Content Theories

• Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

- earliest and most widely known theory of motivation, developed by Abraham Maslow (1943) in the
1940s and 1950s

• ERG(Alderfer)
Existence, Relatedness, Growth
-Existence needs: These include needs for basic material necessities. In short, it includes an
individual's physiological and physical safety needs.
-Relatedness needs: Individuals need significant relationships (be with family, peers or superiors),
love and belongingness, they strive toward reaching public fame and recognition. This elass of needs
contain Maslow's social needs and external component of esteem needs.
-Growth needs: Need for self-development, personal growth and advancement form together this
class of need. This class of needs contain Maslow's self-actualization needs and intrinsic component
of esteem needs.

• Theory of Needs (Mc Clelland)

-claimed that humans acquire learn their motivators over time
-McClelland's theory differs from Maslow's and Alderfer's, which focus on satisfying existing
needs rather than creating or developing needs
The three motivators are:
a. achievement
b. affiliate
c. power

Achievement Motivation - a need to accomplish and demonstrate competence or mastery

Affiliate Motivation - a need for love, belongingness and relatedness
Authority/ Power Motivation - a need to control over one's own work or the work of others

• 2 Factors Theory ( Herzberg)

It is also called motivation-hygiene theory. This theory says that there are some factors (motivating
factors) that cause job satisfaction, and motivation and some other also separated factors (hygiene
factors) cause dissatisfaction.
Herzberg's five factors of job satisfaction (motivating factors):
1.achievement
2.recognition
3.work itself
4.responsibility
5.advancement

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Herzberg's five factors of job dissatisfaction (hygiene factors deficiency needs):
1.company policy and administration
2. supervision
3. salary
4. interpersonal relationships
5.working conditions
PROCESS THEORIES

• Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)

B.F Skinner’s work is built on the assumption that behavior is influenced by its consequences.
you can change someone’s behavior by using reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.
Rewards are used to reinforce the behavior you want and punishments are used to prevent the
behavior you do not want. called ‘operant conditioning’ reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement: something is added to the mix that makes the behavior more likely to
continue or reoccur (i.e., a pleasant consequence is introduced to the subject to encourage their
behavior).
e.g Loid doing his homework on time to get good grades
Negative reinforcement: something is taken away from the mix that makes the behavior more likely to
continue or reoccur (i.e., something unpleasant is removed from the subject to encourage their
behavior).
e.g You removed your child’s grounding period because they worked on their homework.
Punishment occurs when you impose a negative consequences to reduce an undesirable behavior.
Positive punishment. Something is “added” to the mix that makes the behavior less likely to continue
or reoccur (i.e., an unpleasant consequence is introduced to the subject to discourage their behavior).
e.g Hansel’s mom took his mobile gaming phone because he failed to do his homework
Extinction means to stop someone from performing a learned behavior. Goal of extinction is to lower
the occurrence of undesired behaviors. In this scenario, valued consequences can be withheld to
reduce the probability of a specific learned behavior from continuing. The idea is to stop a learned
behavior over time.

• Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

Based on the assumption that our behavior is based on making a conscious choice from a set of
possible alternative behaviors.
the behavior we choose will always be the one that maximizes our pleasure and minimizes our pain.
Factors that motivates the employee effectively:

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1. Expectancy
is the belief that if you worked hard (effort), you will able to gain performance that have been set for you
by the manager.
Factors:
>Past experience
>Your confidence in your ability.
>How difficult you perceive the target is to achieve, and whether the target is under your control.
2.Instrumentality
assessing how likely you are to receive a reward you hit the targets that have been set foryou.
>Is the relationship between performance andreward.
>How much you trust he person who decides on the reward.
How transparent is the decision-making, around who gets that reward.
3. Valence

- so far we have a goal to hit and understand the we’ll get if we hit it.

• Goal Setting Theory (Locke)

gave us the sharprint for moders workplace motivation by making the direct relationship between goals,
productivity and employee engagement both clear, and actionable
Edwin Locke found that individuals who ret specific, difficult goals performed better than those who set
general, easy goals
Locke proposed five basic principles of goal-setting; clarity, challenge, commitment, feedback, and
task complexity.
1.Clarity. A clear, measurable goal in more achievable than one that is poorly defined in other wonds,
be specific! The most effective goals have a specific timeline for completion
2.Challenge. The goal must have a decent level of difficulty in order to motivate you to strive toward the
goal
3. Commitment, Put deliberate effort into meeting this goal. Share your goal with somece else in order
to measure your accountability to meet that goal.
4. Feedback set up a method to receive information on your progress toward a goal if losing 30 pounds
in four months turn out to ohe be too hard, it it is better mid-way through the timeline than to give up
entirely to adjust the difficulty of your goal
5. Task complexity. If a goal is especially complex, make sure you give yourself enough time to
overcome the learning curve involved in completing the task. In other words, if a goal really tough, make
sure you give yourself some padding to give you the best chance at succeeding

• Self Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan)

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Self-determination theory grew out of the work of psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, who
first introduced their ideas in their 1985 book Self-Determination and Intrinsic Motivation in Human
Behavior
In SDT, Deci and Ryan (1985) proposed that we all have three fundamental psychological needs that are
critical for motivation, autonomy (a sense of control over our lives), relatedness (connecting with others
and experiencing a sense of belonging), and competence (feeling capable in interactions with the
world).
They argue that our levels of motivation are shaped by the extent to which we satisfy these fundamental
needs. Three specific needs are:
MORAL DEVELOPMENT LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how children develop morality
and moral reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg formulated a theory asserting that individuals progress through six distinct stages
of moral reasoning from infancy to adulthood.
Moral Development
the process by which people develop the distinction between right and wrong (morality) and engage in
reasoning between the two (moral reasoning).

• Stages of Kohlberg Theory

Level 1. Preconventional Morality
the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the age of 9. At this age, children's
decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the
rules.
There are two stages within this level:
•Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and
punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this
type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying
the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment.
•Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and exchange stage of moral
development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve
individual needs.
Level 2. Conventional Morality
is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time,
adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards they have learned from their role models and
from society.
This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the group.
There are two stages at this level of morality:

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•Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often referred to as the "good boy-good
girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living
up to social expectations and roles.
•Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is maintained.
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making
judgments.
Level 3. Postconventional Morality
At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of morality.
The two stages at this level are:
•Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a social contract and individual rights
cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other
people.
•Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical
principles and abstract reasoning.
Applications for Kohlberg's Theory
it can help parents guide their children as they develop their moral character. Parents with younger
children might work on rule obeyance, for instance, whereas they might teach older children about
social expectations.
Teachers and other educators can also apply Kohlberg's theory in the classroom, providing additional
moral guidance. A kindergarten teacher could help enhance moral development by setting clear rules
for the classroom, and the consequences for violating them. This helps kids at stage one of moral
development.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT JEAN PIAGET

• Autonomous Morality
5-10 years and up
Also known as moral Relativism
Morality based on your own rules

• Heteronomous Morality
5-9 years old
Also known as Moral Realism
Morality Imposed from others/outside
Rules enforced by authority and must not be broken at any cost

• Moral Development (Elliot Turiel)

Moral Development the process by which people develop the distinction between right and wrong
(morality)

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Moral Rules
Moral rules are universal and apply to everyone.
Rules people follow because the decisions that an individual makes affects others;maintaining human
rights

• POST-CONVENTIONAL
Adulthood
2stages
Stage 5 : Social Contract
Stage 6 : Principles
CONVENTIONAL
8-13 years
Stage 3: Good Boy Attitude

Stage 4: Law and Order Morality

GILLIGAN’S THEORY
Emphasizes that woman focus on relationships and care in moral decisions. While men prioritize
abstract principle of justice
Conventional
Women begin to consider their responsibilities towards others.
G7
types of Learning
Observational Learning and Associative learning
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Learning by watching others engage in different behaviors.

ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING

Learning by establishing connections between events. Involves short-term memory, rote learning, attention and simple
associative skills.

• Behavioral Approach

G8-APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• Information Processing

The information-processing approach takes the human mind as a system that processes information. The
terms used in the information processing theory extend this analogy. Cognitive psychologist believe that

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cognitive processes influence the nature of what is learned. They consider learning as largely an internal
process, not an external behavior change

• Cognitive Constructivism

Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds people to actively construct or make their own
knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the learner’ The cognitive view focuses on
the internal processes. Learning is an active process. This approach emphasizes on individual, internal
construction of knowledge and it is largely based on Piaget’s theory.

PIAGET THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (INFANCY):

In this stage the infant is completely unaware of the environment. He/she used the senses and actions.
Instead of thinking infants discover by sensing and doing. Sensory and motor in function .
1. Coordinating Reflexes: The reflexes not coordinated from birth are coordinated from 4 months of age.
2. Objectified Causality: Infants learn about relationship between actions and the external world.
3. Object Permanence: Post the age of 8 months, the infants understand that the objects around them are
permanent. They try to get attached to parents or the care taker and often cry when are with others.
4. Imitation: Infants try to imitate the actions or facial expressions of an older person.
2. PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (TODDLERHOOD AND EARLY CHILDHOOD):
In this period, which has two sub stages, intelligence is demonstrated using symbols, language use matures
and there is lot of development, memory enhances, and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in
a non-logical, nonreversible manner.

A. PRE-CONCEPTUAL PHASE (2 TO 4 YEARS):

1. Representational Thought: The child develops the ability to form mental symbols to represent objects or
events that are not present. a. Differed Imitation: Ability to imitate actions of adults. b. Symbolic Play: The
child demonstrates make-believe play in which he uses signs and symbols in place of real objects.
2. Transductive Reasoning: Reasoning is from particular to general in nature
3. Ego-Centrism: The child at Pre-conceptual phase cannot think beyond his own view. He assumes that what others
see is the same as he/she himself or herself.

4. Animistic Thinking: The kid thinks in an animistic way. He/she attributes human feelings and motives to non-living
objects

B. THE INTUITIVE PHASE (4-7 YEARS):

The behavior is still controlled by perception. Reasoning is based on intuition rather than systemic thinking
or logic

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 • CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (ELEMENTARY AND EARLY ADOLESCENCE):
1.Inductive- Deductive Reasoning
2.Flexibility in Thinking:
3.Understanding the ‘Principle of Conservation 4.Classification and Serialization:
5.Reversibility of Thoughts

• FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD):

1. Abstract Thinking: Logic and abstract thinking by an individual.
2. Hypothetical Reasoning: Systematic assumption of possible solutions (hypothesis is derived by the child
for the problem).
3. Problem- Solving: Using proper solutions (hypothesis), he/she tests it to get the correct solution.
4. Transfer of Knowledge: Able to transfer the learnt knowledge from one situation to the other.

• SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM:
a theory in sociology and education that suggests that individuals construct their own understanding and
knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. It emphasizes the
role of social interactions and cultural context in shaping an individual's understanding of reality
In social constructivism, knowledge is not passively received from the outside world but actively built by
individuals based on their interactions with others and their environment
This theory highlights the importance of collaboration, discussion, and shared experiences in the learning
process.
G9- CONNECTIONISM THEORY OF EDWARD THORNDIKE
- Create connections between stimuli and responses through learning.
- It represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology and labelled it as Connectionism.
- Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R
pairings.
Stimulus- Response bond and Trial and Error
3 laws of Connectionism Theory
LAW OF EFFECT
Means that the learning takes place properly when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure
out of it. On the other hand, if the learner faces failure or get dissatisfaction, the progress on the path of
learning is hampered.
LAW OF EXERCISE
Practice makes perfect, this means that the more the practice of a certain behavior, the more
it will be strengthened

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TWO SUB LAWS;
1. LAW OF USE
When a modifiable connection is made between a situation and a response keeping other things equal, the
strength of that connect is increased.
2. LAW OF DISUSE
When a modifiable connection is not made between a situation and a response over a period of time keeping
other things equal, the strength of that connection is decreased.
LAW OF READINESS
- Proper mind set is the key word in this law.
- This law states that the more “ready” an individual to respond to a stimulus, the stronger will be the bond
between them.

G10- CONDITIONING THEORY

refers to a behavioral process and a method of learning in psychology that involves the correlation of
stimulus and a response.

• Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Theory, or the Pavlovian Theory, says that behaviors are learned by Connecting a
neutral stimulus with a positive One.
Ivan Pavlov A Russian and Soviet experimental neurologist and psychologist who discovered the classical
conditioning through his experiments with dogs.
COMPONENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) -refers to the stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
without prior conditioning .
2. Unconditioned Response (UR) -an innate learning and reflexive reaction that occurs wiothout prior
learning .
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) -Begins as a neutral stimulus that does not elicit a particular response
4. Conditioned Response (CR): a particular behavior that an organism learns to produce, when the CS is
presented.

• Operant Conditioning Theory

➤ sometimes refer to as instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian Conditioning.

➤ A method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior.

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B.F. Skinner, an american psychologist, behaviorist, inventor and social philosopher known for his impact on
behaviorism .
Often, the operant conditioning is also called as an Instrumental Conditioning, which means learning is
developed through the rewards and punishments given for a particular behavior.
There are three elements that result in the development of a new behavior; these are:
1. Stimulus Situation (the event or object)
2. Behavioral Response to the situation
3. Consequence of a response

• Three methods of contiguity theory

1. Fatigue method - using numerous repetitions, an animal becomes so fatigued that it is unable to reproduce
the old response, and introduces a new response (or simply doesn't react).
2. Threshold method - first, a very mild version of the stimulus below the threshold level is introduced. Its
intensity is then slowly increased until the full stimulus can be tolerated without causing the undesirable
response
3. Incompatible stimuli method - the response is “unlearned” by placing the animal in a situation where it
cannot exhibit the undesirable response.

• Principles of Contiguity Method

1. In order for conditioning to occur, the organism must actively respond (i.e., do things).
2. Since learning involves the conditioning of specific movements, instruction must present very specific
tasks.
3. Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is desirable in order to produce a generalized response.
4. The last response in a learning situation should be correct since it is the one that will be associated.

G11- BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS IN EDUCATION

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)
It uses techniques from behavioral psychology to create strategies that boost academic performance, social
skills, and overall behavior in the classroom.

Outcomes of ABA in education

Academic Performance Consistent application of ABA strategies has been shown to improve academic
engagement and performance. Positive reinforcement can increase on-task behavior and completion rates
of academic tasks.
Behavioral Improvements An FBA identifies the reasons behind challenging behaviors by examining
antecedents (what happens before the behavior) and consequences (what happens after the behavior).

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Social Skills Development ABA interventions can enhance social skills, particularly for students with autism
spectrum disorder (ASD) or other developmental disorders. Techniques such as role-playing and social stories
are employed to teach appropriate social interactions.
Applications in Education
Behavior Modification
Classroom Management
Skill Acquisition Programs
Functional Behavior Assessment

G12- Gestalt Theory

was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and the
dynamic nature of visual perception. The term gestalt, means “form” or “ configuration.”
Psychologist

>Studied perception and concluded that perceivers (or learners) were not passive, but rather active.
Insight Learning
•Insight learning is a type of learning or problem solving that happens all of a sudden through understanding
the relationships of various parts of the problem rather than through trial and error.
•Wolfgang Kohler Was a psychologist who conducted experiment in which insight learning was observe in
animal behavior.
Gestalt Theory and The Typical Problems of Learning
CAPACITY: Learning requires differentiation and restructuring of fields, the higher forms of learning depend
very much on natural capacities and it is the ability to understand problems that leads in increasing learning
abilities.
PRACTICE: Successive exposure to a learning situation provides repeated opportunities for the learner to
notice new relationships so as to provide for restructuring the task.
MOTIVATION: It viewed as placing the organism into a problem situation; reward and punishment acted to
confirm or this confirm attempted solutions of problems.
UNDERSTANDING: Problems are to be solved sensibly, structurally, organically, rather than mechanically,
stupidly, or by the running off of prior habits.
TRANSFER: A pattern of dynamic relationships discovered in one situation may be applicable to another.
FORGETTING: The dynamic changes which take place in recall, so that what is reproduced is not earlier
learning with some parts missing, but a trace distorted in the direction of a ‘good gestalt’.
G13- Themes Under Un convention
survival rights
protection rights

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participation of rights
What is Republic Act no.10627?
AN ACT REQUIRING ALL ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS TO ADOPT POLICIES TO PREVENT AND
ADDRESS THE ACTS OF BULLYING IN THEIR INSTITUTIONS

Prohibited Acts under DepEd order no. 40 s. 2012

Child abuse, Discrimination against children, Child exploitation, Violence against children in school, Corporal
punishment, Any analogous or similar acts, Bullying or peer abuse

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