INSTRUMENTATION

Art Ian G. Bautista, ECE, ECT

Instrumentation
 Refers to the design, development, or manufacture
of instruments for use in an industry

 Refers to a set of instruments used as tools or for

measurement or control
Why study Instrumentation?

 Functionality
 Operation
 Proper selection of instrument
Instrument
 A device or mechanism used to determine the
present value of a quantity under observation

Measurement
 The art (or process) of determining the amount,
quantity, degree, or capacity by comparison (direct
or indirect) with an accepted standard of the
system of units employed
Three Basic Functions of Instruments

 Indicating
 Recording
 Controlling
Advantages of Electronic Instruments

 High Sensitivity Rating, capable of measuring very

small (low-amplitude) signals
 High input impedance, thereby reducing loading
effects when measurements are made
 Ability to monitor remote signals
Electrical Units
1. Electric charge, Q
2. Electric current, I
3. Electromotive force or potential difference, V
4. Resistance, R
5. Inductance, L
6. Capacitance, C
Measurement Standards
 International Standards
 Primary Standards
 Secondary Standards
 Working Standards
International Standards

 are defined by international agreement

 they represent certain units to the closest possible
accuracy attainable by the science and technology
of measurement
Primary Standards

 Are maintained at national standards laboratories

in different countries.
 Are not available for use outside the national
laboratories
 The primary function is the calibration and
verification of secondary standards
Working Standards

 Are the principal tools of a measurements

laboratory.
 They are used to check and calibrate the
instruments used in the laboratory or to make
comparison measurements in industrial
application.
Errors in Measurement
True Value (or Measured Value)
 The obtained quantitative measure by an
instrument

Expected Value
 The design value or the most probable value that
calculations indicate you should expect to obtain
Reality:

“Any measurement is affected my many variables;

therefore, the results rarely reflect the expected
value.”
Error
 The deviation of a reading or set of readings from
the expected value of the measured variable

 May be expressed in terms of:

 Absolute Error
 Percent of Error
Absolute Error
 Difference between the expected value and the
measured value

𝐸𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Percent Error
 Error expressed in percentage

𝐸𝑎𝑏𝑠
%𝐸 = 𝑥100
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
 Therefore using values of absolute error will yield,

𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

%𝐸 = 𝑥100
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Relative Accuracy

 The degree of exactness of a measurement when

compared to the expected value of the variable
being measured

𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

A=1−
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Percent Accuracy
 Accuracy expressed in percentage

𝑎 = 100% − %𝐸
or
𝑎 = 𝐴 𝑥 100
Example:
 The expected value of the voltage across a resistor

is 50V; however, measurement yields a value of 49

V. Calculate
 Absolute Error
 Percent Error

 Relative Accuracy

 Percent Accuracy
Precision
 A measure of the consistency or repeatability of
measurements

𝑋𝑛 − 𝑋ത𝑛
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1 −
𝑋ത𝑛

Where:
𝑋𝑛 − the value of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ measurement
𝑋ത𝑛 − the average value of the set of 𝑛 measurements
Example:

 The following set of ten measurements was

recorded in the laboratory. Calculate the precision
of the fourth measurement
TYPES OF ERRORS

 Gross Errors
 Systematic Errors
 Random Errors
Gross Errors

 Fault of the person using the instruments and are

due to such things as incorrect reading of
instruments, incorrect recording of experimental
data, or incorrect use of instruments
Systematic Error
Types:
 Instrument Errors – may be due to friction in the

bearings of the meter movement, incorrect spring

tension, improper calibration or faulty instruments

 Environmental Errors – caused by harsh

environments (i.e. high temperature, pressure,
humidity, strong electrostatic or electromagnetic
fields)
 Observational Errors – errors introduced by the
observer

 Parallax Error
 Error of Estimation
Random Errors
 Those that remain after the gross and systematic
errors have been substantially reduced, or at least
accounted for
 Real concern only for measurements requiring a
high degree of accuracy
Statistical Analysis for Errors
Arithmetic Mean
 The sum of a set of numbers divided by the total

number of pieces of data in the set

𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑛
𝑋ത𝑛 =
𝑛
Deviation
 The difference between any piece of data in a set

of numbers and the arithmetic mean of the set of

numbers
𝑑1 = 𝑋1 − 𝑋ത
𝑑2 = 𝑋2 − 𝑋ത
𝑑𝑛 = 𝑋𝑛 − 𝑋ത
Example:
For the following data
compute for:
 Arithmetic Mean

 Deviation of each

value
 Algebraic sum of the
deviations
Variation
 The degree to which numerical data spread about the

average value

Average Deviation, D
 Used to measure variation

 Used to express the precision of a measuring

instrument
 Low Average Deviation indicates a precise instrument
Average Deviation, D

𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑛
𝐷=
𝑛

- arithmetic sum of the absolute values of the

individual deviations divided by the number of
readings
Example:

Calculate the average deviation of the previous given

data.
Standard Deviation, S
 The degree to which the values of a set of numbers

vary about the average value for the numbers

𝑑12 + 𝑑22 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑛2
𝑆=
4

Note: for small number of readings (n<30), the

denominator is expressed as n-1
Example:

Calculate the standard deviation of the previous

given data.
Limiting Error
 Most manufacturers of measuring instruments
state that an instrument is accurate within a
certain percentage of a full-scale reading.
 Example
A particular Voltmeter is accurate within ±2% with the
full-scale deflection
Selection, Care and Use of Instruments
What?
 Voltage
 Current
 Resistance
 Power
 Inductance
 Capacitance
 Impedance
 Continuity
When?
 Live Circuit
 Dead Circuit
How?
 Knowledge on how to use
 User’s Manual
 Training

 Experience

 Consider the constraints

 Instrument Capacity
 Limiting Errors and Accuracy

 Effect on the subject

SELECTION and USE
 Subject to be observed
 Degree of accuracy required
 More accurate, more cost
 Inspect for obvious Physical Damages
 Loose knobs
 Broken casings

 Bent pointer

 Loose handles

 Damaged test leads

 Check the battery condition, if applicable
 Replace if necessary
 Switch to the proper function before connecting to
the circuit
 Adjust the range-selector
 Set to highest range
 Record your measurements