of medicine (Osu), and
another of death (Ogiuwu)” (Concepts of God in
Africa, 119).
Divinities have been grouped into two major groups
namely: the Principal Divinities and Minor Divinities.
Principal divinities are regarded as part of the original

order of things. Njoku sees these as being “co-eval
with the coming into being of the cosmos” (126).
They include such divinities as Sango or Amadioha –
thunder divinities for Yoruba and Igbo; Ani or Ala –
earth divinity among the Igbo, Aje in Idoma land and
other solar divinities. The Dinka people of Sudan
recognize Deng divinity associated with rain, fertility
and others, Abak with mother role, Garang – perfect
picture of father/son relationship. They also
recognize Macardt – a divinity associated with death
(127).
Nature of Divinities: There are two major schools of
thought as regards the origin of divinities in African
religious ontology. The first school of thought is led
by John S. Mbiti. He argues that divinities were
created by the Supreme Being. He explains that
divinities “have been created by God in the
ontological category of the spirits. They are
associated with Him, and often stand for His activities
or manifestation either as personifications or as the
spiritual beings in charge of these major objects or
phenomena of nature” (African Religions and
Philosophy 75, 76). By this view of Mbiti and his
group, divinities are under the Supreme Being in the
order of things. They can also be seen as
manifestations of the characteristics or attributes of
the Supreme Being.
The second school of thought, championed by E.
Bolaji Idowu, argues that divinities were not created
but were brought out into being. In his words,
From the point of view of the theology of African
traditional religion, it will not be correct to say that
the divinities were created. It will be correct to say
that they were brought into being, or that they
came into being in the nature of things with regard
to the divine ordering of the universe (169).
This view of Idowu may correspond to the Christian
theology about the divinity of Christ. Christians
believe that Christ was not created but came out
(brought forth) from the Father and so shares almost
all the attributes of the Father. This is why he is
called the Son of God. In the same way, Idowu
applies the same theology to the divinities. He
explains that Orisa-nla (the arch-divinity among the
Yoruba) “is definitely a derivation partaking of the
very nature and metaphysical attributes of
Olodumare” (169). This is why the Yoruba people
call him “Deity’s son and deputy, vested with the
power and authority of royal sonship “(169). In Benin
of Nigeria, Olokun the arch-divinity is regarded as the
son of Osanobwa, which means a son vested with
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power and majesty by his father. Among the Akan
people of Ghana, all their divinities are regarded as
sons of Onyame. Idowu therefore argues that “it is in
consequence of this derivative relationship that these
divine “beings” are entitled to be called divinities or
deities” (169).
A careful look at these two schools will show that
Idowu was applying the Christian theological principle
to African traditional religion by declaring that the
divinities were not created just as Christians believe
that Jesus Christ was not created.
Chike Ekeopara lays his weight behind Idowu by
declaring that the divinities were not created and
adds “Divinities are brought into being to serve the
will of the Supreme Being” (19).
There is an agreement among scholars that divinities
are divided into two groups. One group being spirits
and the other group being human beings of the
distant past, who, by their heroic activities where
deified. Our argument here is that if all divinities were
not created, it means that those heroic human beings
of the distant past who were deified were not created.
This will run contrary to the general belief of Africans
concerning the Supreme Being whom alone has no
beginning and no ending in African religious theology.
If the divinities are said to posses the same
uncreated nature, then there must be equality
between them in some sense. But we have submitted
in this paper that in Yoruba of Nigeria, the name
Olodumare, a name given to the Supreme Being,
means a king or chief who wields authority and is
“unique”. This uniqueness means one of his kinds.
None is comparable to Him. He is unchangeable and
reliable.
It therefore follows that if God is unique then every
other creature must be different from Him. They are
regarded as divinities. Their being called divinities is
because they are sometimes the personification of
the natural forces or the manifestation of the
Supreme Being. This researcher therefore, agrees
with John S. Mbiti that divinities “have been created
by God initially as spirits… [and] are largely the
personifications of natural objects and forces… of the
universe” (Introduction to African Religion, 66)
Relationship between Divinities and Supreme
Being
1. They are created “beings”. As created
beings, they are subordinate to the Supreme
Being.
 Am. J. Soc. Mgmt. Sci., 2010, 1(2): 209-218

2. They are derivations from Deity. The knowing or worshiping the Supreme Being
divinities do not have independent existence directly as some erroneously claim, but
or absolute existence, but derive their being
constitute only a half-way house which is not meant
from the Supreme Being. This means that
to be permanent resting place for man’s soul. While
“since divinities derive their being from the
man may find the divinities ‘sufficient’ for certain
Supreme Being, their powers and authorities
needs, something continues to warn him that
are meaningless apart from Him (Ekeopara
‘sufficiency’ is only in Deity [Supreme Being] …. The
19)
divinities are only means to an end and not end in
3. They are given functions to perform: themselves.
Divinities do not perform duties against the
In African religious ontology, especially among the
will of the Supreme Being rather they are
West African people, the concept of divinity is well
obedient to the command of the Supreme
established. Divinities are so many that their number
Being. Various communities of Africa who
seems not to be known. This concept has made so
believe in divinities have their local names for
many scholars to believe that African religion is either
each divinity depending on the function the
pantheism or polytheism. Those who believe that
divinity performs. In Yoruba Jakuta, the
African religion is pantheistic are of the view that
divinity responsible for Wrath-one who hurls
Africans see spirit in everything including wood, tree,
or fights with stones”, is known in Nupe as
fire, and others. Though this may be true but Africans
Sokogba – God’s axe. Among the Igbo Ala
do not see these spirits as deserving worship. They
or Ani – Earth, is the arch-divinity responsible
still have a strong place for the Supreme Being whom
for the fertility of the soil.
they revere in a special way, and whom they believe
4. Another important relationship between the is unique.
divinities and Supreme Being in Africa is that
On the other hand, those who see African religion as
the divinities serve as “functionaries in the
being pantheistic have failed to understand that
theocratic government of the universe”
“polytheism is a qualitative and not quantitative
(Idowu 170). This means that the various
concept. It is not a belief in a plurality of gods but
divinities have been apportioned various
rather the lack of a unifying and transcending ultimate
duties to perform in accordance with the will
which determines its character” (Tillich 246). A
of the Supreme Being. This is clearly shown
careful study of this definition will reveal that in Africa,
by Idowu in his book Olodumare … where he
though there are many gods, yet there is One
explained that in Dahomey, Mawu-Lisa is
Supreme God who is worshipped above all-others.
regarded as an arch-divinity who apportioned
This means that the One Supreme God believed in
the kingdoms of the sky, the sea, and the
Africa becomes the unifying and transcending
earth to six of his off-springs. He made his
ultimate who therefore determines the character of
seventh child Legba, the divine messenger
every other activity, showing that polytheism cannot
and inspector-general in African pantheon
be the right term to describe the type of religion
(80). This also means that the divinities are
practiced in Africa. Edward E. Evans Pritchard
ministers with different definite portfolios in
recognized that Nuer religion should not be seen as
the monarchial government of the Supreme
either monotheistic or polytheistic. He explains that it
Being. They therefore serve as administrative
could be regarded as both depending upon the
heads of various departments (Idowu, African
context. In his words,
Traditional Religion, 170).
It is a question of level, or situation of thought rather
5. Divinities are Intermediaries between man
than of exclusive types of thought. On one level,
and the Supreme Being. They have therefore
Nuer religion may be regarded as monotheistic, at
become channels through which sacrifices,
another level polytheistic; and it can also be regard
prayers and offerings are presented to the
as totemistic (52).
Supreme Being. In Africa, there are no
images of the Supreme Being but the Francis Deng has also seen the religion of
divinities are represented with images the Dinka people as monotheistic. He explains that
temples or shrines. Idowu explains that the to Dinka people, their Supreme God, Nhiali “is One”
divinities do not prevent Africans from and that all other deities and spirits are identified with
this “Over-All God” (51). We therefore agree with

215

Idowu and Deng that African traditional religion is
“Unitary Monotheism”. This is a kind of unitary
theocratic government (Idowu, African Traditional
Religion … 168). A government where powers are
delegated to various deities or divinities for the
governance of the universe, and they bring report to
the Supreme Being at intervals.
Spirits in African Religious Ontology: In African
traditional religion, the concept of spirits is well
defined. This is because Africans believe in,
recognize and accept the fact of the existence of
spirits, who may use material objects as temporary
residences and manifestations of their presence and
actions through natural objects and phenomena
(Idowu, African Tradition Religion … 173).
This does not mean that traditional religion in Africa
was an alienation in which “man felt himself unable to
dominate his environment, in the grip of ghosts and
demons, under the spell of the awe-inspiring
phenomena of nature, a prey to imaginary magical
forces or cruel and capricious spirits” (Shorter 49).
What we are stressing here is the fact that Africans,
though they believe in the existence of spirits, are not
being taken captive by this belief so that they do not
consider other materialistic elements in the universe.
When we refer to spirits in African religious ontology,
we are not referring to divinities or to ancestors, but
to “those apparitional entities which form separate
category of beings from those described as divinities”
(Idowu, African … 173). They are considered as
“powers which are almost abstract, as shades or
vapours which take on human shape; they are
immaterial and incorporeal beings” (173, 174). As
immaterial and incorporeal, it is possible for them to
assume various dimensions whenever they wish to
be seen.
These spirits are created by God but differ from God
and man. Man has in various occasions addressed
these spirits anthropomorphically by attributing
human characteristics such as thinking, speaking,
intelligence and the possession of power which they
use whenever they wish.
Spirits that we are looking at in this part of the work
are the “’common’ spiritual beings beneath the status
of divinities, and above the status of men. They are
the ‘common populace’ of spiritual beings”, (Mbiti,
African Religions … 78).
Origin of Spirits: In African religions, there are three
main sources of spirits.
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1. Some believe that spirits are created by the
Supreme Being as a special “race” of their
own. As a race of their own, they continue to
reproduce their kind and increase in number
until they have become myriads in number.
2. Others in Africa are different in their thinking
as per the origin of spirits. This second group
“believe that the spirits are what remain of
human beings when they die physically”
(Mbiti, Africa Religion… 79). To this group,
this “becomes the ultimate status of men, the
point of change or development beyond
which men cannot go apart from a few
national heroes who might become deified”
(79). This then means that the ultimate hope
of man is to become a spirit when he dies.
3. The third source of spirit is animals that died.
In Africa, some societies believe that animals
have souls and spirits which continue to live
with the spirits of dead men after they died.
In this way, the world of the spirit is a picture
of the material world where humans and
animals live.
Nature of Spirits: Spirits are nondescript, immortal
and invisible entities. This is because they do not
posses material body through which they could be
seen but they may incarnate into any material thing in
order to make themselves seen for any reason or
purpose.
People have however experienced their activities and
many folk stories in Africa tell of spirits described in
human form, activities and personalities, though
sometimes, these descriptions are exaggeration
created by the elders to teach special lessons. Since
they are invisible, these spirits are thought to be
ubiquitous, so that a person is never sure where they
are or are not (Mbiti, African… 79).
Spirits do not have any family or personal ties with
human beings, and so cannot be regarded as the
living dead. This is why people fear them, although
intrinsically speaking spirits are strangers, foreigners,
and outsiders in the category of things.
Ontologically, spirits are a depersonalized and not a
completion or maturation mode of existence. The
spirit mode of existence according to Mbiti “is the
withering of the individual, so that this personality
evaporates, his name disappears and he becomes
less and not more of a person: a thing, a spirit and
not a man any more” (Africa Religion…79).

Majority of people in Africa believe that spirits dwell in
the woods, bush, forest, and rivers. Others hold that
spirits dwell in mountains, hills, valleys or just around
the village and at road junctions. Spirits are in the
same environment with men. This means that man
has to try in one way or the other to protect himself
from the activities of the spirits knowing that the
spirits are stronger than him. He uses the various
means available to him such as magical powers,
sacrifices, and offerings to appease, control and
change the course of their action.
Man’s Relationship with Spirits: A further study of
the activities of the spirits shows that they may cause
terrible harm on men. This they do through causing
madness or epilepsy and other terrible sickness.
In some cases they may possess people causing
them to prophesy. Mbiti explains that “During the
height of spirit possession, the individual in effect
loses his own personality and acts in the content of
the ‘personality’ of the spirit possessing him (African
Religions… 82). The spirits may chose to drive the
person away making him to live in the forest. It may
give the person information for the larger society in
the case of a prophet or soothsayer. When spirits
possession is noticed, the traditional doctors and
diviners may be called to exorcise that spirit from the
person thereby setting him free from his captor.
Among the disastrous spirits that rule in African
society is the spirit of witches. To Africans this spirit is
real, active and powerful yet very dangerous and
disastrous in its actions and activities. Elsewhere,
Idowu explains, concerning the concept of witchcraft
thus:
African concept about witchcraft consist in the
believe that the spirits of living human beings can
be sent out of the body on errands of doing havoc
to other persons in body, mind or estate; that
witches have guilds or operate singly, and that the
spirits sent out of the human body in this way can
act either invisibly or through a lower creature an
animal or a bird (African Traditional Religion…
175,176).
This concept does not require laboratory test for
scientist to believe. This is because the realm of
spirits is a realm that transcends scientific scrutiny.
It is believed among Africans and that is all that
matters.
The guild of witches meets regularly for their
ceremonies in forests, on trees or under trees, in
open places or at the junction of the roads in the
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middle of the night. This meeting is done at the
soul or spirit level meaning that the spirits leave
the body of the witches in form of a particular bird
or animal. Idowu reiterates the purpose of this
meeting as
To work havoc on other human beings; and the
operation is the operation of spirits upon spirits,
that is, it is the ethereal bodies of the victims that
are attacked, extracted, and devoured; and this is
what is meant when it is said that witches have
sucked the entire blood of the victim. Thus, in the
case of witches or their victims, spirits meet spirits,
spirits operate upon spirits, while the actual human
bodies lie ‘asleep’ in their homes (African
Traditional Religion 176).
Another concept of spirit that is prevalent in Africa is
that of the guardian – spirit or man’s double. The
belief here according to Idowu is either that the
essence of man’s personality becomes a sort of split
entity which acts as man’s spiritual counterpart or
double; or that the guardian-spirit is a separate entity.
The Africans believe that man has a guardian spirit
which if it is good, works to bring prosperity and good
luck to its double but if the guardian spirit is not in
good state, it will rather bring obstacle to the ways of
its double.
This spirit is known by many names in Africa. Yoruba
people call it ori, Igbo people call it chi, while the Edo
people call it ehi. It guards one’s steps leading the
one to his/her destiny in life. In most cases, it is this
spirit that helps to wade off evil spirits that may want
to derail the individual from achieving his ultimate in
life. This is why most Africans will make sure they
sacrifice and appease their guardian – spirit
whenever they want to take any important decision or
they want to go on a journey.
What we are saying here is that in African traditional
religion, the place of spirits is very prominent. This
does not mean that Africans are Pantheist but it only
means that they recognize the role spirits are playing
in human life either positively or negatively and they
try to keep them at bay using tools available to them
such as magic, divination, exorcism, prayers,
sacrifice and others.
CONCLUSION:
We have submitted in this work that the Supreme
Being has a strong place in the African ontology. He
is regarded as an uncreated, self existent,
unchanging, and reliable Being whose power
transcends all powers. He is seen as the Creator,

Omnipotent, Omniscient and Omnipresent Being who
is immortal and directs human affairs. In Africa, He is
worshiped in most places without a temple and
without an image attributed to Him because He is
beyond human understanding and is unique showing
that there is none like Him.
This Supreme Being according to African ontology
has so many deputies who work with Him in the
unitary theocratic governance of the universe. These
deputies are regarded as divinities. They are
functionaries and ministers whose duties are to carry
out the full instructions of the Supreme Being. They
do not have absolute power or existence. This is
because their lives and existence is derived from the
Supreme Being. They are created beings and so are
subordinate to the Supreme Being in all matters.
They can also be regarded as manifestations of the
attributes of the Supreme Being. Africans have
temples and shrines dedicated to these divinities
even though they are seen as intermediaries
between men and the Supreme Being.
There are also the spirits who are either created as a
race of their own or as the ultimate end of men who
died on earth. Some of these spirits cause havoc on
humans and so man uses many methods or tools to
wade them off. The belief in guardian-spirit is also
prominent in Africa.
We are therefore of the view that in African traditional
religious ontology, God-Supreme Being, divinities
and spirits exist and play crucial role in that mode of
existence which they belong and on humans on
earth.
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