INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATIONAL

LECTURE 14: INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTIONS

By – Raphael Tumaini O’maitarya
0755340506/0655820165: Email – rafaeltumaini@gmail.com
_______________________________________________________________________

LECTURE SUMMARY
14.1 INTRODUCTION
 Due to variations of learners sometimes it is possible to have
instruction based on unique characteristics of the student.
 Individualized instruction is a method of instruction in which the
content, instructional material, instructional media, and pace of
learning are based on the abilities and interests of each learner.
 In other perspective, Individualized instruction is defined as a method
of managing the instructional process without requiring live lectures
from teachers.
 Thus individualized instruction is based on an individual’s unique
learning style and instruction tailored to fit a student’s educational
needs.
 With the advancement in computers and information technology the
potential for individualized instruction has increased tremendously.
 Computer-Assisted Instruction uses the computer and the prevailing
electronic environment to improve the design and delivery of
individualized instruction.
 The curriculum for individualized programme has to take into account
the following aspects:
i. Pace. This is the amount of time given to a student to learn the
content. Time to be spent on learning the material can either be
controlled by the teacher in one extreme or by the student in the
other extreme. Most of the students in Open and Distance
learning have great control of the pace of learning.
ii. Method. This refers to the structure of instruction and how it
should be managed. The method selected depends on how
learning takes place. There are several theories and approaches
of learning and the teachers have to choose the principles and
theories that are appropriate to individual learners’
characteristics.
iii. Content. This is the material to be learned. The materials can be
uniform to all students; however, high-achieving students can
define their own objectives and pursue learning depending on
their own interests.

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 14.1 DEFINITION OF EXCEPTIONAL STUDENTS
 Exceptional students include learners with disabilities and those
classified as gifted and talented.
 The next question is what a disability is and why gifted and
talented students are classified as exceptional students.
 Disability is defined as limitation on individual functioning that
restricts the individual’s ability.
 Currently it is acknowledged to say students with disabilities rather
than disabled students.
 This acknowledgement is based on the fact that the second one is
on specific conditions rather than implying the individual is
disabled to function in any condition.
 Another term confused with disability is handicap
 Handicap is impediment imposed on a person with disability.
 In many public areas in Tanzania the toilets are built without
considering the conditions of persons with physical disability, so
these toilets are a handicap to such people.
 It is not proper to address people with disabilities as handicap.
 It is expected that the society will minimize or eliminate conditions
that make people with disabilities be handicapped.
 There are number of disabilities each with its own characteristics,
each being caused by a number of factors.

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS AND THEIR ANSWERS

FOR MTT & A.E
1. Due to variations of learners sometimes it is possible to
have instruction based on unique characteristics of the
student. With relevant examples, explain three (3)
aspects in which curriculum for individualized programs
has to take into account.
Introduction
Individualized instruction is a method of instruction in which
the content, instructional materials, instructional media
(teaching methods) and pace of learning are based on the
abilities and interests of each learner.
- It as a method of managing the instructional process
without requiring live lectures from teachers.

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 - Thus, individualized instruction is based on an individual’s
unique learning style and instruction tailored to fit a
student’s educational needs.
Main body
The curriculum (content, materials and methods) for
individualized programme has to take into account the
following three (3) aspects:
Pace/learning style
 This is the amount of time given to a student to learn the
content.
 Time to be spent on learning the material can either be
controlled by the teacher in one extreme or by the student
in the other extreme.
 Most of the students in Open and Distance learning have
great control of the pace of learning.
Method
 This refers to the structure of instruction and how it should
be managed.
 The method selected depends on how learning takes place.
 There are several theories and approaches of learning and
the teachers have to choose the principles and theories that
are appropriate to individual learners’ characteristics.
Content
 This is the material to be learned.
 The materials can be uniform to all students.
 However, high-achieving students can define their own
objectives and pursue learning depending on their own
interests.
Conclusion
The other aspects can be students background knowledge,
special needs and

2. Who are exceptional students? Briefly discuss their

main disabilities, each with its own characteristics,
causes, and assistance.
Introduction
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Exceptional students include learners with disabilities and
those classified as gifted and talented.
- Disability is defined as limitation on individual functioning
that restricts the individual’s ability.
- Currently it is acknowledged to say students with disabilities
rather than disabled students.
- It is also not proper to address people with disabilities as
handicap.
- Another term confused with disability is handicap.
- Handicap is impediment (effects) imposed on a person
with disability.
 For example, in many public areas in Tanzania, the
toilets are built without considering the conditions of
persons with physical disability.
 These toilets are a handicap to such people.
- It is expected that the society will minimize or eliminate
conditions that make people with disabilities be
handicapped.
- Gifted and talented students are those with higher IQ.
- These students demonstrate or have potential abilities
that give evidence of high-performance capabilities in
specific areas.
- They are students who have evidence of high-performance
capability in areas such as the following;
 Intellectual,
 Creative,
 Artistic, and
 Any other specific academic areas.

- Before categorising a student as having a disability, one has

to assess the functioning ability of the respective student
before determine it as less than normal.
- The main functioning areas assessed are te following;
 Social area,

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  Emotional area,
 Physical area,
 Learning style area, and
 Communication area.
- Also, it is crucial to identify handicapping conditions that
adversely prevent a student with disability to function at the
same as other normal students.
- A normal teacher can observe and identify handicapping
conditions of students with disability without any special aid.
- Teachers can do this by considering some of the
characteristics of a student with disability.
- However, in determine the level of the disability, it is only a
specialist can provide such determination and the
recommendations on plan of action to help the student.
- It is imperative to know that one same condition of disability
is characterized at different levels of severity.
- Each level has corresponding effect on the respective student
and as such requiring specific educational needs.
- Lamping students with similar disability in the same category
and treating them the same may lead to more complications
instead of assistance.
Main body
There are number of disabilities each with its own
characteristics, each being caused by a number of factors.
- Some of them are the following:
Blindness and Visual Impairments
(Determine if children with visual impairment in your
community are identified and assisted to access
education).
 These are students who are legally blind (can’t see at all).
 They also include those with mild vision problem that has
not yet being corrected or still have vision problems even
with correction.
Some of the characteristics of visual impairments including
the following;
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 o Holding books very close to eyes,
o Difficulty in reading small prints,
o Rubbing eyes frequently,
o Red or inflamed eyes,
o Watery eyes,
o Headaches, and
o Complaints related to vision.
Assistance strategies
 As a teacher you refer such students to eye specialists for
diagnosis purposes and also for corrective measures.
 For students with low vision sitting in front of the class
can be of help.
 A student determined as blind cannot access materials
needing vision and can be referred to schools which can
cater for his/her condition.
 Also, students with good vision can read to the students
with visual impairments.

Deaf and Hearing Impairments

(Determine if children with deaf and hearing impairment
in your community are identified and assisted to access
education).
 Deaf students cannot process information through hearing
even with aid of amplifying devices.
 Hearing impairment is less severe than deafness.
 But yet it adversely affects student performance related to
hearing.
Some of the characteristics of students with Deaf and
Hearing Impairments
o These students find it very difficult (impossible for the
deaf) to hear conversations in the class.
o Also, children with this condition may also have speech
disorders.

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 o You know that one first hears the word then imitates to
pronounce it or use it in thinking process.
o In class they have difficulty following oral presentations
and directions.
o They tend to turn head and lean towards the speaker.
o They use speech sounds poorly, not responding when
called from behind.
o They complaints about earaches, ear infections or have
ear discharge.
Assistance strategies
 Once you suspect a student has hearing impairment, seek
professional help to determine the problem and advice on
corrective measures.
 some of the teaching strategies for students with hearing
impairment, namely:
o Be patient.
o Speak normally, not too fast or too slow.
o Speak distinctively rather than shouting.
o Reduce distractions and background noise.
o Face the student when talking to him/her since they need
to read your lips and gestures.
Physical impairments
 Physical impairments refer to conditions of the central
nervous system and other body systems that adversely affect
student’s participation in academic activities.
 They include a number of disorders.
 Some of them are the following with their characteristics;
Orthopaedic impairments
o Such students have conditions that impede movement
and control of muscle and skeletal movements.
Cerebral palsy
o Students with cerebral palsy lack control of muscular
coordination, shaking and have unclear speech.
Epilepsy disorder

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 o Students with Epilepsy disorder are characterized by
frequent sensorimotor and movement attacks.
o The frequency and duration of epilepsy attack varies
among students affected.
Assistance strategies
o Some of physical impairments require special services
such as wheelchairs for movements.
o As a teacher you should arrange the class to improve
movement.
o Also, you have to be in position to influence the
construction of structures that are friendly to students
with physical impairments.
Speech and/or Language Disorders
 Remember that in learning a student has to communicate
his/her ideas to teachers and others.
 In language learning course one must develop the oral
aspect of the language.
 So, speech and language disorders refer to disabilities
related to communication functions of speech and
language.
Some of the characteristics of students with speech and
language disorders
 They include stuttering, problems in articulation and voice.
 Also, they have receptive disorders whereby they lack the
ability to process incoming audio messages.
 On the other hand, there they have expressive disorder.
 This is the inability to use language to express one self.
 Expressive disorders can be informed of articulation
disorder (problem in pronouncing sounds); voice
disorders (producing speech that is too high-pitched, too
low-pitched, hoarse, or harsh); and fluency
disorders (stuttering).
 All these conditions will experience difficulties in
communication.
Assistance strategies

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When teachers are working with students with receptive or oral
expressive language disorders, they should consider the
following:
 Use multisensory approach to learning rather than an oral
approach alone.
 Always supplement oral information with written materials
and directives.
 Monitor the speed with which you present information.
 Slow down and go back to check with the student for
understanding.
 Give them much time to respond, as much as ten to
fifteen seconds.
 Provide concrete, specific examples of abstract concepts.
For an oral expressive disorder student, it is suggested that,
eachers should:
 Giving the student plenty of time to respond.
 Recognize that the student has trouble responding orally.
 Considering asking the student to do written work rather
than oral report.
 Provide choices or give the student initial sound in word-
finding problems.
 Let the student know ahead of time what question might
be asked so that s/he can have enough time to prepare
an answer.
Behaviour disorders
 Behaviour disorders are also known as conduct disorders.
 This is a broad category referring to students with persistent
behavioural difficulties that adversely affect their education.
 These problems include the following;
o Being aggressive by being physically abusive of others,
o Having a tendency of destroying their properties,
o Being difficult in maintaining relationships with teachers
and peers,
o The tendency of having anxiety associated with school
problems.

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 o Having depression and inappropriate behaviour in
normal situations.
o Showing lack of feeling guilty, and
o Tending to blame other students for the troubles they
create.
 Since students with this disorder display these behaviours
consistently, they cause great disruption to teachers and
other students in the class.
Assistance strategies
The following are effective strategies for students with
emotional and behavioural disorders:
 Help students to overcome their emotional problems to
achieve academic success.
 They have to learn and develop skills to control their
mood and to think before they act.
 Seek from the student about his/her strengths,
weaknesses and goals.
 Involve the student in setting academic and personal
goals.
 Provide opportunities for the student to use
self-control/self monitoring.
 Teach self talk to relieve stress and anxiety.
 Take the student aside and discuss his/her disability and
allow him/her to explain how s/he if affected by it.
Mental retardation
This is generalized disorder associated with impaired cognitive
functioning and deficit in adaptive behaviours.
 Students with this impaired cognitive functioning
show low level of intelligence.
 As expected, with this level of intelligence they have
difficulties in learning in school settings.
 They are unlikely to be selected for secondary school
education.
 Students with deficit in adaptive behaviours are
indicative of problem with mental functioning.

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  They cannot conduct things that normal students take for
granted.
 They have difficulty in such simple things like dressing,
feeding and self control.
 Mental retardation is classified into four categories,
namely:
o Mild mental retardation.
o Moderate retardation.
o Severe retardation.
o Profound mental retardation .
 Students with mild mental retardation can be expected to
develop basic academic skills in ordinary schools.
 However, they have problems in regard to attention and
cognitive processes.
 They are problematized on the following capacities;
o Organizing ideas,
o Classifying things,
o Strategizing,
o Memorizing,
o Transfering to new tasks, and
o They are vulnerable to distractibility.
 Those in the other categories require professional help.
Assistance strategies
The following strategies of interacting with students with
mental retardation:
 Always keep in mind the child’s level of mental
functioning.
 Their performance in academic matters is below that of
normal students in the class.
 Individualize your instruction to meet the student’s needs.
 Give concrete examples of concepts.
 Teaching should be clear and simple.
 Give these students opportunities to practice what they
have learned.
 Be sensitive to the student’s self-esteem.

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  Have positive expectations for the student’s learning.
 Put into consideration student’s other needs, and help
him/her in improving self-maintenance and social skills.
 Involve parents as equal partners in student’s education.
 Also avoid placing them in situation where they can be
frustrated.
Multiple impairments
Multiple impairments are a condition whereby one has a
combination of several disabilities.
-These disabilities have that adversely affect learning process.
-Some of such students include the following;
 Students who are dumb because of being deaf.
 Students who are mentally retarded and blind.
-If you have students with multiple impairments seek advice
from a specialist.
Conclusion

3. With specific examples, distinguish students with

Learning Disabilities (LD) to those with
mental retardation.
4. What is learning disability? How are the students with
learning disabilities identified?
Introduction
Learning disabilities (LD) are among the concepts that are very
difficult to come up with one definition.
- The term learning disabilities applies to all conditions
associated with inability to learn sufficiently.

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Main body
The following are characteristics of students with LD
distinguishing them from those with mental retardation
- Learning disabilities is not related to mental and cognitive
disability but is associated with disorders in which a student
has a difficulty in learning in a normal manner.
- A student with LD does not have mental retardation,
behaviour disorders or other major disabilities.
- But still the student has difficulty with processing skills such
the following;
 As memory,
 Visual perception,
 Auditory perception,
 Thinking;
- Such students have trouble achieving in at least one subject
such as reading, math’s or writing.
- Therefore, LD is the term which might mean ‘specific
learning disability’ in one or more of the basic psychological
processes such as the following;
 Understanding or in using language, spoken or written,
 Imperfect ability to listen, speak, read, write, spell, or
to do mathematical calculations.
- The term includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps,
brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and
developmental aphasia.
- The term does not include children who have learning
disabilities which are primarily the result of the following;
 Visual,
 Hearing,
 Motor handicaps,
 Emotional disturbance,
 Effects of environmental,
 Effects of cultural or economic disadvantage.

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 - This definition implies that LD includes several disorders
associated with learning but the factors that lead to them
(LD) are still unknown.
- So, students with LD will have difficulties in learning and
they will not learn as quickly as students not affected by LD.
Characteristics of students with learning disabilities:
 Discrepancy. In definition of LD students with mental
retardation are excluded. This implies that students with
LD have normal or above normal levels of IQ. To be
categorised as having LD there must be a difference
between what the student is able to do and what actually
s/he is doing. There is discrepancy between ability and
level of performance.
 Deficit. This is indicated by LD student being unable to
develop academic skills that other students have. Some of
the skills LD can perform include listening, reading and
doing arithmetic.
 Focus. The student’s problem is centered on one or more
of the basic psychological processes involved in processing
in using or understanding language.
 Exclusions. LD is not direct result of poor vision or
hearing, disadvantaged, or cognitive disabilities, but these
students still cannot learn. Once the cause of the problem
is determined the student cannot be categorised as having
LD.
Teachers may use the following strategies that are considered
successful for teaching students with learning disabilities:

 When preparing lesson put into consideration the needs of

a student with LD. S/he will need more time to complete
assignments and other tasks.
 Break learning into small steps. Make modifications when
teaching to encourage self-confidence and success.
 They benefit more when learning is to real life situations.
 When introducing new concept, first discuss what they
know related to the concept and then introduce it.
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  Supply regular feedback.

5. Use your local area’s perspective on gifted students,

explain strategies you can use to accommodate such
students in your classroom.
6. Why do students who are gifted/talent need special
attention in school?
Introduction
Students who are gifted/talent are quite different from
students with disabilities.
- Students who are gifted and talented have higher IQ.
- They demonstrate or have potential abilities that give evidence
of high-performance capabilities in specific areas.
- These are students who have evidence of high-performance
capability in many academic areas.
- Such areas include the following;
 Intellectual,
 Creative,
 Artistic
 Any other specific academic areas.
Some of characteristics of gifted/talented include:
 Precocity
o Gifted students who are precocious (intelligent) in
situations that demand use of their gift or talent.
o They are so far ahead of their age mates.
o They overtake other in the class in terms of
understanding, mastering and completing school work.
o They possess good memorization, advanced
comprehension and processes information in complex
ways.
 Marching to their own drummer
o They learn in qualitatively different way from other
students.

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 o They are creative by being independent thinkers.
o They exhibit original thinking in oral and written
expressions; creates/invents and formulate abstracts.
o They learn rapidly without much assistance from
teachers and parents.
 A passion to master.
o Gifted students are intensely enthusiastic in
understanding the domains they have high ability.
o They widely read in special areas of interest.
o They are often perfectionist.
o They are highly motivated with high expectations.
o They do not need to be pushed to in learning.
Main body
Reasons to why do they need special attention;
 Although students who are gifted have an advantage over
their classmates, in normal classroom setting this can be
very challenging to themselves and to teachers too.
 To beginning with the above characteristics of gifted do
not fit into lesson preparations geared towards normal
students since they comprehend school material quite
rapidly.
 So, they spend less time than peers and this can lead to
problems to themselves and to the rest of class.
 Gifted students find it difficult to fit in with school mates.
 They don’t get pressures from others which have a
significant negative impact on their emotional
development.
 In short normal class setup is not conducive for gifted
students learning capabilities.
Teachers with students who are gifted/talent are advised to
use the following strategies in teaching:
 Enrichment.
o Since they take less time to cover school material
modify assignments provided to regular class by
giving them extra work at an advanced level.
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  Self-pacing methods.
o Use flexible practices that allow students to advance
at their own pace.
 Acceleration.
o After covering normal curriculum in shorter time
schools these students can advance into higher-level
class.
 Full-time separate classes or schools.
o Gifted students can be educated in special schools or
separate classes where available.
Conclusion

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